Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Nutritional Interaction of Methionine Sources and Sodium and Potassium Levels on Broiler Performance Under Brazilian Summer Conditions
A. M. L. Ribeiro,1 A. M. Kessler, T. H. Viola, I. C. M. Silva, L. Rubin, M. Raber, C. Pinheiro, and L. F. Lecznieski Departamento de Zootecnia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil 91.520-000
Primary Audience: Researchers, Broiler Producers, Live Production Managers, Nutritionists SUMMARY
Two experiments were conducted to study the performance of heat-stressed chickens fed different levels of Na or K with 2 Met sources. In experiment 1, chickens from 7 to 21 d were fed Na at 3 levels (0.15, 0.20, or 0.25%) and from 21 to 48 d at 0.12, 0.17, or 0.22% Na. In experiment 2, chickens from 8 to 21 d were fed K at 3 levels (0.9, 1.0, or 1.1%) and 22 to 48 d at 0.8, 0.9, or 1.0% K. In both experiments, chickens were fed 2 Met sources, DLMet (DLM), and 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid (HMB), added equimolar. In experiment 1, all-vegetable diets (corn-soy) were used, and in experiment 2, meat and bone meal was included. Both experiments were performed under Brazilian summer conditions. In experiment 1, no signicant interactions between Met and Na levels were found. A positive response for HMB, compared with DLM, was found across Na levels for weight gain (P < 0.05) and feed conversion ratio (FCR P < 0.02) at 48 d. There was no response to Na for weight gain and feed intake (FI), but birds fed the higher level had the best FCR (P < 0.03). In experiment 2, K levels showed a consistent interaction with Met for FI: the highest level of K showed greater FI in HMB birds, but this was not seen when DLM was used. Low and intermediate K levels resulted in better FCR (P < 0.03) compared with higher K levels. No differences in litter moisture were observed between different levels of K. Feathering problems were not evidenced in either experiment. The HMB used in an equimolar amount to DLM resulted in equal bird performance. Key words: heat stress, mineral, sulfur amino acid 2008 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 17:6978 doi:10.3382/japr.2007-00024
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
The controversy concerning the relative efcacies of DL-Met (DLM) and 2-hydroxy-4methylthio butanoic acid (HMB) is still ongoing in the scientic forum. Vazquez-Anon et
1
al. [1] recently analyzed 100 experiments published over the last 5 decades and concluded that DLM and HMB are equivalent when compared on an equimolar basis. Of course, there have been individual studies that have demonstrated performance differences under specic
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Table 1. Ingredients (%) and calculated nutrient composition of experimental diets with 3 Na levels and 2 sources of synthetic Met (experiment 1) Ingredients Corn Soybean meal (45% CP) Soybean oil Limestone Vitamin-mineral premix1 Dicalcium phosphate Choline Phytase Salt Met sources HMB/DLM2 Kaolin (inert) Cornstarch Composition by calculation ME (kcal/kg) CP (%) Ca (%) Available P (%) Lys digestible (%) TSAA digestible (%) Met digestible (%) Cys digestible (%) Arg digestible (%) Thr digestible (%) Trp digestible (%) Na (%) Chloride (%) K (%) DEB3 (mEq/kg)
1
7 to 21 d 51.1 40.44 4.35 1.51 0.50 0.96 0.0345 0.01 0.34/0.46/0.59 0.26/0.23 0.25/0.125/0 0.75/0.77 3,050 22 0.90 0.40 1.12 0.84 0.54 0.30 1.42 0.77 0.27 0.15/0.20/0.25 0.23/0.31/0.38 0.99 254/253/255
22 to 48 d 61.17 30.33 3.90 1.57 0.40 0.75 0.06 0.01 0.26/0.38/0.51 0.26/0.23 0.25/0.125/0 0.75/0.77 3,150 18.7 0.85 0.35 0.88 0.75 0.47 0.28 1.14 0.65 0.21 0.12/0.17/0.22 0.19/0.26/0.34 0.81 206/208/207
Starter and nisher phases (per kg of feed): 0.18 mg of Se, 0.38 mg of I, 25 mg of Fe, 6 mg of Cu, 0.30 mg of Co, 35 mg of Zn, and 72 mg of Mn. Starter (per kg of feed): 8,000 IU of vitamin A, 1,600 IU of vitamin D3, 30 mg of vitamin E, 1.5 mg of vitamin K3, 1 mg of vitamin B1, 6 mg of vitamin B2, 2 mg of vitamin B6, 12 g of vitamin B12, 9 mg of pantothenic acid, 28 mg of niacin, 0.25 mg of folic acid, and 20 g of biotin. Finisher (per kg of feed): 7,000 IU of vitamin A, 1,400 IU of vitamin D3, 20 mg of vitamin E, 1.5 mg of vitamin K3, 0.6 mg of vitamin B1, 4 mg of vitamin B2, 0.6 mg of vitamin B6, 10 g of vitamin B12, 9 mg of pantothenic acid, 23 mg of niacin, 0.25 mg of folic acid, and 20 g of biotin + nicarbazin + narasin. 2 HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid; DLM = DL-Met. 3 Diet electrolyte balance.
conditions favoring each compound. This situation has led to the suggestion that the composition of the diet into which Met sources are incorporated may inuence their relative efcacies. Balnave et al. [2] found that, in chronically heat-stressed broilers, increasing supplemented HMB from 0.16 to 0.32% in a diet with an Arg:Lys ratio of 1.36 produced a signicant increase in BW gain and feed intake (FI). Chen et al. [3] observed the same trend in broilers exposed to acute heat stress. On the other hand, Ribeiro et al. [4], using diets with an Arg:Lys ratio of 1.30, did not observe differences be-
tween the 2 sources in chronically heat-stressed broilers from 21 to 42 d old. Nevertheless, nonsignicant differences of more than 100 g in FI were detected for HMB when compared with DLM. The importance of maintaining acid-base balance or proper pH of body uids of poultry within acceptable physiological limits has been proven in recent years. Dietary factors that affect acid-base balance and that have emerged as parameters to consider in diet formulation include Na+, Cl, and K+ [5]. Sodium and Cl are inexpensive nutrients whose manipulation
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Table 2. Ingredients (%) and calculated nutrient composition of the experimental diets with 3 K levels and 2 sources of synthetic Met (experiment 2) Ingredients Corn Soybean meal (45% CP) Soybean oil Limestone Meat and bone meal L-Lys Vitamin-mineral premix1 Choline Phytase Salt K2CO3 Met sources HMB/DLM2 Kaolin (inert) Cornstarch Composition by calculation ME (kcal/kg) CP (%) Ca (%) Available P (%) Lys digestible (%) TSAA digestible (%) Met digestible (%) Cys digestible (%) Arg digestible (%) Thr digestible (%) Trp digestible (%) Na (%) Chloride (%) K (%) DEB3 (mEq/kg)
1
8 to 21 d 55.65 34.19 2.87 0.98 3.97 0.045 0.50 0.0483 0.01 0.39 0/0.177/0.35 0.25/0.22 0.35/0.177/0 0.75/0.78 3,050 21.88 0.9 0.42 1.05 0.84 0.55 0.29 1.27 0.87 0.22 0.20 0.31 0.9/1.0/1.1 233.85/259.6/285.18
22 to 48 d 60.76 27.92 4.09 0.907 4.09 0.0066 0.50 0.0566 0.01 0.315 0/0.177/0.35 0.25/0.22 0.35/0.177/0 0.75/0.78 3,150 19.5 0.9 0.43 0.88 0.77 0.51 0.26 1.106 0.663 0.19 0.17 0.26 0.8/0.9/1.0 208.2/233.6/259.35
Starter and nisher phases (per kg of feed): 0.18 mg of Se, 0.38 mg of I, 25 mg of Fe, 6 mg of Cu, 0.30 mg of Co, 35 mg of Zn, and 72 mg of Mn. Starter (per kg of feed): 8,000 IU of vitamin A, 1,600 IU of vitamin D3, 30 mg of vitamin E, 1.5 mg of vitamin K3, 1 mg of vitamin B1, 6 mg of vitamin B2, 2 mg of vitamin B6, 12 g of vitamin B12, 9 mg of pantothenic acid, 28 mg of niacin, 0.25 mg of folic acid, and 20 g of biotin. Finisher (per kg of feed): 7,000 IU of vitamin A, 1,400 IU of vitamin D3, 20 mg of vitamin E, 1.5 mg of vitamin K3, 0.6 mg of vitamin B1, 4 mg of vitamin B2, 0.6 mg of vitamin B6, 10 g of vitamin B12, 9 mg of pantothenic acid, 23 mg of niacin, 0.25 mg of folic acid, and 20 g of biotin + nicarabazin + narasin. 2 HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid; DLM = DL-Met. 3 Diet electrolyte balance.
has little effect on the total cost of the diet. On the other hand, they have important metabolic functions, such as in the electrical activity of nerve cells, acid-base equilibrium, osmotic pressure, or absorption of monosaccharides and amino acids [6]. The NRC [6] recommends levels of 0.20, 0.15, and 0.12% for birds of 0 to 3, 3 to 6, and 6 to 8 wk of age, respectively, for both minerals. Inclusion of NaCl from 0.30 to 0.45% contributes to weight gain (WG) and water intake but may also result in an increase in litter moisture. Oviedo-Rondon et al. [7] and
Murakami et al. [8] concluded that the Na and Cl requirements for optimum performance of broiler chickens up to 21 d of age and from 22 to 42 d were 0.28 and 0.25% and 0.15 and 0.23%, respectively. Potassium is the third most abundant element of the animal body [9] and the primary intracellular cation. It participates in acid-base equilibrium, osmotic pressure, absorption, development of membrane potentials of cells, activation of numerous intracellular enzymes, and glucose and amino acid absorption and trans-
72 port [10]. Nevertheless, K does not function independently, and the correct balance among Na, K, and Cl is necessary for optimal animal performance, bone development, eggshell quality, amino acid metabolism [6], and regulation of acid-base balance [5]. The NRC 1994 [6] requirements of K for poultry are considerably lower than the levels typically present in commercial diets. This is a result of feeding mainly vegetarian diets in which bone and meat meal is replaced by soybean meal, an ingredient rich in K (2%). Oliveira et al. [11] determined the nutritional requirements of K in birds from 8 to 21, 22 to 42, and 42 to 53 d of age to be 0.628, 0.714, and 0.798%, respectively. The purpose of this research was to study the nutritional interaction effects of 2 sources of dietary Met (HMB and DLM) added on an equimolar basis and 3 levels of Na or K on performance of broiler chickens from 8 to 48 d of age when raised in a hot and humid environment (i.e., during summer in southern Brazil).
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Table 3. Chick performance from 7 to 21 d of age receiving 3 levels of Na and 2 sources of synthetic Met (experiment 1) BW (g) 1,007 1,003 0.35 981c 1,009b 1,027a <0.0001 1.84 0.19 Feed intake (g) 1,247 1,215 0.17 1,259 1,230 1,201 0.11 5.55 0.43 Weight gain (g) 827 818 0.51 805 830 835 0.12 4.79 0.41 Feed conversion ratio 1.51 1.49 0.52 1.57a 1.48b 1.44b 0.01 6.53 0.62
Item Met effect1 DLM HMB P Na effect 0.15/0.12% 0.20/0.17% 0.25/0.22% P CV (%) Interaction
ac 1
Averages in a column with no common letter are signicantly different by least squares means (P < 0.05). DLM = DL-Met; HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid (Alimet).
et al. [16] observed that chicks receiving 0.12% of Na in prestarter diets had lower FI and weight at 21 d of age. In our experiment, FI was not affected (Table 3). There are suggestions that WG response may be due to increased water intake rather than to Na intake [17]. The better FCR observed in the current data could be explained by this hypothesis. From 22 to 48 d (Table 4), no signicant interaction is observed. The Na effect on BW gain and FCR observed in the initial phase did not persist. On the other hand, Met sources showed an effect on WG and FCR, resulting in better performance for birds fed HMB (P < 0.06
Table 4. Chick performance from 22 to 48 d of age receiving 3 levels of Na and 2 sources of synthetic Met (experiment 1) BW (g) 3,508 3,558 0.11 3,524 3,523 3,550 0.71 2.62 0.29 Feed intake (g) 5,073 5,105 0.64 5,127 5,106 5,034 0.51 4.19 0.47 Weight gain (g) 2,493b 2,555a 0.06 2,557 2,513 2,497 0.28 3.95 0.60 Feed conversion ratio 2.04a 2.00b 0.02 2.02 2.03 2.01 0.51 2.58 0.65
Item Met effect1 DLM HMB P Na effect 0.15/0.12% 0.20/0.17% 0.25/0.22% P CV (%) Interaction
a,b 1
Averages in a column with no common letter are signicantly different by least squares means (P < 0.05). DLM = DL-Met; HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid (Alimet).
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Table 5. Chick performance from 7 to 48 d of age receiving 3 levels of Na and 2 sources of synthetic Met (experiment 1) BW (g) 3,508 3,558 0.11 3,524 3,523 3,550 0.71 2.62 0.29 Feed intake (g) 6,371 6,359 0.86 6,398 6,445 6,260 0.10 3.38 0.66 Weight gain (g) 3,320b 3,385a 0.05 3,362 3,343 3,350 0.89 2.93 0.57 Feed conversion ratio 1.92a 1.88b 0.02 1.90a 1.93a 1.87b 0.03 2.70 0.91
Item Met effect1 DLM HMB P Na effect 0.15/0.12% 0.20/0.17% 0.25/0.22% P CV (%) Interaction
a,b 1
Averages in a column with no common letter are signicantly different by least squares means (P < 0.05). DLM = DL-Met; HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid (Alimet).
for WG and P < 0.02 for FCR). Junqueira et al. [18] reported no effect of 4 different levels of Na (0.16, 0.19, 0.22, and 0.25%) given from bicarbonate on the performance of broilers from 22 to 42 d of age. In their experiment, the temperatures inside the poultry house (maximum 33C and minimum 17C) were similar to our study. Murakami et al. [8] observed an optimum Na level of 0.12 and 0.15%, respectively, for BW gain and FCR of broilers from 21 to 42 d. Researchers have reported a reduction in plasma levels of K and Na due to heat stress [19, 20], probably as a result of hemodilution following increased water consumption. Smith
and Teeter [17] observed an incremental WG increase with supplementation of Na in the drinking water. In our experiment, conducted in heat stress conditions, the higher levels of Na in the feed failed to increase performance during the growing phase. Dietary factors that affect electrolyte balance (DEB) are important considerations in diet formulation. Borges et al. [21] exposed 44-dold broilers to heat stress while supplying them with 0, 120, 240, and 360 DEB (Na + K Cl, mEq/kg). The authors concluded that DEB of 360 was excessive, DEB of 120 and 240 were favorable, and DEB of zero was intermediate
Table 6. Broiler performance from 8 to 21 d of age receiving 3 levels of K and 2 sources of synthetic Met (experiment 2) BW (g) 1.06 1.05 0.30 1.05 1.06 1.04 0.16 2.62 0.12 Feed intake (g) 1.15 1.17 0.13 1.15 1.17 1.16 0.40 4.14 0.01 Weight gain (g) 0.84 0.83 0.48 0.83 0.84 0.82 0.28 3.44 0.18 Feed conversion ratio 1.380b 1.417a 0.01 1.386 1.398 1.415 0.23 2.34 0.04
Item Met effect1 DLM HMB P K effect 0.9/0.8% 1.0/0.9% 1.1/1.0% P CV (%) Interaction
a,b 1
Averages in a column with no common letter are signicantly different by least squares means (P < 0.05). DLM = DL-Met; HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid (Alimet).
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Table 7. Performance of chicks from 8 to 48 d of age receiving 3 levels of K and 2 sources of synthetic Met (experiment 2) BW (g) 3.78 3.78 0.93 3.75 3.81 3.77 0.20 2.5 0.21 Feed intake (g) 6.34 6.41 0.24 6.31 6.37 6.48 0.11 3.0 0.06 Weight gain (g) 3.55 3.56 0.88 3.53 3.59 3.55 0.20 2.6 0.52 Feed conversion ratio 1.785 1.808 0.12 1.794ab 1.774b 1.823a 0.03 2.5 0.20
Item Met effect1 DLM HMB P K effect 0.9/0.8% 1.0/0.9% 1.1/1.0% P CV (%) Interaction
a,b 1
Averages in a column with no common letter are signicantly different by least squares means (P < 0.05). DLM = DL-Met; HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid (Alimet).
based on hematology, panting, and prostration responses. In our diets, due to the incremental increases of Na and Cl together, the changes in the diet did not affect DEB. Besides, Austic [22] afrmed that alkaline diets do not result in a growth depression even at levels of 500 mEq/kg, but growth tended to be depressed when Na + K Cl value decreased below 100, and concluded that a balance of 200 to 250 mEq/kg of diet may reect a satisfactory DEB, levels observed in our experiment. The positive result for HMB compared with DLM, across Na levels, was also observed for WG (P < 0.05) and FC (P < 0.02) from 7 to 48 d. There were no differences in response to Na levels for BW gain and FI, but birds fed the highest levels had the best FCR (P < 0.03; Table 5). Various authors have observed higher FI and better weight gain, FCR, or both, when substituting DLM for HMB in diets for birds exposed to various types of heat stress [2, 3, 2325]. On the other hand, Ribeiro et al. [4], using similar molar concentrations of DLM or HMB in heat-stressed birds raised in batteries, did not see statistical differences in broiler performance. The summer of 2004, when our trial was conducted, was particularly hot, and this could be a factor enhancing the positive HMB effect on the performance of the birds. Also, electrolytes may have an effect on the metabolism of dietary amino acids. Brake et al. [26] reported that high levels of Na may reduce the
negative effect of feeding low-Arg diets under heat stress. Balnave and Brake [27] concluded that addition of Na potentiates Arg plasma levels in heat-stressed birds. Balnave et al. [2] and Chen et al. [3] demonstrated that high levels of Arg may be detrimental to heat-stressed birds fed DLM but not for HMB birds. Otherwise, no interactions were observed in this experiment. No feathering problems or differences in feathering were observed among treatments. Cannibalism or feather pecking were also not observed. The idea that vegetable diets can lead to feathering problems, because of lower dietary Cys level, was not evidenced in this trial. Also, Met sources did not inuence feathering, which is consistent with the results of LopezCoello et al. [28]. Experiment 2: K Levels Met Sources In experiment 2, K levels showed a consistent interaction with Met sources for FI starting in the initial phase (Table 6). The highest level of K showed greater FI in HMB birds, but such effect was not seen when DLM was used (Figure 1). The highest FI was not followed by greater BW gain. In the starter period, the lowest K level also resulted in better FCR in HMB birds (Figure 2). The interaction explains the differences between the 2 sources of Met for FCR. From 8 to 48 d, low and intermediate K levels resulted in better FCR (P < 0.03) compared with higher K levels. No differences in
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Figure 1. Interaction between Met sources and K levels for feed intake (FI) of birds from 8 to 21 d of age (P < 0.01; experiment 2). HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid; DLM = DL-Met. a,bBars with different letters denote different least squares means (P < 0.05).
Figure 2. Interaction between Met sources and K levels for feed conversion ratio (FCR) of birds from 8 to 21 d of age (P < 0.05; experiment 2). HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid; DLM = DL-Met. a,bBars with different letters denote different least squares means (P < 0.05).
litter moisture were observed among K levels (Table 7). The HMB used in equimolar amount to DLM resulted in equal bird performance. Studying K levels, Oliveira et al. [11] found for the 8- to 21-d period, a quadratic effect to BW gain (K estimated for the best BW gain = 0.628%) and FI (K estimated for the highest FI = 0.640%). Above 0.72% K, FI began to decrease. There was no signicant effect of K level on FCR; these results differ from those observed in our study. Because K is related to protein synthesis, these authors believe that K levels might be elevated, following protein levels. Nevertheless, CP levels were similar to the ones we used. The same authors also observed, in the grower period, the quadratic effect for BW gain (K estimated = 0.794%) and FI (K estimated = 0.924%). In our experiment, for the grower phase, neither BW gain nor FI were different among K levels (P < 0.25; data not shown). From 22 to 48 d, there was no inuence of the sources of Met for FCR (P < 0.48). A trend (P < 0.08) toward a better FCR in the intermediate K level and a trend (P < 0.08) toward interaction for FI were noted. The interaction results correspond to those in the previous phase, when higher K levels increased FI for birds fed HMB but not DLM (data not shown). Neither Met sources nor K levels had an effect on BW gain during the total period (Table 7). However, the trend observed in the grower phase became evident for better FCR with the intermediate K level (1.0/0.9%; P < 0.03), although it was not different from the low level (0.9/0.8%). For FI, there was interaction among
Met sources and K levels such that in HMB, the highest K level stimulated FI, whereas such effect did not exist for the DLM birds (Figure 3). Requirement levels obtained by Oliveira et al. [11] and our performance results show higher levels of K than the levels suggested by the NRC [6, 29] (0.4 and 0.3%, respectively). It is important to observe that the recommended levels by NRC [6] were determined using Vantress White Plymouth Rock [30], which have less growth potential and muscle yield than the strains used in those studies. Also, in the study of Leach et al. [30], CP levels of 25.8 to 37.9% were used, whereas in the present study, CP was 21.9% in the initial phase and 19% in grower phase. Nevertheless, in theory, high protein in the diet should increase K requirements [3034]. Conversely, studies have demon-
Figure 3. Interaction between Met sources and K levels for feed intake (FI) of chicks from 8 to 48 d of age (P < 0.06; experiment 2). HMB = 2-hydroxy-4 methylthio butanoic acid; DLM = DL-Met. a,bBars with different letters denote different least squares means (P < 0.05).
RIBEIRO ET AL.: PERFORMANCE OF HEAT-STRESSED CHICKENS strated the necessity of including K in the diets of chicks. Huston [35] found that chickens acclimatized to a 30C environment had mean blood K concentrations lower than those reared at 8C. Smith and Teeter [36] observed a 633% increase in K secretion of heat-distressed birds in a 35C environment compared with their thermoneutral counterparts. In this and other studies [37, 38], enhanced growth and water consumption were noted among birds exposed to heat stress that were given supplemental K. Because most research on optimum K has been directed toward a heat stress management [27, 3739] and not Met source, it is difcult to explain the current data based on literature. Nevertheless, some results [2, 3, 40] demonstrate that the sources of Met can result in different performances due to nutrient interactions and metabolic processes. Because the stimulus in FI did not provide better WG for HMB birds, it is suggested to keep K levels below 1.1% in the starter and 1.0% in the grower phase. Water intake stimulated by high K may increase FI. Neither sources of Met nor K levels had an inuence on mortality during the experimental period. As observed by the Oklahoma State University group [37, 38], water consumption was noted among birds exposed to heat stress that were given supplemental K. This can be explained by the fact that the high intracellular concentration of K+ may have an effect on thirst. Because evaporative losses are the most important route of heat dissipation under high temperature conditions, it is proposed that high K levels in the diet enhance the chance of survival of the bird. In this study, all diets could be considered high in K, and practical summer temperatures did not produce differences in mortality among treatments. No differences were observed in litter moisture, which should theoretically increase in response to enhanced K levels. The fact that litter moisture was measured only once during the experiment could have masked the results.
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2. In experiment 1, diets supplemented with HMB in summer heat resulted in better WG and FCR compared with those supplemented with DLM. 3. In experiment 2, K levels showed a consistent interaction with Met sources for FI: the highest level of K produced greater FI in HMB birds (although BW gain was unaffected), but such an effect was not seen when DLM was used. 4. In experiement 2, the Met source did not affect broiler performance, but birds receiving intermediate levels of K did show better FCR ratio.
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13. DLM produced by Degussa Corporation, Kennesaw, GA. 14. SAS Institute. 2001. SAS Users Guide. Version 8.2. SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC. 15. Murakami, A. E., S. E. Watkins, E. A. Saleh, J. A. England, and P. W. Waldroup. 1997. Estimation of the sodium and chloride requirements for the young broiler chick. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 6:155162. 16. Ribeiro, A. M. L., E. L. Krabbe, A. M. Penz Jr., and H. A. Gomes. 2004. Effect of chick weight, geometric mean diameter and sodium level in prestarter diet (1 to 7 days) on broiler performance up to 21 days of age. Braz. J. Poult. Sci. 6:225230. 17. Smith, M. O., and R. G. Teeter. 1989. Effects of sodium and potassium salts on gain, water consumption and body temperature of 4 to 7 week old heat stressed broilers. Nutr. Rep. Int. 40:161169. 18. Junqueira, O. M., L. E. C. Fonseca, L. F. Araujo, K. F. Duarte, C. S. S. Araujo, and E. A. Rodrigues. 2003. Feed restriction on performance and blood parameters of broilers fed diets with different sodium levels. Braz. J. Poult. Sci. 5:99104. 19. Deyhim, F., T. Belay, and R. G. Teeter. 1990. The effect of heat distress on blood gas, plasma and urine concentration of Na, K, and Cl of broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 69(Suppl 1):42. (Abstr.) 20. Belay, T., and R. G. Teeter. 1993. Broiler water balance and thermobalance during thermoneutral and high ambient temperature exposure. Poult. Sci. 72:116124. 21. Borges, S. A., A. V. Silva, A. Majorka, D. M. Hooge, and K. R. Cummings. 2004. Physiological responses of broiler chickens to heat stress and dietary electrolyte balance (sodium plus potassium minus chloride, milliequivalents per kilogram). Poult. Sci. 83:15511558. 22. Austic, R. 1983. Implications of electrolyte balance for monogastrics. Page 122 in Buffers Neutralizers and Electrolytes Symp. NFIA, Minneapolis, MN. 23. Swick, R. A., D. C. Creswell, J. J. Dibner, and F. J. Ivey. 1990. Impact of methionine sources on performance of broilers growing under warm and humid conditions. Poult. Sci. 69(Suppl.1):194. (Abstr.) 24. Knight, C. D., C. W. Wuelling, C. A. Atwell, and J. J. Dibner. 1994. Effect of intermittent periods of high environmental temperature on broiler performance responses to sources of methionine activity. Poult. Sci. 73:627639. 25. Attamangkune, S., and M. Chamruspollert. 2004. 2-Hydroxy-4-(methylthio) butanoic acid (HTMBA) and DLmethionine yield equal growth and carcass performance under Thailand tropical conditions. Poult. Sci. 83(Suppl.1):314. (Abstr) 26. Brake, J., D. Balnave, and J. J. Dibner. 1998. Optimum dietary arginine:lysine ratio for broiler chickens is altered during heat stress in association with changes in intestinal uptake and dietary sodium chloride. Br. Poult. Sci. 39:639647. 27. Balnave, D., and J. Brake. 1999. Responses of broilers to sodium bicarbonate supplementation of diets con-
Acknowledgments
To Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientco e Tecnologico (CNPq) for the scholarship of A. M. L. Ribeiro, A. M. Kessler, and T. H. Viola.