History of the Chemical Industry

From Alchemy to Chemistry

The Alchemy The word Alchemy is derived from the Arabic word al-kimia ( ,) this word is both an ancient practice and a philosophy that focused on the attempt to change the base metals into gold. Second, is to investigating the preparation of the elixir of longevity. Third, is the main objective of an Alchemy is to achieving ultimate wisdom (Magnum Opus; meaning as The Great Work) that contribute to a new revolution for the present time and also for the incoming generation for the goodness of mankind in understanding about the universe and its contents. The best-known goals of the Alchemists (Alchemy) were the transmutation of common metals into gold or silver. Certain Hermetic schools argue that the transmutation of metal into gold is analogical for the transmutation of the physical body that is so called the metals into gold that is the goal of attaining immortality. As the obscure hermetic language of the Alchemists is gradually being deciphered, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of the intellectual communities and the evolution of science and philosophy. Alchemy has been practiced in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia (present time called as modern Iraq), India, Persia (the modern Iran), China, Japan, Korea, the classical Greco-Roman world, the medieval Islamic world, and then the medieval Europe up to the 20th Century and 21st Century, in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years. There was a difference between the East and the West Alchemists of achieving the ultimate wisdom. We can see the difference in the purpose of European alchemists, Chinese (Asia) alchemists and the Islamic (Middle East) alchemists. In the case of the Chinese and European alchemists, there was a difference between the two. The European alchemists tried to transmute metal into gold, and no matter how futile or toxic the element, they would continue trying until it was royally outlawed later into the century. The Chinese, however paid no heed to transmutation the metal to gold, but they focused more on medicine for the greater good of human race. During Enlightenment, these "elixirs" were a strong cure for sicknesses, unless it was a test medicine. In general, most tests were fatal but stabilized elixirs served great purposes. On the other hand, the Islamic alchemists were interested in alchemy for a variety of reasons, whether it was for the transmutation of metals or artificial creation of life, or for practical uses such as medicine.

The Chemistry When time passing by from the 19th century, an Alchemist work that is just for fun or for a personal reasons at the basement slightly became converging to bigger reasons for expanding their knowledge about the art of the Great Work. Nowadays, its not just for the fun or some knowledge about the chemistry, but for the future appliance too. Example, from joy of creating something new or basic knowledge about it, they make a record for every reaction that they have been made and our present time study their work to give more useful product from their past work for gains in mankind. In the other hand, this work is like a small-scale to a massive product of producing something benefit for our generations to come. Although chemistry has been important for century in its practical application to the needs and luxuries of mankind, the discipline has not always been called chemistry. It has existed in very different forms, and in very different relations to neighbouring sciences and crafts. Chemistry is and has always been both science and craft or philosophy, depending on its material subject matter and on the tools and instruments developed for the manipulation and transformation of the matter.

The Chemical Industry Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilisations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution in 1800, and developed to provide chemicals for use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soap making, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemical industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Perkins discovery of the first synthetic dyestuff. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The latter required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilisers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. The chemical Industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It is one of the largest parts of manufacturing industry based on the value of the products made. It makes thousands of different chemicals which the general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have required properties which make them suitable for some particular application. Examples, a non stick coating for pans or a weed killer. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.

NITROGEN

The History of Nitrogen The discoverer of Nitrogen is Daniel Rutherford, who called it noxious air. This element was discovered in Scotland at 1772. The origin of name actually from the Greek words nitro genes, the meaning lies beneath these words are nitre and forming and the Latin word nitrum (nitre is a common name for potassium nitrate, KNO). Rutherford discovered noxious air by putting a mouse inside of a bell jar and waited for him to suffocate. When the mouse suffocated he put another mouse in the jar that died a short time later. Nitrogen is a Noble Gas which makes it for the most part inert unless subjected to catalysts or high temperatures and or pressures. The element seemed so inert that Lavoisier named it azote, meaning "without life". The Atomic Structure and its Details

Atomic number Atomic weight Melting point Boiling point Density e Configuration Atomic Radius Oxidation state

:7 : 14.0067 : -209.86C (-345.8F) : -195.8C (-320.4F) : (1 atm, 0 C) 1.2506 g/1 : [He]2s22p3 : 71 pm : -3, 5

Nitrogen gas (dinitrogen, N2) makes up about 78% of the atmosphere by volume. The atmosphere of Mars contains less than 3% nitrogen. There are relatively few minerals containing nitrogen but nitrates such as "saltpetre" (NaNO3) are very important. Also there are 6.6 atoms of nitrogen for every 1 atom of silicon. There are only four elements that are more plentiful, Hydrogen, Helium, Oxygen, and Neon. Gasses like nitrogen are usually obtained by liquification of air by a process known as fractional distillation. Nitrogen is liquefied by combining high pressure and low temperature. Nitrogen will liquefy at -150C; making it the coldest commercially produced liquid air.

The Isotopes of Nitrogen The Isotopes, Abundance and Half-life

Isotope 12N 13N 14N 15N 16N 17N 18N 19N

Abundance 0% 0% 99.63% 0.37% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Half-life 11 ms 9.97 min stable stable 7.13 sec. 4.17 sec 0.63 sec 0.42 sec

Colour Colourless Harmful effects Nitrogen is non-toxic under normal conditions. Direct skin contact with liquid nitrogen causes severe frostbite. Decompression in divers or astronauts can cause the 'bends' - a potentially fatal condition when nitrogen bubbles form in the bloodstream.

Characteristics Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, diatomic and generally inert gas at standard temperature and pressure. At atmospheric pressure, nitrogen is liquid between 63 K and 77 K. Liquids colder than this are considerably more expensive to make than liquid nitrogen is.

Major Contribution of Nitrogen to Modern Lifestyle

As an Industrial Gas Nitrogen gas is an industrial gas produced by the fractional distillation of liquid air, or by mechanical means using gaseous air (e.g. : pressurized reverse osmosis membrane or Pressure swing adsorption). Commercial nitrogen is often a by product of air-processing for industrial concentration of oxygen for steelmaking and other purposes. When supplied compressed in cylinders it is often called OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen). Industrial gas is a group of gases that are commercially manufactured and sold for uses in other applications. These gases are mainly used in an industrial process, such as steelmaking, oil refining, medical applications, fertilizer, semiconductors. They may be both organic and inorganic, are produced by extraction from the air by a process of separation or are produced by chemical synthesis, and will take various forms such as compressed, liquid, or solid. Nitrogen gas has a variety of applications, including serving as an inert replacement for air where oxidation is undesirable;
As a modified atmosphere, pure or mixed with carbon dioxide, to preserve the freshness of

packaged or bulk foods (by delaying rancidity and other forms of oxidative damage). In ordinary incandescent light bulbs as an inexpensive alternative to argon. The production of electronic parts such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits. Dried and pressurized, as a dielectric gas for high voltage equipment. The manufacturing of stainless steel. Used in military aircraft fuel systems to reduce fire hazard. On top of liquid explosives as a safety measure. Filling automotive and aircraft tires due to its inertness and lack of moisture or oxidative qualities, as opposed to air, though this is not necessary for consumer automobiles. Used as a propellant for draught wine, and as an alternative to or together with carbon dioxide for other beverages.

Nitrogen is commonly used during sample preparation procedures for chemical analysis. Specifically, it is used to concentrate and reduce the volume of liquid samples. Directing a pressurized stream of nitrogen gas perpendicular to the surface of the liquid allows the solvent to evaporate while leaving the solute(s) and un-evaporated solvent behind. Gaseous nitrogen is valued for inertness. It is used to shield potentially reactive materials from contact with oxygen. Inertness is somewhat relative; some industrial gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon) are almost totally inert. Helium and argon are commercially available in relatively large quantities; neon, krypton and xenon have much more limited availability.

Many applications requiring an "inert gas" rely on nitrogen, because they have very little reactivity under normal pressure and temperature conditions and are much less expensive than the other "inert" gases. The naturally inert or "noble" gases are members of "Group 18" of the Periodic Table. They have their outermost, or valence, electron shell complete (with two electrons for helium and eight for the other gases). The "noble" gases are all monatomic. Nitrogen (N) is commonly used in the gaseous form to shield potentially reactive materials from contact with oxygen. Nitrogen will react with oxygen at very high temperatures, as in furnaces, but it is inert under most other circumstances. Argon, helium, neon, krypton and xenon are "noble gases" that are extremely inert under all conditions.

As an Liquid Nitrogen Liquid nitrogen is nitrogen in a liquid state at a very low temperature. It is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air. Liquid nitrogen is a colourless clear liquid with density of 0.807 g/mL at its boiling point. At atmospheric pressure, liquid nitrogen boils at 77 K (196 C; 321 F) and is a cryogenic fluid which can cause rapid freezing on contact with living tissue, which may lead to frostbite. Thus when appropriately insulated from ambient heat, liquid nitrogen can be stored and transported, for example in vacuum flasks. Here, the very low temperature is held constant at 77 K by slow boiling of the liquid, resulting in the evolution of nitrogen gas. Depending on the size and design, the holding time of vacuum flasks ranges from a few hours to a few weeks. Liquid nitrogen can easily be converted to the solid by placing it in a vacuum chamber pumped by a rotary vacuum pump. Liquid nitrogen freezes at 63 K (210 C; 346 F). Despite its reputation, liquid nitrogen's efficiency as a coolant is limited by the fact that it boils immediately on contact with a warmer object, enveloping the object in insulating nitrogen gas Liquid nitrogen is a compact and readily transported source of nitrogen gas without pressurization. Further, its ability to maintain temperatures far below the freezing point of water makes it extremely useful in a wide range of applications, primarily as an open-cycle refrigerant, including: to store cells at low temperature for laboratory work as a source of very dry nitrogen gas for the immersion freezing and transportation of food products as a method of freezing water pipes in order to work on them in situations where a valve is not available to block water flow to the work area In food preparation, such as for making ultra-smooth ice cream. to preserve tissue samples from surgical excisions for future studies Liquid nitrogen also used as a refrigerant. Superconductors for practical technologies should ideally have no electrical resistance at temperatures higher than 63 K because this temperature is achievable relatively cheaply using liquid nitrogen. Lower temperatures come with a much higher price tag.

Other Contribution of Nitrogen Nitrogen is used to produce ammonia (Haber process) and fertilizers, vital for current food production methods. It is also used to manufacture nitric acid (Ostwald process). In enhanced oil recovery, high pressure nitrogen is used to force crude oil that would otherwise not be recovered out of oil wells. Nitrogen's inert qualities find use in the chemical and petroleum industries to blanket storage tanks with an inert layer of gas. While elemental nitrogen is not very reactive, many of nitrogen's compounds are unstable. Most explosives are nitrogen compounds - gun powder (based on potassium nitrate), nitroglycerin, trinitro-toluene (TNT), nitrocellulose (gun cotton) nitroglycerin and ammonium nitrate are a few examples. Oxides naturally form in steel during welding and these weaken the weld. Nitrogen can be used to exclude oxygen during welding, resulting in better welds. In the natural world, the nitrogen cycle is of crucial importance to living organisms. Nitrogen is taken from the atmosphere and converted to nitrates through lightning storms and nitrogen fixing bacteria. The nitrates fertilize plant growth where the nitrogen becomes bound in amino acids, DNA and proteins. It can then be eaten by animals. Eventually the nitrogen from the plants and animals returns to the soil and atmosphere and the cycle repeats.

Filling a liquid nitrogen Dewar from a storage tank

Liquid nitrogen

Major Environmental Impact & Adverse Effect of the Nitrogen

There is several environmental impact and also adverse effect of the industrial nitrogen. The Impact such as acid rain and algae overgrowth. Acid Rain Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure through the process of wet deposition. Acid rain is caused by emissions of compounds of, nitrogen, ammonium, carbon and sulphur which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the production of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. However, it can also be caused naturally by the splitting of nitrogen compounds by the energy produced by lightning strikes, or the release of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere by volcano eruptions.
Effect of acid rain

Algae Overgrowth Everything we put into the soil eventually ends up in our water supply. Some may argue that manure is a natural substance. How can adverse health effects come from putting something completely natural into the soil? What harm is there to promoting vegetation growth? Isn't vegetation good for us? The earth's vegetation does produce oxygen. Unfortunately everything on this earth must stay in balance. Too much of a good thing can also be bad. When nitrogen enriched soil leeches into our water supply, it causes algae overgrowth. The algae then consumes the oxygen in the water. This wipes out the fish and other plants which depend on the water for oxygen. The adverse health effects of nitrogen enriched soil in our water supply doesn't stop there. Although nitrogen is a necessary nutrient, too much nitrogen can lead to many ailments. These include blue baby syndrome (due to lack of oxygen), hypothyroidism, cancer, birth defects and nervous system issues. Infants, young children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable to the adverse health effects of nitrogen enriched soil.

Algae Overgrowth

Blue Baby Blue baby infant born with a congenital heart defect that causes a bluish coloration of the skin as a result of cyanosis (deoxygenated blood). The colour is most noticeable around the lips and at the tips of the fingers and toes. The cyanotic condition occurs when a large portion of the venous blood bypasses the lungs. Normally, deoxygenated blood from the veins is pumped from the right side of the heart to the lungs, where it is oxygenated. In some blue babies, the pulmonary artery is too narrow to allow sufficient blood to pass into the lungs for oxygenation. Surgical correction of the defect is usually required and is usually successful. An incompatibility of foetal and maternal blood types may also cause a bluish coloration in newborn infants, a condition that results when red blood cells in the infant's blood are destroyed by antibodies in the mother's. This disease which occurs in infants who ingest nitrates-polluted water associated with excessive fertilizer use.

Blue baby; Resulted on polluted water sources

Future Direction of the Nitrogen

Modelling Nitrogen as Soil Management (crop productivity) Good management practices for nitrogen are vital to crop productivity and soil sustainability, as well as to the reduction of global greenhouse gases and environmental pollution. Since the 1950's, mathematical models have advanced our understanding nitrogen cycling at both the micro- and macro-scales. However, many of the models are scattered in the literature, undergo constant modification, and similar models can have different names. Modelling Nitrogen as Soil Management clarifies the confusion by presenting a systematic summary of the various models available. It provides information about strengths and weaknesses, level of complexity, easiness of use, and application range of each model. Modelling Nitrogen as Soil Management provides the tools to manage complex nitrogen processes effectively.

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) BNF occurs when atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by an enzyme called nitrogenase. This process is essential for life because fixed nitrogen is required to biosynthesize the basic building blocks of life (nucleotides for DNA and amino acids for proteins). Nitrogen fixation is utilized by numerous prokaryotes, which are called diazotrophs, and some of them form associations with higher plants (symbiosis). The developments of processes for plant inoculation with dizotrophic bacteria have allowed drastic reductions in the use of nitrogen fertilizers in crops such as soybean, with substantial economic and environmental benefits. An article just published in the Seed Magazine points out that the story of modern fertilizer is really the story of nitrogen, and how humans learned to make plant food out of air and energy. The next challenge will be to unlock the secrets of the enzyme nitrogenase, a breakthrough that would have profound consequences for agriculture and the environment. Certainly a great challenge for 21st century biotechnology! If nitrogen fixation can be put to work in sugarcane, sorghum, maize and other crops as it does in soybeans, the impact will be tremendous.
Nitrogen fixation

Opinion & Conclusion

Life depends on nitrogen, which is a basic ingredient in amino acids that make up all proteins. While a substantial percentage of the atmosphere is comprised of nitrogen gas, it must be processed into a soluble form. This is done via a nitrogen cycle that occurs in the soil. Then plants and the animals that eat them can obtain dietary nitrogen. Seventy-eight percent of the Earth's atmosphere is nitrogen. This element, symbolized by the letter N, was discovered in 1772 by the Scot Daniel Rutherford. Nitrogen makes up 7 percent of the protein found in cereals. It causes green plants to produce healthy leaves that are strong enough to withstand a heavy wind or a frost. Plants with nitrogen deficiencies look weak. The leaves, which should be healthy and green, may look wilted and yellow. Animals and people get dietary nitrogen by eating protein-rich foods like milk, eggs, fish, beef and legumes. Nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are found in amino acids, which are the main structures of every protein. Though 78 percent of the atmosphere is made of inert nitrogen, it must be transformed into a form that can be used by plants and animals. This happens via a nitrogen cycle that occurs in the soil. Earthworms, bacteria and other forces break down the proteins in organic material and animal manure in the soil to decompose them. The first by product is ammonia, a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. Next, nitrates are formed. Nitrobacteria called azotobactors produce soluble nitrates that plants can get out of the soil. Nitrogen can also enter the soil directly from the atmosphere via the rhizobium bacteria in the roots of legumes, or during a heavy rain, when it mixes with water to become nitric acid. Chemical fertilizers are another way to put nitrogen into the soil, but these can cause pollution or even nitrate poisoning in cattle. Organic sources of nitrogen fertilizer are rabbit droppings, cottonseed meal and feather meal. Other than that, digesting protein-rich food produces amino-acid nitrogen, which is a waste product the body must eliminate through reactions called transanimations. Most of this excess nitrogen is excreted in the form of urea. Last but not least, nitrogen is very important for living organism. The goodness or the badness about all compound may be vary through theoretical or experiment that have been conducting by scientists. In my opinion, the massive product that being contributed by nitrogen must be balanced align with environmental needy. So, future direction of nitrogen compound must be planned rightly so that our earth has stable ecology system. Go Green!

Reference
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Industrial Chemistry Lecture Notes by Dr. Rossi Setiadji www.wikipedia.org General Chemistry by Linus Pauling Industrial Chemistry : For Engineering Students by Henry Kreitzer Benson Nitrogen by Heather Hasan Plants and Nitrogen by O.A.M Lewis Biological Nitrogen Fixation by Gary Stacey, Robert H. Burris and Harold J. Evans