Lecture 4: Biological Basis of Behavior 2

Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The average adult
human brain weighs 1.3 to 1.4 kg (approximately 3 pounds). The brain contains about 100 billion neurons
and trillons of glia. The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and
weighs about 35-40 grams. The vertebral column, the collection of bones that houses the spinal cord, is
about 70 cm long. Therefore, the spinal cord is much shorter than the vertebral column.

The Brain

The brain is separated into three main sections: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain
contains higher function, the midbrain is the seat of more automatic and crucial function such as temperature
management, and the hindbrain is where motor coordination is handled.

The brain is made up of four different lobes. The frontal lobe, the occipital lobe, the parietal lobe, and the
temporal lobe. The frontal lobe is the seat of higher emotional function. The occipital lobe serves as the
visual processing area of the brain. The parietal lobe processes much of the sensory information in the brain.
The temporal lobe regulates, hearing, memory, and has a part in language and learning.

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Specific areas of note are the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, brain stem, hypothalamus, thalamus, the limbic
system, huppocampus, septum, and basal ganglia.

The cerebral cortex regulates the functions of thought, voluntary movement, language, reasoning, and has
a hand in perception.
The word “cortex” comes from the Latin word for “bark” (of a tree). This is because the cortex is a sheet
of tissue that makes up the outer layer of the brain. The thickness of the cerebral cortex varies from 2 to 6
mm. The right and left sides of the cerebral cortex are connected by a thick band of nerve fibers called the
“corpus callosum.” In higher mammals such as humans, the cerebral cortex looks like it has many bumps
and grooves. A bump or bulge on the cortex is called a gyrus (the plural of the word gyrus is “gyri”) and a
groove is called a sulcus (the plural of the word sulcus is “sulci”). Lower mammals, such as rats and mice,
have very few gyri and sulci.
The cerebellum regulates the function of movement, balance, and posture.
The word “cerebellum” comes from the Latin word for “little brain.” The cerebellum is located behind the
brain stem. In some ways, the cerebellum is similar to the cerebral cortex: the cerebellum is divided into
hemispheres and has a cortex that surrounds these hemispheres.
The brain stem regulates the functions of breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
The brain stem is a general term for the area of the brain between the thalamus and spinal cord. Structures
within the brain stem include the medulla, pons, tectum, reticular formation and tegmentum. Some of these
areas are responsible for the most basic functions of life such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
The hypothalamus regulates the functions of body temperature, emotions, hunger, thirst, and circadian
rhythms.
The hypothalamus is composed of several different areas and is located at the base of the brain. Although
it is the size of only a pea (about 1/300 of the total brain weight), the hypothalamus is responsible for some
very important functions. One important function of the hypothalamus is the control of body temperature.
The hypothalamus acts as a “thermostat” by sensing changes in body temperature and then sending signals
to adjust the temperature. For example, if you are too hot, the hypothalamus detects this and then sends a
signal to expand the capillaries in your skin. This causes blood to be cooled faster. The hypothalamus also
controls the pituitary gland.
The thalamus regulates the function of sensory processing and movement.
The thalamus receives sensory information and relays this information to the cerebral cortex. The cerebral
cortex also sends information to the thalamus which then transmits this information to other areas of the
brain and spinal cord.
The limbic system has a hand in emotions and memory.
The limbic system (or the limbic areas) is a group of structures that includes the amygdala, the hippocampus,
mammillary bodies and cingulate gyrus. These areas are important for controlling the emotional response
to a given situation. The hippocampus is also important for memory.

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The hippocampus regulates the functions of learning and memory.
The hippocampus is one part of the limbic system that is important for memory and learning.
The basal ganglia helps in regulating movement.
The basal ganglia are a group of structures, including the globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, subthalamic
nucleus, putamen and substantia nigra, that are important in coordinating movement.
The midbrain is important in regulating vision, audition, eye movement, and body movement.
The midbrain includes structures such as the superior and inferior colliculi and red nucleus. There are several
other areas also in the midbrain.
Prefrontal Cortex - Problem Solving, Emotion, Complex Thought
Motor Association Cortex - Coordination of complex movement
Primary Motor Cortex - Initiation of voluntary movement
Primary Somatosensory Cortex - Receives tactile information from the body
Sensory Association Area - Processing of multisensory information
Visual Association Area - Complex processing of visual information
Visual Cortex - Detection of simple visual stimuli
Wernicke’s Area - Language comprehension
Auditory Association Area - Complex processing of auditory information
Auditory Cortex - Detection of sound quality (loudness, tone)
Broca’s Area - Speech production and articulation

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The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that can be seen on the ventral (bottom) surface of the brain. Some
of these nerves bring information from the sense organs to the brain; other cranial nerves control muscles;
other cranial nerves are connected to glands or internal organs such as the heart and lungs.

Nerve Number Nerve Name Function

I Olfactory Nerve Smell
II Optic Nerve Vision
III Oculomotor Nerve Eye movement; pupil constriction
IV Trochlear Nerve Eye movement
V Trigeminal Nerve Somatosensory information (touch, pain) from the face
and head; muscles for chewing.
VI Abducens Nerve Eye movement
VII Facial Nerve Taste (anterior 2/3 of tongue); somatosensory infor-
mation from ear; controls muscles used in facial ex-
pression.
VIII Vestibulocochlear Nerve Hearing; balance
IX Glossopharyngeal Nerve Taste (posterior 1/3 of tongue); Somatosensory infor-
mation from tongue, tonsil, pharynx; controls some
muscles used in swallowing.
X Vagus Nerve Sensory, motor and autonomic functions of viscera
(glands, digestion, heart rate)
XI Spinal Accessory Nerve Controls muscles used in head movement.
XII Hypoglossal Nerve Controls muscles of tongue

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The entire surface of central nervous system is bathed by a clear, colorless fluid called cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF). The CSF is contained within a system of fluid-filled cavities called ventricles. The ventricles are
shown in blue on the following midsagittal section of the brain. CSF is produced mainly by a structure
called the choroid plexus in the lateral, third and fourth ventricles. CSF flows from the lateral ventricle
to the third ventricle through the interventricular foramen (also called the foramen of Monro). The third
ventricle and fourth ventricle are connected to each other by the cerebral aqueduct (also called the Aqueduct
of Sylvius). CSF then flows into the subarachnoid space through the foramina of Luschka (there are two of
these) and the foramen of Magendie (only one of these).
Absorption of the CSF into the blood stream takes place in the superior sagittal sinus through structures
called arachnoid villi . When the CSF pressure is greater than the venous pressure, CSF will flow into the
blood stream. However, the arachnoid villi act as “one way valves”...if the CSF pressure is less than the
venous pressure, the arachnoid villi will NOT let blood pass into the ventricular system.

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There are a number of special words that are used to describe the position and direction of brain structures.
These words help describe the location of structures relative to other structures. For example, we can say
that the frontal lobe is “rostral” to the occipital lobe.
The brain, like all biological structures, is three dimensional. So, any point on or inside the brain can be
localized on three “axes” or “planes” - the x, y and z axes or planes. The brain is often cut (“sectioned”)
into pieces for further study. These slices are usually made in one of three planes: the coronal plane, the
horizontal plane or the sagittal plane. The coronal plane, horizontal plane and sagittal plane are shown in
the figure above. Slices of the brain taken in the coronal plane are similar to the slices from a loaf of bread.
Horizontal cuts are made as if you were slicing a hamburger bun or bagel.
The sagittal plane divides the right and left side of the brain into parts. The midsagittal plane would divide
the right and left sides of the brain into two equal parts, like cutting down the middle of a baked potato
before you put on the toppings (mmm, tasty brains).

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Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts: the somatic nervous system and the auto-
nomic nervous system.

The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central
nervous system AND motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle.
The picture above shows the somatic motor system. The cell body is located in either the brain or spinal
cord and projects directly to a skeletal muscle.

The autonomic nervous system is divided into three parts: the sympathetic nervous system, the parasym-
pathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. The autonomic nervous system controls smooth
muscle of the viscera (internal organs) and glands.
This picture shows the general organization of the autonomic nervous system. The preganglionic neuron is
located in either the brain or the spinal cord. This preganglionic neuron projects to an autonomic ganglion.
The postganglionic neuron then projects to the target organ. Notice that the somatic nervous system has
only one neuron between the central nervous system and the target organ while the autonomic nervous
system uses two neurons.
In the peripheral nervous system, neurons can be functionally divided in three ways:
1. Sensory (afferent) - carry information INTO the central nervous system from sense organs or motor
(efferent) - carry information away from the central nervous system (for muscle control).
2. Cranial - connects the brain with the periphery or spinal - connects the spinal cord with the periphery.
3. Somatic - connects the skin or muscle with the central nervous system or visceral - connects the internal
organs with the central nervous system.

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Sympathetic Nervous System
It is a nice, sunny day...you are taking a nice walk in the park. Suddenly, an angry bear appears in your
path. Do you stay and fight OR do you turn and run away? These are “Fight or Flight” responses. In
these types of situations, your sympathetic nervous system is called into action - it uses energy - your blood
pressure increases, your heart beats faster, and digestion slows down.
Two more facts about the sympathetic nervous system: the synapse in the sympathetic ganglion uses
acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter; the synapse of the post-ganglionic neuron with the target organ uses the
neurotransmitter called norepinephrine. (Of course, there is one exception: the sympathetic post-ganglionic
neuron that terminates on the sweat glands uses acetylcholine.)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

It is a nice, sunny day...you are taking a nice walk in the park. This time, however, you decide to relax in
comfortable chair that you have brought along. This calls for “Rest and Digest” responses. Now is the time
for the parasympathetic nervous to work to save energy - your blood pressure decreases, your heart beats
slower, and digestion can start.