Feasibility of Recycling Waste Diatomite and Fly Ash Cosintered as Porous Ceramics

Kae-Long Lin and Jen-Chieh Chang Department of Environmental Engineering, National I-Lan University, Taiwan; kllin@niu.edu.tw (for correspondence)
Published online 30 December 2011 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/ep.10592
This investigation demonstrates the feasibility of using diatomite and coal y ash as alternative raw materials in the production of the porous ceramics. The following operating conditions are set for sintering process; a constant pressure of 5 MPa, a sintering temperature of 100012708C, a sintering time of 2 h, and various proportions (020%) of coal y ash in waste diatomite. This investigation concerns the effects of heating temperature and proportion of y ash on the characteristics of porous ceramics that are formed from a mixture of y ash and waste diatomite. Heat-treated samples were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), which supported the following conclusions. When the heating temperature was increased above 12708C, the compressive strength of the ceramics was between 5.85 and 15.8 MPa. When the amount of coal y ash exceeds 20%, the porosity of the porous ceramics decreases sharply with increasing temperature from 61.6% obtained at 11008 C to 52.9% obtained at 12708 C. When heating to 12708 C, the pore sizes of sintered samples $2.53 lm, and a smaller peak around 0.32 lm. Adding coal y ash to the porous ceramics increased their compressive strength, indicating that waste diatomite and coal y ash can indeed be 100% recycled and reused as porous ceramics. 2011 American Institute of Chemical
Engineers Environ Prog, 32: 2534, 2013

Keywords: recycling, cosintering, compressive strength, water absorption, toxicity characteristic leaching procedure

INTRODUCTION

Waste management has become a serious social concern in modern societies. The annual production of waste diatomite by the food-processing industry in Taiwan is 4713 tonnes. Since this waste is neither accepted in most of the regular landlls nor accepted in incinerators in Taiwan, much of it is dumped illegally somewhere, causing an environmental hazard. As living and working standards increase, more waste is likely to be generated each year in Taiwan. Accordingly, the proper treatment of such waste is becoming increasingly important. Diatomaceous earth is a useful material for fabricating porous ceramics because of its low cost, well-dened porosity, low density, and high thermal stability [1, 2]. Diatomaceous earth is produced by diatoms, a diverse array of microscopic single-cell algae, which are the most familiar members of the phylum Bacillariophyta. The diatoms live in both salt and fresh water, from which they extract silica to build their shells. When the diatoms die, their silica shells accumulate in layers or beds of diatomaceous earth [3, 4].
2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers

Approximately 1.8 million tonnes of diatomaceous earth are mined annually worldwide [5]. The structure of diatomite is quite complex and contains several ne microscopic pores, cavities, and channels. Accordingly, the material has a large specic surface area, high absorption capacity, and low density. The chemical composition and the physical structure of diatomite make it of great commercial value for a broad spectrum of applications, including in beer lters, the removal of textile dyes from waste water [6], and the sorption of heavy metal ions [7, 8]. Diatomite particles with high porosity and small particle sizes [9] have potential use in the fabrication of highly permeable microporous membrane lters. Their only shortcoming is the presence of impurities, such as calcium, which directly coats the surface of the diatomite particles and limits the use of this material for ltration [4]. The annual production of coal y ash in Taiwan is 4,330,000 tonnes. Its major constituents are SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, and its minor constituents include CaO, MgO, and other oxides. Accordingly, these oxides have been regarded as low-cost material resources for the cement industry and the manufacture of pozzolanic material [10, 11]. Coal y ash is also used to manufacture brick [12], y ash mineral-based polymer composites [13], ceramic tableware and artware [14]. Recent investigations have demonstrated alternative means of managing coal y ash in glass [15] and ceramic tiles [1618]. However, little research as been done on the use of coal y ash in the production of porous ceramics. According to Sheng [19], coal y ash with large amounts of glass network formers (SiO2 1 Al2O3) can be utilized to fabricate durable products. Sintering is a thermal process that converts a powder compact into a bulk material. It is conducted in the mass production of complex-shaped components. The shapes of powder particles and pore channel networks are changed by diffusion [20, 21], which is driven by variations in curvaturedependent chemical potential. Sintering is a complicated process of microstructural evolution that involves bond formation, neck growth, pore channel closure, pore shrinkage, densication, coarsening, and grain growth. The force that acts between particles, called the sintering force, comprises both surface tension and grain boundary tension. The shrinkage rate is approximately proportional to the sintering force [22, 23]. The features and properties of a porous ceramic material, such as porosity, pore size distribution, pore morphology, and pore connectivity (commonly identied from the relationship open and closed porosity), depends strongly on the composition and processing route. Recent reviews have described the development of various replicas, sacricial templates, and direct foaming approaches for producing porous ceramics [2426]. Porous ceramics with a well-dened macroscopic shape and high mechanical stability can be

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fabricated by this novel processing route from powder, which retains its intrinsic porosity [27, 28]. Macroporous ceramics can combine high permeability with good mechanical, thermal, and chemical stability, and therefore are attractive for a wide range of industrial applications [29]. Liquid metal lters of alumina [30], diesel soot lters of alumina and zirconia [31] are examples where porous ceramics are already commercially established, whereas other applications including, e.g., hard tissue and bone scaffolds are still in development [3234]. The ceramic lters made from diatomite particles require relatively high temperatures ($12008C) of sintering [35], which melted the impurities within the diatomite particles especially the alkaline earth and alkali metal minerals. Besides other operational advantages, the diatomite particles have high porosity with small grain size [36], so the siliceous algae skeletons are used for fabricating microporous ceramic membranes. In this investigation, an attempt is made to test the feasibility of recycling coal y ash and diatomite waste by using it in the production of porous ceramics. Waste diatomite and coal y ash assemblies were adopted and the particles were bonded into relatively strong porous ceramics. The microstructure and porosity of the diatomite monoliths were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mercury porosimetry.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Characterization of Sintered Porous Ceramics Specimens The chemical composition and physical characteristics of the porous ceramics pellets and sintered products were analyzed. The porous ceramics samples were digested using HNO3/HClO4/HF according to NIEA R355.00C and then analyzed with ICP-AES (Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy) for its major elements. The NIEA R201.14C method, Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP), was used for heavy metal determination [37]. The mass loss and absorption capacities were measured using the NIEA R204.00T method and ASTM C556, respectively. The major analyses performed on the porous ceramics included the following:

Materials The waste diatomite was sampled from the food-processing industry in Taipei County, Taiwan. The waste diatomite was crushed and the particles sieved into sizes between 74 and 300 mm for use in subsequent experiments. In an industrial context, y ash usually refers to ash produced during combustion of coal. Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle ltration equipments before the ue gases reach the chimneys of coal-red power plants, and together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the furnace is in this case jointly known as coal ash. The power plant produces $4,410,000 tons per year of coalred power plants in Taiwan. Collected about 500 kg to make sure the waste diatomite and y ash samples were representative, respectively. Both the waste diatomite and y ash were then pulverized with a ball mill until they could pass through a 100 mesh (149 lm) sieve. In this work, the y ash-waste diatomite ratio was varied from 5 to 20 wt % and at 5 wt % increment. The dried and homogenized waste diatomite containing y ash were then stored in a desiccator until testing. Preparation of Compacted Sintered Porous Ceramics Samples The prepared porous ceramics samples were oven dried at 1058C for 24 h and ground in a ball mill to form ne powders suitable for pressing. This study using waste diatomite containing y ash in different proportions (020%), the samples were compacted at 5 MPa to form a rectangular specimens (60 mm (L) 3 30 mm (W) 3 15 mm (H)), which were then desiccated before testing. The compacted porous ceramics specimens were put in a platinum plate and burnt in an electrically heated furnace, using a ramp rate of 58C min21. These mixtures contain 87.9394.51% of SiO2 and 0.871.52% CaO. The basicity (CaO/SiO2) is 0.0090.017. The pouring point is 128012908C. The porous ceramics samples were then sintered at temperatures between 1000 and 12708C, for 120 min. After the heating, the samples were cooled to room temperature and then stored in a desiccator for subsequent analyses of the physical properties and for leachability testing.

Heavy metal concentration: The heavy metal concentrations in the samples were conrmed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). The samples was crushed, and the heavy metals were extracted by acid (HF: HClO4: HNO3 5 2:1:1). Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP): SW 8461311. This extraction procedure requires the preliminary evaluation of the pH characteristics of the sample, to determine the proper extraction uid necessary for the experiments. It was determined after testing that in this case the #B extraction uid (pH 2.88 6 0.05) should be used for the TCLP analysis. This uid was prepared by adding 5.7 mL of acid to 500 mL of double distilled water, diluted to a volume of 1 L. A 25-g sample was placed in a 1-L Erlenmeyer ask after which 500 mL of extraction uid was added. The samples were agitated for 18 h using an electric vibrator. The slurry was ltered with 68 lm pore size Millipore lter paper. The leachates were preserved in 2% HNO3. Chemical composition: The X-ray uorescence (XRF) analysis was performed using an automated RIX 2000 spectrometer. Specimens were prepared for XRF analysis by mixing 0.4 g of sample and 4 g of 100 Spectroux at a dilution ratio of 1:10. The homogenized mixtures were placed in PtAu crucibles before being heated for 1 h at 10008C in an electrical furnace. The homogeneous melted sample was recast into glass beads 2 mm thick and 32 mm in diameter. Unconned compressive strength (ASTM C3972): Three specimens were used for the compressive strength tests, whereas the fourth one was used for the microstructure examination. The average strength value from the three specimens is presented. The coefcient of variation of these results was less than 10%.

The weight loss and Absorption testing were measured using the NIEA R204.00T method and ASTM C556, respectively. The following formulae were used in computing the weight loss and 24-h absorption rate of sintered porous ceramics specimens: Weight loss fweight of specimen before firing weight of specimen after firingg= fweight of specimen before firingg 24-h water absorption rate f24-h saturated surfacedry weight of specimen dry weight of specimeng= fdry weight of specimeng g water absorbed=24h 2 A Quantachrome Autoscan Mercury Intrusion Porosimeter (MIP) was used with intrusion pressures of up to 60,000 psi. By using the Washburn equation, with p 5 2gcosu, the pore r volume (V), and the corresponding radius (r) could be synchronously plotted by an X-T plotter. The wetting angle of mercury was assumed to be y 5 1408. In this equation, p, g, 1

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Figure 1. Particle size distribution of the waste diatomite and y ash.

Figure 2. X-ray diffraction patterns of waste diatomite and y ash.

Table 1. Composition of the waste diatomite and y ash. Composition (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O Waste diatomite 94.51 0.87 0.92 0.78 0.61 0.85 0.58 Fly ash 50.61 22.97 9.74 4.14 1.73 0.02 0.63 1.13

r, and y, stand for the applied pressure, surface tension, pore radius, and wetting angle, respectively. The crystalline phases present in the sintered porous ceramics samples were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD, Seimens FTS-40) using 30 mA and 40 kV Cu Ka radiation. The crystalline phases were identied by comparing the intensities and the positions of the Bragg peaks with the data les of the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS). A Hitachi S-800 scanning electron microscope was used for SEM observation and crystal structural determination.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

SiO2 1 Al2O3 behave as a glass former which increase the melting temperature, whereas the alkali oxides decrease the melting temperature. X-ray analysis of the waste diatomite and coal y ash is given in Figure 2. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that the waste diatomite mainly consisted of christobalite. Coal y ash mainly consisted of quartz, aluminum oxide, hematite, and calcium oxide. Figure 3a shows that the diatomite powder consists of plates, shells, and broken particles. The unbroken diatomite particle exhibits the inherently intricate and highly porous structure typical of diatomite. Obviously, the excavation of the diatomaceous earth and the post treatment results in a signicant fraction of broken particles. Figure 3b shows morphological features of the coal y ash. It also observed different morphologies of y ash particles size, with the predominance of cenospheres and coal y ash particles show approximately spherical shapes. The TCLP test results are shown in Table 2. The concentrations of copper, zinc, and nickel were 225, 53, and 168 mg kg21 was observed in the coal y ash samples. The TCLP leaching concentrations for the target metals in the diatomite and the coal y ash met the EPAs current regulatory thresholds and are presented in Table 2. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Sintered Samples The minimum density is related to the maximum volume of closed pores in the sample. Densication is a pore-lling process that occurs by pore shrinkage during liquid phase ow. Figure 4 presents the porosity of specimens that are red at various temperatures. The porosity of sintered diatomite samples declines gradually from 1000 to 12708C (from 66.4% to 62.3%). However, the rate of change is not uniform. During sintering, open and closed pores are typically formed. Figure 4 plots the measurements of the porosity of samples with various proportions of coal y ash, red at four temperatures. The results reveal that increasing the temperature reduces the porosity (Figure 4). The heating temperature can also affect the porosity of the porous ceramics. Accordingly, temperature is the most important parameter in controlling the densication of diatomite powder and in producing monoliths with a well-dened porosity. When the amount of coal y ash exceeds 20%, the porosity of the porous ceramics decreases sharply with increasing temperature from 61.6% obtained at 11008C to 52.9% obtained at 12708C. The quality of porous ceramics can be further evaluated by examining the shrinkage of samples. Figure 5 plots the amount of shrinkage upon ring at various heating tempera-

Characteristics of Waste Diatomite and Coal Fly Ash The densities of the waste diatomite and y ash are 1.41 and 1.61 g cm23, respectively. The pH values of waste diatomite and coal y ash are 7.36 and 6.46, respectively. The moisture contents of the waste diatomite and y ash are 36.46% and 0.08%, respectively. Figure 1 shows the particle size distribution of the waste diatomite and y ash. It can be observed that 13.15 (wt %) of the particles in the waste diatomite have a median diameter of less than 37 lm and 86.71% of particles have a median diameter of less than between 37 and 210 lm. About 80% of the particles in the y ash have a median diameter from 20 to 40 lm. Table 1 shows the composition of the waste diatomite and coal y ash. The XRF analysis shows that the major components in the waste diatomite were SiO2 (94.5%). The XRF analysis shows that the major components in the coal y ash were SiO2 (50.6%), Al2O3 (23.0%), and Fe2O3 (9.7%). The next most abundant components were CaO (4.1%) and MgO (1.7%). This result was expected since the SiO2 1 Al2O3 content of coal y ash sample were 76.3%. As we have known,

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Figure 3. Scanning electron micrographs of waste diatomite and y ash. (a) Waste diatomite and (b) coal y ash.

Table 2. Total metal and leaching concentrations of waste diatomite and coal y ash. Total metal (mg kg21) Waste diatomite Fly ash TCLP (mg L21) Waste diatomite Fly ash Regulatory limits Pb N.D. N.D. Pb N.D. N.D. 5 Cr N.D. N.D. Cr N.D. N.D. 5 Cu N.D. 225 Cu N.D. 0.11 15 Zn N.D. 53 Zn N.D. 0.29 Cd N.D. N.D. Cd N.D. N.D. 1 Ni N.D. 168 Ni N.D. N.D.

N.D.: Pb < 0.015 mg L21; Cr < 0.009 mg L21; Cd < 0.021 mg L21; Zn < 0.074 mg L21; Cu < 0.089 mg L21; Ni < 0.112 mg L21.

Figure 4. Porosity of porous ceramics samples.

Figure 5. Shrinkage of porous ceramics samples.

tures. The shrinkage of porous ceramics without coal y ash upon heating to 1000, 1100, 1200, and 12708C, is 2.0, 4.3, 5.2, and 6.3%, respectively. When the coal y ash content in the mixture is increased from 0% to 20%, the shrinkage of the porous ceramics upon heating to 1000, 1100, 1200, and 12708C changed from 1.1% to 0.63%, 3.6% to 3.4%, 4.9% to 5.7%, and 6.4% to 8.3%, respectively, indicating that the addition of coal y ash should increases shrinkage upon sintering at 12708C. Therefore, the initial gain in shrinkage that is provided by the high content of coal y ash was cancelled by the drop in the ratio of the diatomite-to-y ash content. When heating to 12708C, the high uxing oxide (MgO, Fe2O3, and K2O) content in the coal y ash is thus suggested to promote the formation of glassy phases that ll the pores, increasing shrinkage upon ring. The result also demonstrates that combining y ash and diatomite provides an

opportunity for balancing the increase in shrinkage that is caused by a high Fe2O3 content in the coal y ash. The densication of the coal y ash is inuenced by the sources of uxing agents such as K2O, Na2O, and Fe2O3, which favor the formation of a vitreous phase [38]. The higher mechanical strength capacity of porous ceramics makes them suitable for materials use in pavements. The weight loss that occurs in a monolith upon sintering is related to the development of porosity and densication. It eventually affects the compressive strength of thermally treated samples. Figure 6 shows plots the weight loss of porous ceramics upon ignition, and the amount of coal y ash that is added to the mixture at various heating temperatures. The weight loss of porous ceramics without coal y ash upon heating to temperatures of 1000, 1100, 1200, and 12708C that is attributed to organic matter in diatomite is

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Figure 6. Weight loss on ignition of porous ceramics.

Figure 8. Compressive strength of porous ceramics samples.

Figure 7. Water absorption of the porous ceramics.

1.91%, 1.93%, 1.96%, and 1.97%, respectively. The results indicate that adding coal y ash did not apparently reduce the weight loss upon ignition. As the temperature was increased, the weight loss of the porous ceramics is assumed to have declined. This result reveals that diatomite and coal y ash are compatible with each other, so coal y ash can be used as a diatomite substitute. The water absorption rate, which refers to the weight of moisture in the pores divided by the weight of the sintered specimen, is an effective index of the quality of a porous ceramics. The inltration of less water into a porous ceramic supports expectations of greater durability and resistance to the natural environment. Figure 7 plots the results of the water absorption tests for various coal y ash-diatomite mixtures red at four temperatures. The water absorption rates were from 89.4% to 78.3%, 86.0% to 72.6%, 82.3% to 65.4, and 79.8% to 58.9% at temperatures of 1000, 1100, 1200, and 12708C, respectively. The specimen without coal y ash was heated to a temperature of 12708C, as the heating temperature increased, the amount of water absorbed in the porous ceramics decreased. The results indicate that when the coal y ash content decreased, the water absorption of the porous ceramics increased. However, when the amount of coal y ash exceeded 20%, even when the specimen was red at 12708, the water absorption (58.9%) of the formed porous ceramics was lower than that of the other specimens with different amounts of y ash. The lower water absorption rate after heating to a higher temperature (12708C) suggests that local liquid-phase sintering had occurred, reducing the pore

volume and, thereby, the water absorption rate. Apparently, the bonding ability of the mixture is related to the proportion of coal y ash. The compressive strength is the most important engineering quality index of building materials. Figure 8 displays the results of compressive strength tests of the porous ceramics that were produced from mixtures of both diatomite and coal y ash. When the heating temperature was increased from 1000 and 12708C, the compressive strength of the porous ceramics gradually increased. When the heating temperature was increased above 12708C, the compressive strength of the ceramics was between 5.85 and 15.8 MPa. When up to 20% coal y ash was added to the porous ceramics that were heated to 12708C, the strength was always apparently higher than that of the porous ceramics without any coal y ash. These results reveal that the heating temperature that maximized compressive strength was 12708C. Coal y ash from MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 systems exhibited similar crystallization behavior. Coal y ash can be blended with clay to generate porous ceramics. Coal y ash with high Al2O3 1 SiO2 contents is suitable for the production of porous ceramics, because Al2O3 and SiO2 are known network formers, and adding coal y ash to a system increases its capacity to form networks. Accordingly, the porous ceramics samples herein were stronger than the control specimens. Therefore, the strength of porous ceramics samples that are formed from a mixture of both diatomite and coal y ash can be controlled. Distribution of Sizes and Total Volume of Pores in Ceramics Figure 9 plots mercury intrusion data that were obtained upon heating to 11008C. Figure 9a includes one strong peak with a range of pore sizes of around 1.52 lm and a smaller peak at 0.21 lm. Pores with sizes of 1.52 lm are linked to the voids among the powder particles, whereas those with sizes of $0.21 lm are inherent to the diatomite in the porous ceramics samples (Figure 10a). The main peak shifts to a smaller pore size as the heating temperature increases. Figure 11 plots the mercury intrusion data obtained upon heating to 12008C. Figure 10a includes one strong peak at pore sizes of $22.5 lm and a smaller peak at 0.31 lm. Figure 12 plots mercury intrusion data obtained upon heating to 12708C. Figure 11a includes a strong peak at pore sizes of around 2.53 lm and a smaller peak around 0.32 lm. Therefore, the sizes of the interparticle pores decline as the peak temperature increases, and the interparticle voids become partially lled with the melt and/or collapse. Figures 911b present the evolution of the porosity of sintered bodies that contained coal y ash. They plot the

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Figure 9. Distribution of sizes and total volume of pores in ceramics of porous ceramics sintered at 11008C (a) distribution of sizes and (b) total volume of pores. [Color gure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary. com.]

Figure 10. Distribution of sizes and total volume of pores in ceramics of porous ceramics sintered at 12008C (a) distribution of sizes and (b) total volume of pores. [Color gure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary. com.]

Figure 11. Distribution of sizes and total volume of pores in ceramics of porous ceramics sintered at 12708C (a) distribution of sizes and (b) total volume of pores. [Color gure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary. com.]

cumulative volume of pores as a function of pore size. The sintered samples that were prepared from diatomite that contained more coal y ash had smaller pores. The gures indicate that the porous diatomite ceramics samples contained a greater volume of pores. However, for various types of sample, the dependence of total volume on coal y ash content

was strongest between 15 and 20 wt % (Figures 911b). Figures 911b present the evolution of relevant morphological parameters, such as total Hg intrusion volume (porosity) and average size of interconnecting pores such as the pore necks among the particles of coal y ash, in the samples with coal y ash contents from 10 to 20 wt %. However, as

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the concentration of coal y ash increases, the coal y ash begins to interact with diatomite particle and an open structure that interconnects the ne pores is slowly formed. As expected, porosity and average pore size depend directly on the coal y ash content. Increasing the amount of coal y ash particles tends to reduce the average distance between

diatomite particles in samples that contain coal y ash, promoting diffusion during sintering. XRD Patterns of Porous Ceramics Figure 12 presents XRD patterns of diatomite porous ceramics that were sintered at 1000, 1100, 1200, and 12708C. As the sintering temperature increases, the intensity of the newly emerging crystalline quartz peaks increases, and both the amorphous SiO2 content and the amount of other impurities declines as the temperature increases above 11008C. When the temperature reaches 12708C, all of the amorphous silicon dioxide is converted to the crystalline phase and cristobalite becomes the dominant phase (Figure 13). SEM Microphotographs of Ceramic Samples Figures 14ae presents the microstructures of the fractured surface of samples red at 12708C. Figure 14 shows that the neck growth rate and neck size increased greatly upon ring at 12708C. The microstructure does not signicantly change (Figures 14a and 14b). Cylindrical diatomite particles are identied easily and some micropores are distributed in their walls. The micrographs indicate that crystalline materials were embedded in a glassy matrix and that the microstructures of the ceramic samples were not thoroughly homogeneous. The fracture surface of the sample that contained 10%

Figure 12. XRD patterns of diatomite porous ceramics.

Figure 13. XRD patterns of porous ceramics.

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Figure 14. SEM microphotographs of samples at 12708C.

y ash had a denser well-sintered microstructure with a uniform distribution of pores, than the sample that contained 0% y ash (Figure 14c). Figure 14e shows that the ceramic sample that contained 20% coal y ash contained more grains than the control sample. The fracture surface of the ceramic sample that contained 20% y ash differed markedly those of the others with denser well-sintered microstructures, which were associated with the formation of elongated cavities. As the amount of y ash increased, y ash particles tended more to coalesce, forming necks among the particles, increasing the density and, under some conditions, improving the mechanical properties (Figure 14e). From these

results, this dense microstructure is suggested to be responsible for the improvement in the mechanical properties of the sample. These observations suggest that the increase in the rate of sintering that is caused by Fe2O3 causes fewer pores to be formed in the ceramic samples.

CONCLUSIONS

This investigation demonstrated the feasibility of using diatomite and coal y ash as alternative raw materials in the production of porous ceramics. The results herein support the conclusions drawn below. Specically, the results con-

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cerning the sintering process demonstrated that the properties of the produced materials depend on the sintering temperature and the amount of coal y ash. Higher Al2O3 1 SiO2 contents in the coal y ash resulted in better properties of the sintered materials. In porous ceramics that contain y ash, when the temperature reaches 12008C or 12708C, all of the quartz is converted to cristobalite, which thus becomes the major phase. The experiments revealed that the sintered ceramic samples that contained coal y ash the best physical, mechanical, and microstructural properties. When the heating temperature was increased above 12708C, the compressive strength of the ceramics was between 5.85 and 15.8 MPa. Samples that were treated at 12708C had the best sintered structure, with the most necks among the particles, resulting in the best mechanical properties, high compressive strength, and low water absorption. Accordingly, waste diatomite and coal y ash can indeed be 100% recycled and reused to produce porous ceramics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors like to thank the National Science Council of the Republic of China, Taiwan, for nancially supporting this research under Contract No. NSC 98-2621-M-197-001. Ted Knoy is appreciated for his editorial assistance.
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Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.32, No.1) DOI 10.1002/ep