Technical Meeting on Combustion Technology

TECHNICAL MEET ON COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY 27-28 JUNE 2006, BANGALORE
S. No 1.
Title Overview of combustion by Mr. Nagesh Kumar, Sr. Deputy Director, NPC
Page No. 2
2.
Improving Combustion Efficiency in Burners by Prof K Ramamurthi, IIT-Madras
37
3.
Flame Safety Requirement of Combustion System by Mr. Rajendra Kumar, Durag India Instrumentation Pvt. Ltd
144
4. 5.
Boiler efficiency measurement and control by Mr. Yashasvi, Forbes Marshall Ltd Preheated combustion air and furnace recuperators by Mr. Nagesh Kumar, Sr. Deputy Director, NPC
179 251
6.
Combustion Improving Catalyst for Heavy fuel oil by Mr. T Rangaprasad, Director, Pennar Chemicals
290
7.
Emerging International standards and practices for programmable electronics systems (PES) for BMS applications by Mr Rajiv Kurup, Honeywell Automation India Ltd.
349
8. 9.
NOx and other emissions by Mr M V Deshmukh, Managing Director Eclipse Combustion Pvt. Ltd. Combustion Efficiency efforts in Industry- Case Study by Mr. Anil Kewalramani, G M, IPCL
395 497
Overview of Combustion
J. Nagesh Kumar Sr. Deputy Director National Productivity Council Chennai 600098 Tallkumar@gmail.com
Energy Sources
The fuels commonly in use are those which occur naturally generally the remains of organic materials synthesized by solar heat then subject to differing levels of pressure Generally, the calorific values vary according to age and hardness. Solid, Liquid and Gaseous fuels
Properties of Coal
Anthracite, bituminous, and lignite
Grade A B C D E F G Calorific Value Range ( in kCal/kg) Exceeding 6200 5600 6200 4940 5600 4200 4940 3360 4200 2400 3360 1300 2400
Chemical Properties
Ultimate Analysis
Parameter Moisture Mineral Matter Ash) Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Oxygen Indian Coal, % 5.98 38.63 41.11 2.76 1.22 0.41 9.89 Indonesian Coal, % 9.43 13.99 58.96 4.16 1.02 0.56 11.88
(1.1
Properties of Agro Residues
Moisture Mineral Matter Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Oxygen GCV (Kcal/kg)
Deoiled Bran 7.11 19.77 36.59 4.15 0.82 0.54 31.02 3151
Paddy Husk 10.79 16.73 33.95 5.01 0.91 0.09 32.52 3568
Saw Dust Coconut Shell 37.98 13.95 1.63 3.52 48.55 44.95 6.99 4.99 0.80 0.56 0.10 0.08 41.93 31.94 4801 4565
Liquid Fuels
Furnace oil LSHS LDO
Properties of Gaseous Fuels

liquefied petroleum gases (LPG)
LPG is a predominant mixture of propane and Butane Liquid LPG evaporates to produce about 250 times volume of gas.
Natural Gas
Methane is the main constituent of Natural gas and accounting for about 95% Natural gas is a high calorific value fuel requiring no storage facilities. It mixes with air readily and does not produce smoke or soot. It has no sulphur content. It is lighter than air and disperses into air easily in case of leak
Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured either as gross calorific value or net calorific value. The difference being the latent heat of condensation of the water vapour produced during the combustion process.
Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Moisture
GCV 10,500 Kcal/kg
Water Vapour Water Vapour

NCV 9800 Kcal/kg
Water vapour
What is Combustion ?
Combustion is a chemical reaction between oxygen and fuel which releases heat energy. To allow this chemical reaction to take place, there must be a physical mixing of oxygen and fuel with sufficient closeness of contact, plus temperature, plus time for the chemical reaction to be completed. Fuel will not burn without oxygen.Smaller the fuel particle the more contact with oxygen and therefore the quicker and more complete the combustion process Holding a match under a large block of wood will not ignite wood. Holding a match under a fine splinter of wood will cause it to immediately burn.
ie:- We have raised its temperature to ignition point.
Type of fuel and size of fuel particle govern speed combustion.
Combustion Reactions
3 Ts of Combustion
Time - Any chemical reaction (combustion is a chemical reaction) takes time. Depending on the fuel the reaction can take al little as one tenth of a second and as much as several seconds. The next two T's can effect the time of the reaction. Temperature - Reactions occur at different speeds depending on the temperature. In many cases if the temperature is increased the reaction time will decrease. Turbulence - Reactions are also greatly effected by turbulence. In hydrocarbon combustion, oxygen is an important aspect of the reaction. Without turbulence enough oxygen might not make it to the reaction and cause possibly unwanted compounds to form. For example Carbon Monoxide is formed if hydrocarbons are burned without enough oxygen.
Stoichiometric Combustion
The amount of air required for complete combustion of the fuel depends on the elemental constituents of the fuel that is Carbon, Hydrogen, and Sulphur etc. This amount of air is called stoichiometric air
C on stitu en ts C arbo n H ydro gen O xygen N itro gen S ulphur H 2O ` A sh
% B y w eigh t 85.9 12 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.35 0.05
Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Element Molecular Weight kg / Amount of Air kg mole
C O2 H2 S N2 CO2 SO2 H2O 12 32 2 32 28 44 64 18
C H2 S
+ + +
O2 1 /2 O 2 O2
CO2 H 2O SO2
C 12
+ +
O2 32
CO2 44
12 kg of carbon requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 44 kg of carbon dioxide therefore 1 kg of carbon requires 32/12 kg i.e 2.67 kg of oxygen (85.9) C + (85.9 x 2.67) O2 229.07 kg of oxygen 315.25 CO2
Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Amount of Air (contd.)
2H 2 4
+ +
O2 32
2H 2 O 36
4 kg of hydrogen requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 36 kg of water, therefore 1 kg of hydrogen requires 32/4 kg i.e 8 kg of oxygen (12) H2 + (12 x 8) O-2 96 kg of oxygen (12 x 9 ) H2O

S 32 + + O2 32 SO 64
32 kg of sulphur requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 64 kg of sulphur dioxide, therefore 1 kg of sulphur requires 32/32 kg i.e 1 kg of oxygen (0.5) S + (0.5 x 1) O2
0.5 kg of oxygen
1.0 SO2

Total Oxygen required = 229.07+96+0.5 = 325.57 kg Oxygen already present in 100 kg fuel (given) Additional Oxygen Required = 0.7 kg = 325.57 0.7 = 324.87 kg Therefore quantity of dry air reqd. (air contains 23% oxygen by wt.) = (324.87) / 0.23 = 1412.45 kg of air Theoretical Air required = (1412.45) / 100 = 14.12 kg of air/ kg of fuel
Calculation of theoretical CO2 content in flue gases

Nitrogen in flue gas = = 1412.45 324.87 1087.58 kg
Theoretical CO2% in dry flue gas by volume is calculated as below : Moles of CO2 in flue gas Moles of N2 in flue gas Moles of SO2 in flue gas = = = (315.25) / 44 (1087.58) / 28 1/64 = 7.16 = 38.84 = 0.016
Theoritica l CO2 % by volume =
Moles of CO2 x 100 Total moles (dry )
7.16 = x 100 7.16 + 38.84 + 0.016

= 15.5 %
Calculation of constituents of flue gas with excess air

% CO2 measured in flue gas = 10% (measured)
Theoritical CO2 % % Excess air = 1 x 100 Actual CO % 2
15.5 % Excess air = 1 x 100 10
= 55%
Theoretical air required for 100 kg of fuel burnt Total quantity. of air supply required with 55% excess air Excess air quantity
= =
1412.45 kg 1412.45 X 1.55
= = = O2 = = N2 = =
2189.30 kg 2189.30 1412.45 776.85 kg. 776.85 X 0.23 178.68 776.85 - 178.68 598.17 kg
CO 2 H 2O SO 2 O2 N2
= = = = = =
315.25 kg 108.00 kg 1 kg 178.68 kg 1087.58 + 598.17 1685.75 kg
Calculation of Theoretical CO2% in Dry Flue Gas By Volume

Moles of CO2 in flue gas Moles of SO2 in flue gas Moles of O2 in flue gas Moles of N2 in flue gas = 314.97/44 = 7.16 = 1/64 = 0.016 = 178.68 / 32 = 5.58 = 1685.75 / 28 = 60.20
Moles of CO2 7.16 x 100 = x 100 = 10% 7.16 + 0.016 + 5.58 + 60.20 Total moles (dry )
Theoretical O2% by volume
5.58 x100 x 100 = 7.5% 72.956
Air for combustion
Optimizing Excess Air and Combustion

In practice, mixing is never perfect, a certain amount of excess air is needed to complete combustion and ensure that release of the entire heat contained in fuel oil. If too much air than what is required for completing combustion were allowed to enter, additional heat would be lost in heating the surplus air to the chimney temperature. This would result in increased stack losses. Less air would lead to the incomplete combustion and smoke. Hence, there is an optimum excess air level for each type of fuel.
Control of Air and Analysis of Flue Gas

By measuring carbon dioxide (CO2) or oxygen (O2) in flue gases by continuous recording instruments or Orsat apparatus or portable fyrite, the excess air level as well as stack losses can be estimated The excess air to be supplied depends on the type of fuel and the firing system. For optimum combustion of fuel oil, the CO2 or O2 in flue gases should be maintained at 14 15% in case of CO2 and 2-3% in case of O2
Relation Between CO2 and Excess Air for Fuel Oil

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 8.4 9 10 11
Carbon dioxide %
Excess air (%) Excess air %
250 200 150 100 50 0
10
11
12
13
14
15
Res idual Oxygen (%)
Figure 1.3: Relation between Residual Oxygen and Excess Air
12
13
14
15
Oxygen vs Excess air
Advantages of measuring O2 vs CO2

More precise Independent of fuel CO2 measurement does not let us know which side of the stoichiometric curve we are on.
Oil Firing Burners

The burner is the principal device for the firing of fuel. The primary function of burner is to atomise fuel to millions of small droplets so that the surface area of the fuel is increased enabling intimate contact with oxygen in air. The finer the fuel droplets are atomised, more readily will the particles come in contact with the oxygen in the air and burn. Normally, atomisation is carried out by primary air and completion of combustion is ensured by secondary air. Burners for fuel oil can be classified on the basis of the technique to prepare the fuel for burning i.e. atomisation.
Oil burner
Spray at 10 psi pressure
Spray at 100-psi pressure
Spray at 300-psi pressure
Effects of Viscosity On Nozzle Performance
High viscosity spray
Combustion of Coal
excess air required for coal combustion depends on the type of coal firing equipment Hand fired boilers use large lumps of coal and hence need very high excess air. Stoker fired boilers use sized coal and hence require less excess air. Also in these systems primary air is supplied below the grate and secondary air is supplied over the grate to ensure complete combustion. Fluidised bed combustion in which turbulence is created leads to intimate mixing of air and fuel resulting in further reduction of excess air. The pulverized fuel firing in which powdered coal is fired has the minimum excess air due to high surface area of coal ensuring complete combustion.
Combustion of Gas
The stoichiometric ratio for natural gas (and most gaseous fuels) is normally indicated by volume. The air to natural gas (stoichiometric) ratio by volume for complete combustion vary between 9.5:1 to 10:1 Natural gas is essentially pure methane, CH4. Its combustion can be represented as follows: CH4 +2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O So for every 16 kgs of methane that are consumed, 44 kgs of carbon dioxide are produced.
Natural gas combustion
Turndown Ratio
Ratio of burners Maximum firing capacity to minimum firing capacity Since turbulence is related to velocity, at higher turndown would require higher excess air Best burner will provide good turbulence with least excess air Higher turndown ensures better process control Higher turndown means reduced maintenance costs
Furnace volume for different fuels
IMPROVING COMBUSTION IN BURNERS
K. RAMAMURTHI MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MADRAS CHENNAI
IMPROVING COMBUSTION IN BURNERS

REVIEW MECHANISMS OF COMBUSTION IN BURNERS DETERMINE EVOLVING TRENDS: - IMPROVING EFFICIENCY - REDUCING POLLUTION - BURNING LOW GRADE COMBUSTIBLES - LARGE POWER PLANTS, FURNACES, KILNS, INCINERATORS DEVELOPMENTS IN THE NEAR FUTURE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
DOMESTIC COAL FIRE FRESH COAL PLACED AND HEAT TRANSFERRED FROM BELOW EVAPORATION OF VOLATILE MATTER SMOKE WHEN ADEQUATE TEMPERATURE REACHED : VOLATILE MATTER BURNS LEAVES BEHIND A RESIDUE OF FIXED CARBON GLOWS AND SMOLDERS NON-COMBUSTIBLE IN COAL FORMS ASH ASH PERFORMS USEFUL FUNCTION OF PROVIDING INSULATION TO THE GRATE
Coal Stove
SEC. AIR
BURNS WITH SECONDARY AIR : CO + O2 = CO2
GREEN COAL
ENDOTHERMIC
CO2 + C = 2CO
REDUCTION ZONE
CO + O2 = CO2
EXOTHERMIC
OXIDATION ZONE II OXIDATION ZONE I
C + O2 = CO
PRIMARY AIR : LIMIT OR ELSE QUENCHED
LARGE COAL BURNER
SAME PRINCIPLE : COAL BURNING OVER GRATE -- TANDOOR / BARBACUE -- OVENS FOR BAKING
A LARGE POWER PLANT : RAMAGUNDAM 2600 MW (4X500+3X200) 2600x106 J/S. CAL VALUE OF COAL ~ 30000 KJ/KG COAL REQUIRED PER DAY : 2600x106 x24x3600/30000x103 7500 TONS PER DAY COAL TRAIN WITH 75 WAGONS WITH 100 T/WAGON PER DAY UNLOADER, DUMPER , GRATE - SURFACE AREA FOR
COMBUSTION - PULVERIZATION
RAMAGUNDAM 2600 MW NTPC
COMBUSTION PROCESS IN A HAND-FIRED GRATE
FIRE TUBE BOILER
Locomotive Boiler from D. A. Low
Independent Water and Power Production: Algeria 344 MW (IHI) Including desalination
WOOD STOVE
HEAT TRANSFER FROM FLAME TO WOOD CAUSES VOLATILE VAPOR TO FORM VAPOR MIXED WITH AIR IN SUITABLE PROPORTION BURNS AS IN THE CASE OF COAL VOLATILES WEAKLY BURNING WOOD SMOKES :
INSUFFICIENT AIR ONLY INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS OF VOLATILIZATION TOO MUCH AIR BLOWS OUT
HEAT LOSSES PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT TRAPPED RADIATION WITHIN SPLINTERS
ENTRAPPED RADIATION CONTRIBUTES TO IGNITION AND MAINTAINING THE FLAME
Cast Iron Wood Stove
Barbecue
THE HINDU March 1, 2006
PHILLIPS DEVELOPS EFFICIENT STOVE A WOOD STOVE

WHICH USES CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
WOOD EFFICIENT,
REDUCES SMOKE AND TOXIC EMISSIONS

16 LAKH DEATHS A YEAR WORLDS POOREST COULD BENEFIT FROM THE INVENTION ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED FAN FORCES AIR TROUGH STOVE BETTER AIR-FUEL RATIOS SUITABLE TEMPERATURE
DOMESTIC GAS BURNER
VARIANT OF BUNSEN BURNER

GAS ENTERS A NARROW TUBE AND DRAWS PRIMARY AIR; MIXES IN MANIFOLD
SECONDARY AIR ENTRAINED ABOVE BURNER
FLAME ATTACHED TO RIM
Gas Stove
PARAMETERS
SHAPE, DIAMETER OF JET

TURBULENCE LIMIT
DIAMETER OF BURNER PORT
5SU
gB THROAT OF VENTURI
STABILIZATION OF FLAME AT BURNER HEAD GAS PROPERTIES IMPORTANT HEATING REQUIRED QUANTITY AND REQUIRED SIZE
2SU
gF
2dT
BURNER DIA
LARGE INDUSTRIAL BURNERS
MORE GAS BOOST FUEL GAS SUPPLY PRESSURE EXPLOSION AND SAFETY ASPECTS INTRODUCE AIR AT HIGH PRESSURES FLAME TO BE ANCHORED BETTER MIXING STRATEGIES
ADD ON FEATURES FOR REDUCING NOx INCREASING EFFICIENCY
NOx
NOx : NO, NO2 SHORT LIFETIME IN ATMOSPHERE NO TO NO2

CONTRIBUTE TO PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG ACID RAIN FINE PARTICULATES VISIBILTY DEGRADATION
NOx ISSUES : LOCAL, REGIONAL (HOURS TO DAYS)
N2O : LONG LIFETIME GLOBAL WARMING STRATOSPHERIC OZONE CHEMISTRY PROMPT NOx (FENIMORE : CH+N2=HCN+N). Thermal NOx (ZELDIVICH) FLAME ZONE N + O2 = NO + O RATE CONTROLLING N2 + O = NO + N REDUCE BY AFTERBURNING N + OH = NO + H LOWER TEMPERATURES
AMMONIA OR UREA LOW NOx BURNERS
CERAMIC PIPE
OIL INTERNAL RECIRCULATION
AIR
MAN LOW NOx INDUSTRIAL BURNER
Jet Flame
Swirl Flame
Kinedizer Low NOx Burner : NG ; Reinforced Refractory Block ( Kilns, furnaces, .)
Weak Swirl Burner Arrangement
Merging Advanced Premixed Burner with Gas Pretreatment for NOx < 2ppm : Cheng 2002 ; Lawrence Berkley National Lab
Weak Swirl Burner Arrangement
Low Swirl : Low NOx Coal- oil Burner with rich central core region : Riley Babcock Power
Staged Combustion to get low NOx : Delayed combustion in Primary and Secondary due to air deficiency ; Overfire air completes combustion
Foster Wheeler Series Split Flame Low NOx Burner : Coal Nozzle with Biomass
Low NOx Pulverized Coal Burner Babcock-Hitachi
NR
NR 2
NR 3
A wider and shorter flame gives very low NOx and HIGH Combustion Efficiency Babcock Hitachi
A. Feather-shaped Laminar Flame. All purpose

combustion chambers
C. Ball-shaped. Swirl. Stoker fired Boilers, Fluidized Beds,

Ovens
E. Flat: Coanda. Refractory Quarl. Radiation
F. Long, Luminous and Bouyancy Controlled Long

Chambers
G. Long, Luminous Fire Hose Uniform coverage in

Long Chambers
H.
High Velocity low Swirl: Enhanced convection within and outside tile
Incinerator / Kiln / Furnace / Drier
COMBUSTION PROCESS IN AN OIL/PULVERIZED COAL FIRED BOILER
Vaporizing Combustor - Rolls Royce
High Performance Alcohol Stove
CONTROLLED BURNING
REGULATING AIR : THREE STAGES HEAT FEEDBACK TO EVAPORATE LIQUID FUEL QUENCHING FLAME TO FORM VAPOUR FLOW MIXING WITH AIR TO FORM PREMIXED MIXTURE BURNING WITH SECONDARY AIR INCORPORATE FEATURES IN INDUSTRIAL BURNERS, BOILERS, FURNACES
CF6 50 ANNULAR COMBUSTOR General Electric Company
Oil power plant in Iraq
SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS
VOLATILES BURN WHETHER WOOD / COAL / LIQUID FUEL RESIDUE FIXED CARBON/COKE IN CASE OF COAL. WOOD LIQUID FUEL(?) SOOT FORMED IN FUEL-RICH CONDITIONS
CONSTITUENTS: C, H, O, N DIFFERENT FOSSIL FUELS GAS: NATURAL GAS MAINLY METHANE Sour, Sweet, Wet, Noble Gas He, H2, CO2 LIQUID PETROLEUM HOMOGENEOUS SOLUTION CONTAINING
-PARAFFINS, NAPHTHENES, AROMATICS, COMPUNDS WITH O,N,S 100S 1000S OF INDIVIDUAL COMPOUNDS
FOSSIL FUELS (Continued)
SOLID : MACROMOLECULAR STRUCTURE WITH VARYING COMPOSITION

65-95%C, 2-6%H2, 2-30%O2, 1-13%S, INORGANIC MATERIAL (ASH 1-25%), H2O
COAL : ABUNDANTLY AVAILABLE IN DIFFERENT GRADES VOLATILE MATTER + FIXED CARBON Anthracite, Bituminous, Subbituminous, Lignite PULVERIZED COAL UPTO 70% WATER ASH LIQUIFACTION OF COAL BY HYDROGENIZATION AT HIGH TEMP. 400-500 C HIGH PR. 70 MPa COAL LIQUID MIXTURES : COM,CWM,CWO,CMM(Methanol) GASIFICATION INTO SYNGAS
SEQUENCE OF TRANFORM
H/C
FOSSIL FUELS ( Contd.)

COAL
PEAT LIGNITE O/C
CALORIFIC VALUE (KJ/KG) NATURAL GAS : 55,600 LIQUID PETROLEUM : 46,000 COAL : 25,000 35,000 LIGNITE : 20,000 25,000 (~2500 MW Neyveli Lignite Corp.) O2
GASIFY AND USE : IGCC
H2
NATURAL GAS
RESERVES: 171x1012 M3 AS OF JAN. 2005 ANNUAL CONSUMPTION ~ 2.6 TRILLION M3
GAS GRID IMPORTANCE OF GAS BURNERS

NTPC: 110/130/140 MW MODULES IN GUJRAT, RAJASTHAN, UP WB: RELIANCE GASIFICATION OF LOW GRADE FUELS : IGCC RELOOK AT IMPROVEMENTS IN GAS BURNER CONTEXT OF RECENT COMBUSTION RESEARCH FINDINGS
LARGE POWER PLANTS OF NTPC
COAL : ~ 21,000 MW (UNITS OF 500MW, 200 MW)

Korba, Ramagundam, Singrualli, Farakha, Vindhyachal, Rihand, Talchar..
GAS : ~ 3600 MW (UNITS OF 140 MW, 110/105 MW, 60 MW) Gautham Budh Nagar, Anta(Rajasthan), Faridabad, Kawas LIQUID : ~ 350 MW (UNITS OF 110,130 MW) Only one at Kayamkulam
NOT LIQUID; MOVE TOWARDS CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGIES

10th PLAN : 41,100 MW ADDITIONAL
NTPC GAUTAM BUDH NAGAR UP 817 MW GAS BASED
INTEGRATED GASIFICATION COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT
GASIFY COAL/ LOW GRADE SOLID/LIQUID FUEL CO, H2 .

IMPROVEMENT OVER FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
USE IN A GAS TURBINE WITH HOT EXHAUST GENERATE STEAM IN RANKINE POWER PLANT MEETS EMISSION NORMS, EFFICIENT PROMISING OPTION WITH HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS(?)
Combined Cycle Power Plant
Combined Cycle Cogeneration Unit
500 MW combined cycle power plant by New York Power Authority- Cleanest Fossil fuelled Plant
IGCC
Combined Cycle Power Plant New Zealand 395 MW , Florida Siemans
FLAMELESS COMBUSTION OR BURNING

SURFACE COMBUSTION ON A HOT POROUS BLOCK DIMENSIONS < QUENCHING DISTANCE NO FLAME : CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF HEATED AIR/FUEL MIXTURE SIMILAR TO MICRO / NANO COMBUSTION DEVICES VERY EFFICIENT HEAT RELEASE CONTROLLED EMISSION; NEEDS SYSTEMATIC STUDY ATTRACTIVE FOR SUPERCRITCAL BOILERS
Bonecourt Boiler ( from: D. A. Low - Heat Engines)
POROUS MEDIUM BURNING (PMB)
FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS (?) NEW BASIC DEVELOPMENTS
VORTEX COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION ACOUSTICS
MIXING USING SOUND
PULSED BURNING
a) Flame at burner rim b) Flame base lifted-off c) Flame base before from burner rim extinguish
60
Liftoff Height / Nozzle Diameter
50
Blowoff
40
Blowoff
30
20
With Cavity Without Cavity
10
0 0 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000
Re
RMS SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
SPECTRUM
90 80
Swirled Jet
Jet spreading angle, o
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20000 40000 60000 80000

B A E F
Non-swirled Jet
Re
SPL at dominant frequency, dB
70 65 60 55 50
Turbulent Jet Region Wall Jet Region
45 40 0 20000 40000 60000
Re
FURNACE IS A CAVITY
y = A sin 2 ( )
y = A sin
( x at )
y = A sin
( x + at )
y = Asin( kxt ) + Asin(kx+t)
y = 2 A sin kx cos t
STANDING WAVE
NODES: NO VARIATIONS
ANTINODES: ZONES OF LARGE VARIATIONS
PUT BURNING ZONE / HEATING ZONE IN ANTINODE REGION
VARIANT OF AUGMENTATION IN ANTINODE REGION COMBUSTION ACOUSTICS

RIJKE TUBE : LOUD NOISE
SHOULD BURN POOR GRADE COMBUSTIBLE EFFICIENTLY NEEDS TO BE ADEQUATELY INVESTIGATED
CONSTANT VOLUME COMBUSTION

I C ENGINE NATURE APPEARS TO PREFER A PULSED PROCESS PULSE JETS PULSE COMBUSTION BOILER EFFICIENCY:96% Futton Co., USA LOW NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS ELIMINATES NEED FOR FANS, BLOWERS AND CONVENTIONAL FLUES RESONANT DESIGN OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER AND EXIT PIPE FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION : Reduces NOx
Pulse Combustion Boiler Southern California Gas Company
SUMMARY
SEEM TO MOVE TOWARDS USE OF NG/CONVERSION OF LOW GRADE FUELS TO GAS MOST ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION MET WITH IN DOMESTIC COMBUSTION ; ONLY SCALE UP WEAK SWIRL HAS BEEN ADEQUATELY EXPLOITED (NOx, ) USE OF ACOUSTICS ENHANCING COMBUSTION AND REDUCING EMISSIONS NEED STUDY / UNSTEADYNESS WITH PULSE FIRE AND EXPLOSION SAFETY WITH REACTIVE GASES HAS TO BE ADDRESSED
GLOBAL BIOLOGICAL CYCLE
CO2 OCEAN PLANTS DEAD ORGANISMS ANIMALS ROCKS

(From: Schobert)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS : 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 602 HEXOSE, GLUCOSE.. FATS, WOOD,PROTEINS,.. C6H12O6 + 602 6CO2 + 6H2O DECAY TO FORM PEAT FUEL ANAEROBIC DECOMPOSITION, C6H12O6 3CO2 + 3CH4 DETOUR IN THE CARBON CYCLE : ULTIMATELY BURNT TO CO2
PRESENT PROBLEM: COMBUSTION TODAY IS FASTER THAN PHOTOSYNTHESIS : NEED TO MAKE IT EFFICIENT
Technical Meet on Combustion Technology Organised by FICCI at Atria Hotel-Bangalore 27-JUN-2006
Flame Safety Requirements of Combustion Systems

BY
U RAJENDRA KUMAR
DIRECTOR
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NTPC-FARAKKA STPS
Corporate Structure
Union Agricole Holding AG Union Agricole Holding AG

Pinneberg, Germany Pinneberg, Germany Dipl.-Kfm. Hartmut Krenz (Vorsitzender) Hans-Peter Schuldt Rudolf Buchleitner Dipl.-Kfm. Hartmut Krenz (Vorsitzender) Hans-Peter Schuldt Rudolf Buchleitner
Hans-Peter Schuldt Hans-Peter Schuldt
Hamburg, Germany Hamburg, Germany Hans-Peter Schuldt Hans-Peter Schuldt

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Stuttgart, Germany Stuttgart, Germany Hans-Peter Schuldt Hans-Peter Schuldt Dr. Ulrich Greul Dr. Ulrich Greul Hamburg, Germany Hamburg, Germany Hans-Peter Schuldt Hans-Peter Schuldt
Hamburg, Germany Hamburg, Germany Hans-Peter Schuldt Hans-Peter Schuldt Rainer Bcher Rainer Bcher
Minneapolis, USA Minneapolis, USA Bangalore, India Bangalore, India France France China China United Kingdom United Kingdom
Ton Hameleers Ton Hameleers
DURAG INDIA Instrumentation Private Limited
102, SOPHIAS CHOICE, ST. MARKS ROAD, BANGALORE-560 001.

PHONE :080-4112 0223 FAX :080-4112 0224 www.duragindia.com
BANGALORE
Indian OEM Partners/Customers
Pakistan
IL-KOTA
Bangla Desh
WESMAN JASUBHAI L&T/EMERSON Thermax
ABB BHEL BHEL/ CVL
Sri Lanka
Indian Distributor Partners
GREAVES/ RELIANCE
SUKAN/ ADVANCETECH INS INTRA SUKAN/ ICE SSCE
ELMA TECHMARK ELMA
DURAG Products
Combustion : Flame Sensors/Monitors Burner Controls Electric Spark Ignitors Industrial Burners (Oil & Gas) Dual Fuel Burners Pilot Burners Online Video Spectroscopy System for Coal fired Boilers
Emission : Optical Dust Concentration Monitors Tribo Electric Filter Monitors Volumetric Flow Monitors Extractive Beta-gauge Particulate Monitors Ambient Beta-gauge Particulate Monitors Mercury Analysers Computerised Emission Evaluators and data processing systems
Combustion Basics
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
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COMBUSTION BASICS
High Energy Ignition Device D-HG 400 with Lance
Pneumatic Retraction Unit D-VE 500
Flame Sensor D-LE 603 Oil Steam
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Purge Air Gas
Control Unit D-UG 660 of the Flame Detector Device
Bar Graph Display D-ZS 129-30 Combustion Air
Combustion Basics
FLAME IGNITION
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Ignition of Flames: Ignition Energy
Pilot Flame / Ignition Burner
Coal Coal
Heavy Oil Heavy Oil

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Electrical Spark Ignitor
Light Oil Light Oil Gas Gas
Comparing the Energy

DURAG Ignitor D-HG 400 Energy per Spark: 4.5 J Spark rate: 20 Sparks / s Total Energy: 90 J DURAG Ignitor D-HG 1600 Energy per Spark: 16 J Spark rate: 4 Sparks / s Total Energy: 64 J
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Highlights of the DURAG D-HG 400 Ignitor

Ignites Liquid and Gaseous Fuels in Burners of any Capacity Compact Design: Control Unit and Ignition Lance are one Unit Uses a Thyristor instead of a Discharge Tube, therefore free of Wear and Tear In Conjunction with NFPA 8501/8502 Class 3 Special (Electrical Ignitor) Available also for Hazardous Areas Available also as Portable Ignitor
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Ignition of Flames: Systems

High Voltage Ignitor (System DURAG) High Voltage Ignitor (System DURAG)
Gas Ignitor (System Hegwein) Gas Ignitor (System Hegwein)
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D-HG 400 High Energy Ignition Device
Ignition of liquid or gaseous fuels in highcapacity industrial burners Compact design: control unit and ignition lance as one modular unit Also available in explosion-proof version with separate ignition lance Pneumatic Retraction Unit D-VE 500 for automatic burner ignition
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Dimensional Drawing of D-HG 400 / D-VE 500

Expansion
D E
>50
Protection Tube Mounting Flange
Limit Switches
Solenoid Valve
Twin Cut Connection D-HG 400-50 Ignitor Electronic
L0
>50
Calculation of the Ignition Lance Length: L= L0 + B + 50mm Expansion 300 mm

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A 291 391 491 591
B 608 718 828 938
C 123 133 143 153
D 908 1018 1128 1238
E 423 533 643 753
400 mm 500 mm 600 mm
D-HG 400-90 Flexible High Energy Ignitor
Flexible Conduit
Application
The D-HG 400-90 High Energy Ignitor has a flexible ignition lance. It has been designed to ignite especially titling burners. The flexible hose of the ignition lance is able to follows the titling of the burner. Ignition is possible under all tilt angles.
System Components
Electronic Unit with attached flexible Ignition Lance D-HG 400-91: Outer Carrier D-VE 500/.../F: Pneumatic Retraction Unit, special version for flexible Ignition Lances D-HG 400-90:
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Portable High Energy Spark Ignitor D-HG 400-80
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Combustion Basics
FLAME MONITORING
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Different Methods of Flame Monitoring

Ionisation / Rectification Simple and In-expensive Good Selectivity Fail-Safe Poor sensitivity Only for smaller burners Optical Simple Good Selectivity Fail-Safe Expensive
Acoustic Simple In-expensive Not Fail-Safe Not Selective
Spectroscopy / Video Flame Analyses Combustion Enhancement Not Fail Safe Very Expensive
Flame Recognition
Flame Light Intensity (DC-Portion) Flame Light Intensity (DC-Portion) Flame Light Intensity (AC-Portion) Flame Light Intensity (AC-Portion)
ii
ii
i00 i
i0>>0 i0>>0
ii
time t t time
i> 0 i> 0
Zeit t t Zeit time t t time
A A
Flame Recognition A B C D Flame Recognition A B C D Y //N Y N =UV or IR =UV or IR
Flame Light Intensity Flame Light Intensity
B B
C C
ffF> 0 F> 0
Flame Flicker Frequency in Hz Flame Flicker Frequency in Hz
200 200 100 100
D D
ii

Light Wavelength Light Wavelength in nm in nm
UV 400 VIS 800 IR UV 400 VIS 800 IR
fFF f
Flame Sensor Flame Sensor Distance from Burner Distance from Burner
Flame Light Emission and Sensor Sensitivity

Intensity of Flame Light Emission
UV Cell Coal Oil
10.000 1000 100

GaP Semiconductor Silicium Semiconductor Germanium Semiconductor
10 1 100
Gas
UV 400
VIS 800
1000
IR
2000
Wavelength of Flame Light Emission in nm
Dust / Steam
UV-light
L 10 L in. K 0% in a 50 .C n % ha al nn el V e En rst F1= i rk 30 L g ng u g F2= n og a . K sfilt / G150 f/H an er ain z al / / L Inp og ut .C F 1 ha ilter 2 nn 3 el 4 M 3 M F 1 1 F L 2 L IN IN ei n on M 2
Influence of Dust and Steam
Adjusting Flange
IR-light
10 0% 50 %
H B ellig rig k htn eit es ssc s T hw hre ell sh e o ld
P u P la u sb lse z A ug dju st
F ilte re ins 15 Pu te 6 ls ll 0 12 ab un zu g/ 0 g F /P ilte f/ uls r A Hz eA dju d st ju st
15 H z M M ea e su b rin uchs gO e utl e
60 H z
12 0H z t Pu P lsa uls u e sg O an utp g ut
Burner
Flame Monitor Overview

A Flame Monitor is always build from a Control Unit and a Flame Sensor Multiple Burner Furnaces Control Unit: Flame Sensor: Single Burner Furnaces Control Unit: Flame Sensor: or Compact Flame Monitor:
D-UG 660 D-LE 603
D-UG 110 / 120 D-LE 103 D-LX 100
Stray Light Effect
B2
B1
Eliminating the Stray Light Effect

Flame Flicker Frequency f [Hz]
High Pass Filter Setup 100Hz
f1=160 Hz
200
B1
150
f2=50 Hz
100
B2
50
Distance from Burner
Selection of Flame Sensors

Combustion Combustion
Single Burner System Single Burner System
Multi Burner System Multi Burner System
Oil Oil Flame Flame Sensor Sensor D-LE D-LE 103 UA 103 UA 103 UAF 103 UAF 103 IG 103 IG 103 IS 103 IS
Gas Gas Flame Flame Sensor Sensor D-LE D-LE 103 UL 103 UL 103 UA 103 UA 103 UAF 103 UAF
Coal Coal Flame Flame Sensor Sensor D-LE D-LE 103 IS 103 IS 103 IG 103 IG
Oil Oil Flame Flame Sensor Sensor D-LE D-LE 603 UA 603 UA 603 UAF 603 UAF 603 IS 603 IS 603 IG 603 IG
Gas Gas Flame Flame Sensor Sensor D-LE D-LE 603 UH 603 UH 603 US 603 US 603 UA 603 UA 603 UAF 603 UAF
Coal Coal Flame Flame Sensor Sensor D-LE D-LE 603 IS 603 IS 603 IG 603 IG 603 ISE 603 ISE 603 ISO 603 ISO
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Components of D-LE 603 + D-UG 660

D-ZS 129 Bar Graph Display Range Selection Safety Time Threshold
D-ZS 087- 20
D-ZS 133 I Ball Valve
D-ZS 033 I Ball Type Adjustment Flange
D-UG 660 Control Unit
Gain Frequency Filter Pulse Reduction
Purge Air Flange
D-ZS 117 I Heat Insulator
D-LE 603 Flame Sensor

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Flame Relay Contact Status Relay Contact Flame Intensity

Optional Second Flame Monitor
D-LE 603: Selection Criteria

Model D-LE 603 UH D-LE 603 US D-LE 603 UAF D-LE 603 UA D-LE 603 UI D-LE 603 IS
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Suitable for Fuels Gas Oil Coal Wood
Characteristics
Selective monitoring of single burners for gas and oil in multiple burner furnaces. Selective monitoring of single burners for gas and oil in multiple burner furnaces with low UV radiation levels. Selective monitoring of single burners for oil and gas in multiple burner furnaces. Good selectivity at high stray light levels, remote gain control.
++ + o + ++ ! o
o + ++ ++ ++ + + + + ++ ++ ++ ++ + + ++
Selective monitoring of single burners for oil or gas in multiple burner furnaces, especially on low NOx applications. Remote gain control. New! Dual colour flame sensor with UV and IR sensitivity, remote spectral range selectionSelective monitoring of single burners for coal or oil in multiple burner furnaces. Selective monitoring of single burner for coal, oil or gas flames in multiple burner installations. Dual channel flame sensors (LOG/LOG) for selective monitoring of single coal burners in multiple burner furnaces Dual channel flame sensors (LIN/LOG) for selective monitoring of single coal burners in multiple burner furnaces
D-LE 603 IG D-LE 603 ISE D-LE 603 ISO
D-LX 100 and D-ZS 087-20 Digital Display

Digital Display D-ZS 087-20 (only for setup)
Reset
Mode
D-ZS 087- 20
Connection for D-ZS 087
D S 087 -Z
-L D X100
9
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Reset button Status LEDs yellow : Ready for operation green : Flame ON red : Fault
Flame threshold adjustment
Flame Sensor Interface

+20V GND Shutter Signal Shielding Signal
Shutter
0,2 0,8
1s
Arrangement of Flame Sensors

D-UG 660
Burner 1.1
D-LE 603
D-LE 603
Burner 1.2 D-UG 660
D-UG 660 Burner 1.4

D-LE 603
D-LE 603
Burner 1.3
D-UG 660
5 Steps for an Optimum Flame Monitor Adjustment

Selection of the correct flame sensor
The flame sensor must be suitable to monitor the fuel under any condition.
Determine the best viewing position

The flame sensor must see the root of the flame which shall be monitored and only the tips of other flames.
Correct alignment of the flame sensor

Adjust the swivel mount so that the flame sensor has the best view to the root of the flame which shall be monitored.
Adjust the gain and frequency filter of the flame sensor

A maximum difference for flame on and flame off pulse rates must be achieved.
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Verify the setting for all burners and conditions

Ensure reliable flame monitoring on all burners and for all conditions
Flame Scanner D-LE 603 mounted on a Burner
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Major Indian References

1. Neyveli Lignite Corporation : All Units in TS-II and TS-I expansion have Durag Scanners & Ignitors All Units in TS-I will have Durag Scanners & Ignitors by end of this year CMS Energy-Neyveli : Durag Scanners and Ignitors UPRVUNL-Parichha TPS 2x110 MW : Combustion Engineering Boiler supplied by BHEL. During R&M, successfully replaced with Durag Scanners and High Energy Ignitor. Oil ignitors replaced with High Energy ignitors, saving huge cost of oil Following Refineries have Durag Scanners : Barauni, Gujarat, Mathura, Panipat, Numaligarh, Haldia A total of 500+ scanners and Ignitors are in operation in India in various Power Plants, Refineries and other process plants
2.
3.
4.
5.
For details please contact

DURAG INDIA instrumentation Private Limited 102, Sophias Choice, St. Marks Road Bangalore 560 001 Phone : +91 (0)80 4112 0223 FAX : +91 (0)80 4112 0224 Web : www.duragindia.com
Rajendra Kumar Mahesh Mhatre Binny Phabian Vipul Jain Jayanthi Rozario
Director Service Manager Asst Manager Sales Service Engineer Office Administrator
+91 98440 68047 +91 98202 30711 +91 98863 95650 +91 98863 90879 +91 98454 07073
rajendra_kumar@duragindia.com mahesh_mhatre@duragindia.com binny_phabian@duragindia.com vipul_jain@duragindia.com info@duragindia.com
Air to fuel ratio control

FICCI June 2006 - Bangalore
Boiler House Division
The Next Hour and a half

Boiler Efficiency Combustion basics Traditional control systems Oxygen trim control Oxygen measurement Ensuring optimum efficiency Boiler Efficiency improvement packages
Cost of operationOil fuels

Cost of operation-Solid fuel

Operating costs
Capacity 1 TPH 5 TPH 10 TPH
Oil 110L 690L 1350L
Gas 60L 300L 600L

Rs 9/Nm3 8000
Coal 35L 172L 345L

Rs 2/kg 8000
Cost of fuel Rs 22/kg Hours of operation 8000
Estimated savings
Capacity 1 TPH 5 TPH 10 TPH
Oil 5L 25L 50L
Gas 2.2L 11L 22L

79 to 82 Rs 9/Nm3 8000
Coal 1.5L 7.5L 15L

70 to 73 Rs 2/kg 8000
Improvement 80 to 83 Cost of fuel Rs 22/kg Hours of operation 8000
Boiler Efficiency
Boiler efficiency depends on both, the heat generation and heat utilization process. Heat generation covers the combustion process itself Heat utilization coves heat transfer from combustion to water and other operational losses like radiation and blowdown.
Boiler Efficiency-Losses
Heat generation
Stack loss Enthalpy loss
Heat Utilization
Radiation loss Blowdown loss
Losses Typical values

Boiler Efficiency-Methods
Direct Efficiency In-Direct Efficiency

BS ASME IS
Energy balance S:F

Controllable losses
Stack loss
Can be easily controlled One of the chief contributes to total boiler losses
Blowdown loss
Automatic control helps
Other losses: Enthalpy, Radiation, Ash

Combustion and efficiency

Combustion is the burning of a fuel with Air leading to release of energy. It is the process by which the Chemical energy contained in the fuel is converted into Heat energy. All conventional fossil fuels whether Solid, Liquid or gaseous contain basically carbon and/or Hydrogen which invariably react with the oxygen in the air forming carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide or water vapor. The heat energy released as a result of combustion can be utilized for heating purposes or for generation of steam in a boiler.
Heat generation process

In fossil fuels there are only three elements of interest: carbon, hydrogen & sulfur. During combustion each reacts with oxygen to release heat: C + 02 CO2 + Heat H2 + O2 H20 + Heat S + O2 SO2 + Heat Pure carbon, hydrogen and sulfur are rarely used as fuels. Instead, common fuels are made up of chemical compounds containing these elements.
Heat generation process
CnHn + O2 + N2 CO2 + H2O + N2 + Heat (Air) From the above equation it can be seen that hydrocarbon burns completely to produce water, CO2 & heat. This kind of complete burning is known as stoichiometric combustion. The heat released when the fuel burns completely is known as heat of combustion. Nitrogen doesnt play a role in combustion and appears in the output as it is.
Excess Air
The Minimum amount of air required for the complete combustion of a fuel is known as theoretical air . In boilers, one always needs to supply more air than what is required by stoichiometric calculations . The extra air, that is needed for complete combustion, taking into realities of combustion, over and above the stoichiometric air is known as Excess air . The fuel rich mixtures, or mixtures with stoichiometric or less than stoichiometric air give incomplete combustion that results in some quantity of undesirable carbon monoxide in the exhaust gases and also some loss of heat energy.
Excess Air
Too little excess air is inefficient because it permits unburned fuel, in the form of combustibles, to escape up the stack. But too much excess air is also inefficient because it enters the burner at ambient temperature and leaves the stack hot, thus stealing useful heat from the process. Maximum combustion efficiency is achieved when the correct amount of excess air is supplied so that sum of both unburned fuel loss and flue gas heat loss is minimized.
Real World : Com bustibles appear even when excess air is supplied.
% Flue gas concentration CO 2 Real world optimum point O2 CO+H 2
Theoretical optimum point
- 20
10
30 % Excess Air
Traditional control systems

All burners operate with more air than required. Often, the most immediate way of improving efficiency and reducing emissions Reduction of oxygen by 1 % typically will increase efficiency by 0.5 %.
What leads to variations

Air temperature Fuel temperature Fuel pressure Moisture in fuel Loading pattern Changing calorific value of fuel Use of multiple fuels
Effect of Air temperature

Air temperature deg C 4.5 10 26.7 37.8 48.9
- Excess air (%) - 25.5 - 20.2 - 15.0 - 9.6 - 1.1
Linkage Control
Fixed setting of fuel and air No compensation for variation Typical of Oil and Gas fired boilers Gear back lash and deadband
Parallel control
One step above the jack shaft control Settings fixed for each point of fuel and air Settings can be changed easily
Cross Limiting Control

Based on feedback of actual fuel and air flow A better system to have Involves more instrumentation Cannot cater to fuel composition changes
Oxygen trim control

Control of air as per combustion requirements Sounds good Complicated to implement Needs study before implementation
What is Oxygen trim control?

Control of EXCESS air in the stack of the boiler Done by sensing oxygen percentage in the stack On-Line measurement of CO not necessary Done by independent modulation of air damper or VFD.
Before trim control

Oxygen level versus firing rate
10.0 9.0
8.0
7.0
Oxygen level (%)
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
OXYLEVELBNR2A Trend
2.0
1.0
0.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 Firing rate (%) 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0
After trim control

Oxygen level versus firing rate
10.0
OXYLEVELBNR1A Poly. (OXYLEVELBNR1A)
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0 Oxygen (%)
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 Firing rate (%) 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0
Basic system - Oil / Gas fired boilers

PT
Damper
V F D
Blower
Controller
Modulation ON /OFF
Boiler Servo Motor Burner

OL
Oil Circulation M t
TS
EffiMax 4000
Plunger
Basic system - Solid fuels

PT
O2
FURNACE
TT TT
DYNO DRIVE
Fuel
Primary Air
ID FAN
V F D
Blower
FT
EffiMax 4000
Pre-Implementation Checks
Observe the boiler operation for 1-2 hours. Check if it is modulating continuously or only in high low mode. Observe the average load on the boiler Preferably it should be above 50 % load. Check what the fuel/air modulation mechanism is - Servo motor based, etc.
Check the Oxygen values at high fire, low fire and mid firing conditions. These values should be between 3-8% for oil fired boilers, 2-5 for gas fired boilers and 5 to 12% for FBC boilers. Also check the CO values. Typically these should be below 200 ppm.
Ask the boiler operator to tune the burner and try reducing oxygen as much as possible with CO being below 200 ppm. The pay back of the system and the improvement in efficiency will depend on the higher oxygen measured earlier and later.
Implementation pre-requisites
Need to ensure that there is a provision for installing an additional feed back mechanism for damper position feed back.
Some considerations
Simple PID cannot work because of the large dead-time involved

Dead time compensation technique is used
Step change in damper
Dead time Response of Oxygen

Time
Dead time compensation

Basically holds the output of the PID controller till the dead time is over Effectively makes the controller wait till the response is fully over
Measure O2 Wait for O2 change Move damper
Some more considerations

Air damper has to respond immediately, without waiting for the dead time to be over, when the firing of the boiler changes with a change in load. While moving, it has to replicate the curve of Oil-Air relationship of that particular burner
Some more considerations

The damper has to be moved to a particular position, normally fully open, during the purging time of the burner
One final consideration

The air damper can be either
servo motor controlled, which requires one current output power cylinder controller, which requires an I/P converter and an analog signal output VFD controlled, which requires an analog signal
Features of our trim control loop

Accepts inputs from
Has
a bump-less A/M station Dead time compensation
Oxygen analyzer Burner On/Off Burner firing position
Has a characterizer to replicate the response of a mechanical link Tracking / nontracking set point
Displays
Oxygen value (P & S) Damper opening (%)
Gives outputs to
Damper actuator
Trim control for solids

Additionally it has furnace pressure control also. The trim output is interlocked with the furnace pressure such that if the furnace pressure increases, the trim output and the boiler pressure control are reduced. It should also have bed temperature interlock.
Back to main Menu?
Oxygen measurement
Oxygen measurement using zirconia technology is todays industry standard and is accepted as a cost effective and reliable measuring instrument.
The Zirconium measuring principle (is very simple

A process gas (A) with unknown oxygen (O2)-concentration flows over a measuring probe, which is sealed against the process gas with a heated zirconia cell (B) The reference gas air (C) with its known and constant O2 - concentration contacts the cell from the inside. At high temperatures a voltage V is generated between the two surfaces of the cell, which, at constant cell temperature, depends only on the ratio of the oxygen concentrations (partial pressures) in A and C. With air (oxygen content constant 20,95%) as reference gas the measured voltage is a direct measure for the oxygen concentration in the process gas A, as long as...
A B C V
Is very simple ,
As long as the seal between process and reference gas is absolutely and perfectly gas tight and therefore any influence to the measuring results are eliminated for ever !
Nerst equation and the gas tight fraction line

The Nernst equation The gas tight fraction line
Reference gas partial pressure P1
P1
log
P2
+ C
Process gas
partial pressure P2
V Measured voltage K Natural constant T Temperature, is kept constant P1 Partial pressure of reference gas; is constant, if air is used as reference gas and mixture prevented with process gas C Constant offset With a leakproof fraction line and air as reference gas all values of the Nernst equation except P2 are constant! This means The voltage output depends only on partial pressure P2 (process gas) and calibration is not required
Calibration ?
Other oxygen measuring methods require a two point calibration, which in practice has been transferred to the zirconia measuring principle. This is not necessary, as the Nernst equation is a mathematical a linear function and with air as a known reference gas the only paramenter P1 is constant. Therefore calibration is not required! Only one condition must be fulfilled: The measuring cell must have a totally gas tight seal between the process gas side and the reference gas side. Any leakage at the cell will cause a migration of process and reference gas that will make regular calibrations necessary.
Design of the Oxytec Zirconia cell with the gas tight seal
Process gas
Ion migration Seal Zirconia Heater Electrodes mV Voltage
Reference Referenzluft gas (air)
Thermocouple
Key factors for the reliable gas tight cell

Carefully selected high quality materials Special cell sealing technology Special manufacturing process Mechanical design Production, Test & Quality Control to ISO 9001
Ensuring optimum Efficiency

How do you know correct set-points? Continuous study and adjustment required. Look at final performance parameters like fuel consumption or direct efficiency. Relate them to operating conditions to find best operating points.
Self learning logic

Builds data base of operating conditions Is simple to do, but has to be done continuously Compares past and present to alter operating conditions Better done through computer programs
Self learning example

Self learning example

Effect of boiler loading

Effect of Oxygen variation

Boiler Efficiency range of products

EffiMax 1000 - Online steam to fuel ratio meter with direct efficiency calculations.
Measures Steam flow, Oil/gas flow, Steam temperature and feed water temperature. Calculates S:F, Direct efficiency, Steam pressure, steam and fuel totalization. Applications - Typically oil / gas fired boilers below 2-3 TPH capacity.

EffiMax 2000 - Indirect Efficiency analyzer with automatic blow down control.
Measures Steam flow, temperature, stack Oxygen, temperature, ambient temperature, Drum TDS and feed water temperature. Calculates Indirect efficiency, indirect S:F, % blowdown loss, steam and blowdown total. Application - 3 TPH and above oil, gas, solid fuel fired boilers.

EffiMax 3000 - Indirect Efficiency analyzer with ABCO and S:F measurement.
Measures Steam flow, temperature, oil/gas flow, stack Oxygen, temp., ambient temp., Drum TDS and feed water temperature. Calculates Indirect efficiency, direct S:F, % blowdown loss, steam and blowdown total. Application - 3 TPH and above oil and gas fired boilers.

EffiMax 4000 - Indirect Efficiency analyzer with ABCO and Oxygen trim control.
Measures Steam flow, temp., stack Oxygen, temp., ambient temp., Drum TDS, feed water temp., damper feedback and boiler on/off. Calculates Indirect efficiency, indirect S:F, % blowdown loss, steam and blowdown total. Application - 3 TPH and above oil, gas, solid fuel fired boilers.
EffiMax 2000
Touch Screen Based
EffiMax 2000, the latest Touch Screen based offering

from the EffiMax range of on-line boiler efficiency
analyzers, provides a complete monitoring and data acquisition solution for boiler performance. The highlight of this product is the extremely visual Human Interface and self explanatory mimic of the boiler on the front display. It also allows for real time / historical trending on the display.
Boiler Efficiency Indication (%) in accordance with BS 845 based on indirect efficiency computation. Stack Loss Indication (%),
Sales Conference 05 Air to fuel ratio control
Enthalpy Loss (%) Radiation Loss Indication (%) Combustion Loss (%) Steam Flow Indication (kg/h), Steam to fuel ratio (compensated for Feedwater Temp) Oxygen Indication (%)
A simple and cost effective package which monitors the following parameters ON LINE through a extremely visual human interface and self explanatory touch screen mimic with a diagnostic report generation :-
1. All ealier features/data maintained in Touch screen. 2. The Manager can see the graphics on PC and the operator can see the same on the touch screen. 3. The operator too now has features like - Real time trending. - Customized alarms. 4. All range settings and calibration is menu driven
Features
Blowdown loss totalization (kg), Average (kg/h) Automatic Blowdown control
Steam and F.W. Temperature Indication - deg C Stack Temperature Indication - deg C All measured data displayed on a Mimic Trending, Alarms and Data log. Proprietary PC based software that provides graphical trending, datalogging, diagnostics, alarms RS 485/ Modbus output to PC
EffiMax 2000 - User Interface
Waste heat recovery
Continuous Steel Reheating Furnace Feature
Heat Transfer in Furnace
Furnace Energy Balance
Furnace Energy balance

Recuperators are heat exchange devices that recover energy from furnace exhaust gases and return that energy to the heating process as preheated air to the burners. Savings of 30% to 40% of of fuel bills is possible. Examination of Diagrams below shows the huge contribution that waste heat energy recovery can make towards furnace efficiency.
7
Waste heat recovery
Flue Gas Heat Recovery

One of the preferred solutions to recovering heat is to preheat combustion air using exhaust gas. The temperature of the air can be heated to the higher level which is dependent on the furnace conditions. In the glass and aluminum melting industries, preheats can be as high as 900C, recovered from the flue gas temperatures of typically 1200-1450C. The fuel saving in this case may be as much as 50%.
10
Recuperators
A recuperator is a gas to gas heat exchanger normally employed to recover waste heat from hot gases. Its main application is as a preheater for air entering boilers and furnaces. The hot gases are cooled by the incoming combustion air, which now carries additional energy into the combustion chamber and saving fuel.
Convective Radiative
11
Recuperators
Convective recuperators are generally used when the flue gas temperatures are below 900C. Radiation recuperators are used upto 1450C. In-between these temperatures a combination of convective and radiation methods can be used to ensure a good heat recovery.
12
Recuperator
13
Convective Recuperators
14
Convective - Radiative
15
Advantages claimed for the recuperators

Improve combustion efficiency Reduction of fuel requirement Lower flue gas temperature in the chimney after the Recuperator Higher flame temperatures, resulting in better and faster heating. Heat transfer is highest by radiation, and any increase in temperature difference increases heat transfer by a function of this temperature difference to the fourth power. Faster furnace startup and cold charge heating for higher output. Improved combustion resulting in lower excess air requirement and a brighter flame
16
Fuel Savings
Fuel Savings This depends on preheat temperature, i.e. higher waste heat recovery. Higher the preheat, higher the savings. e.g., for a reheating furnace with flue outlet temperature of 800C, flue savings would be ~14% with 300C preheat, and ~19% with 400C. Fuel savings with recuperation in some commonly used furnaces :
Re-rolling mill Re-Heating Furnaces - 15 - 25%. Aluminium Melting Furnaces - 12 -17%. Glass Melting Furnaces - 25 - 40%. Heat Treatment Furnaces - 12 - 15%. Forging Furnaces - 15 - 25%.
17
Energy saving potentials
18
Recuperative burner
19
Regenerative burner
20
21
22
Thermal Regenerators:
Thermal regenerators are compact heat exchangers in which heat is stored and released alternately using a heat storage matrix.
Fixed-bed regenerator Rotary regenerator
23
24
Main categories of exchanger

Heat exchangers
Recuperators
Wall separating streams Wall separating streams
Regenerators
Direct contact
25
Recuperators/regenerators
Recuperative Has separate flow paths for each fluid which flow simultaneously through the exchanger transferring heat between the streams Regenerative Has a single flow path which the hot and cold fluids alternately pass through.
Rotating wheel
26
Fixed-bed Regenerators:
Hot Period
Cold Period
27
Fixed Bed Regenerators in Aluminum Furnace

Material Hot inlet Hot outlet Cold inlet Cold Outlet Pressure drop Ceramic balls 1200 C 300 C 20 C 900 C 20-40 mbar
28
Rotary Regenerators
Hot Area Cold Area
29
Rotary Regenerator in Aluminum Furnace
30
Glass tank regenerator
31
Stoichiometric Combustion
The amount of air required for complete combustion of the fuel depends on the elemental constituents of the fuel that is Carbon, Hydrogen, and Sulphur etc. This amount of air is called stoichiometric air
C on stitu en ts C arbo n H ydro gen O xygen N itro gen S ulphur H 2O ` A sh
% B y w eigh t 85.9 12 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.35 0.05

32
Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Element Molecular Weight kg / Amount of Air kg mole
C O2 H2 S N2 CO2 SO2 H2O 12 32 2 32 28 44 64 18
C H2 S
+ + +
O2 1 /2 O 2 O2
CO2 H 2O SO2
C 12
+ +
O2 32
CO2 44
12 kg of carbon requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 44 kg of carbon dioxide therefore 1 kg of carbon requires 32/12 kg i.e 2.67 kg of oxygen (85.9) C + (85.9 x 2.67) O2 229.07 kg of oxygen
33
315.25 CO2
2H 2 4
+ +
O2 32
2H 2 O 36
4 kg of hydrogen requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 36 kg of water, therefore 1 kg of hydrogen requires 32/4 kg i.e 8 kg of oxygen (12) H2 + (12 x 8) O-2 96 kg of oxygen (12 x 9 ) H2O
34

S 32 + + O2 32 SO 64
32 kg of sulphur requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 64 kg of sulphur dioxide, therefore 1 kg of sulphur requires 32/32 kg i.e 1 kg of oxygen (0.5) S + (0.5 x 1) O2
0.5 kg of oxygen
1.0 SO2
35

Total Oxygen required = 229.07+96+0.5 = 325.57 kg Oxygen already present in 100 kg fuel (given) Additional Oxygen Required = 0.7 kg = 325.57 0.7 = 324.87 kg Therefore quantity of dry air reqd. (air contains 23% oxygen by wt.) = (324.87) / 0.23 = 1412.45 kg of air Theoretical Air required = (1412.45) / 100 = 14.12 kg of air/ kg of fuel
36
Calculation of theoretical CO2 content in flue gases

Nitrogen in flue gas = = 1412.45 324.87 1087.58 kg
Theoretical CO2% in dry flue gas by volume is calculated as below : Moles of CO2 in flue gas Moles of N2 in flue gas Moles of SO2 in flue gas = = = (315.25) / 44 (1087.58) / 28 1/64 = 7.16 = 38.84 = 0.016
Moles of CO2 x 100 Total moles (dry )
7.16 = x 100 7.16 + 38.84 + 0.016

= 15.5 %
37
Calculation of constituents of flue gas with excess air

% CO2 measured in flue gas = 10% (measured)
Theoritical CO2 % % Excess air = 1 x 100 Actual CO % 2
15.5 % Excess air = 1 x 100 10
= 55%
Theoretical air required for 100 kg of fuel burnt Total quantity. of air supply required with 55% excess air Excess air quantity
= =
1412.45 kg 1412.45 X 1.55
= = = O2 = = N2 = =
2189.30 kg 2189.30 1412.45 776.85 kg. 776.85 X 0.23 178.68 776.85 - 178.68 598.17 kg
CO 2 H 2O SO 2 O2 N2
= = = = = =
315.25 kg 108.00 kg 1 kg 178.68 kg 1087.58 + 598.17 1685.75 kg

38
Calculation of Theoretical CO2% in Dry Flue Gas By Volume

Moles of CO2 in flue gas Moles of SO2 in flue gas Moles of O2 in flue gas Moles of N2 in flue gas = 314.97/44 = 7.16 = 1/64 = 0.016 = 178.68 / 32 = 5.58 = 1685.75 / 28 = 60.20
Moles of CO2 7.16 x 100 = x 100 = 10% 7.16 + 0.016 + 5.58 + 60.20 Total moles (dry )
Theoretical O2% by volume
5.58 x100 x 100 = 7.5% 72.956
39
PENNAR CHEMICALS LIMITED

AN ISO 9001 2000 Certified Company
TECHNICAL PRESENTATION AT
FICCI TECHNICAL MEET ON COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY
SPECIFICATION FOR FURNACE OIL-IS 1593-1982

Sr. No. CHARACTERISTICS Test metho ds IS 1448 P-2 P-4 P-6 or 7 P-32 P-21 P-25 Grade LV Grade MV1 Grade MV2 Grade HV
1 2 3
Acidity, inorganic Ash, % wt. max. Gross, calorific value, cal/g
NIL 0.1
NIL 0.1
NIL 0.1
NIL 0.1
Not limited but to be reported
4 5 6
Relative Density at 15 0C Flash point, (PMCC) 0C, Min. Kinematic viscosity in centistokes at 50 0C Sediment, % wt. max. Sulphur, total, % by wt., max.
Not limited but to be reported 66 80 66 125 66 180 66 370
7 8
P-30 P-33 or P-35
0.25 3.5
0.25 4.0
0.25 4.0
0.25 4.5
Water Content, % by vol., max.
P-40
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
DEFINITION : A dark viscous residual fuel obtained by blending mainly heavier components from crude distillation unit, short residue and clarified oil from fluidized catalytic cracker unit. NOMENCLATURE Bunker fuel, furnace oil , Fuel oil are other names for the same product. Though Fuel oil is a general term applied to any oil used for generation of power or heat, Fuel oil can included distillates and blends of distillates and residue such as Light Diesel Oil. SPECIFICATION Furnace oil in the current marketing range meets Bureau of Indian Standards Specification IS : 1593 - 1982 for fuel oils, grade MV2. VISCOSITY Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the furnace oil specification. It influences the degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is too viscous it may become difficult to pump, burner may be hard to light and operation may be erratic. Poor atomization may result in the carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the walls. The upper viscosity limit for furnace oil is such that it can be handled without heating in the storage tank is excepting under server cold conditions. Pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization. FLASH POINT As per the Controller of Explosives classification, Furnace oil falls in the class "C" category with minimum flash point standard of 66 deg. C. Since Penskey Martens Closed Cup method is used, it is apparent that a small quantity of low boiling point hydrocarbons is sufficient to lower the flash point drastically. POUR POINT It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which Furnace Oil is readily pumpable. In the specification the pour point of Furnace oil is not stipulated. However, for Furnace oil manufactured indigenously and for imported parcels, the pour point is such that current supplies normally can be handled without heating the fuel oil handling installation.
WATER Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can on combustion cause damage to the inside furnace surfaces especially if it contains dissolved salts. It can also cause sputtering of the flame at the burner tip. Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as the product at refinery site is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the standard. SEDIMENT Furnace oil being a blend of residues contains some quantity of sediments. These have adverse effect on the burners and cause blockage of filters etc. However, the typical values are normally much lower than the stipulated value of maximum 0.25 percent, by mass. ASH Ash is incombustible component of the furnace oil and is expressed as a percentage mass of the furnace oil sample. Ash consists of extraneous solids, residues of organometallic compounds in solution and salts dissolved in water present in the fuel. These salts may be compounds of sodium, vanadium, calcium magnesium, silicon, iron etc. Ash has erosive effect on the burner tips, causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high temperature corrosion and fouling of equipments. SULPHUR Sulphur determination includes burning of known quantiy of oil, treating the sulphur oxidation products formed during combustion and weighing of sulphur in the form of sulphate. The sulphur di oxide may come in direct contact with the product during the combustion process and may create adverse quality effects in the product. CALORIFIC VALUE Calorific value of a fuel is the quantity of heat generated in kilocalories by complete burning of one kilogram weight of fuel. Gross calorific value is higher than net calorific value to the extent of heat required to change water formed by combustion into water vapours.
COMPARISON OF FURNACE OIL, LSHS & CBFS

Sl.No. PROPERTY Spec. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12 Specific Gravity Viscosity, cSt Total Sulfur, Wt% Pour Point, 0C Carbon Content Hydrogen Content Gross Calorific Value Kcal / kg Moisture content, % Free water, Max. Flash Point Ash Sediments F.O IS 1593-1988 0.96 180 @ 50 0C 3.5 4.5% 21 0C 83% 11 12% 10000 Not available 1% 66 0C 0.1 % 0.25 % Max. LSHS IS: 11489 - 1985 0.97 50 @ 100 0C 1.0 % Max. 72 0C Max. 86% 12% 9500 10000 Not available 1% 93 0C 0.1 % 0.25 0.98 1.02 8 10 @ RT 0.3 % Max. < 20 86 88% 89% 9800 0.5% 1% 66 0C CBFS
COMPARISON OF C9, KEROSENE, HSD, LDO & F.O.

Sr. No. PARAMETER
0
RIL's C9 0.925 - 0.935 32 0C min. 5.0 max
KEROSENE 0.785 - 0.825 35 0C min. 1.0 - 1.4
H.S.DIESEL 0.82 - 0.84 32 0C min. 2.0 - 5.5 C20 Plus
LDO 0.88 - 0.9 66 0C min. (PMCC) 2.5 - 15.7 10 (TYPICAL) --
F.O 0.94 - 0.97 > 66 0C 80 - 370 @ 50 0C C65 Plus
1 Density, @ 15 C 2 Flash Point 3 Viscosity, Cst @ 38 C 4 Composition

0
5 Aromatic content 6 Sediment 7 Gross Calorific value, est. 8 Cetane no. 9 Pour Point C 10 Water content 11 Total Sulphur
0
Typical 1.2 - 1.8 C7 ti C17 < C8 = 0.1% C9 = 16 - 35% composition, C10 = 30 - 40% not defined in C10+ = 25 - 54% specs. 20 - 30 % (typical) 18% < 10mg/100 ml. not available 10,700 Kcals/Kg 11,000 Kcals/Kg not available < 0 0C 500 ppm max. 0.03% 38 (approx.) < 0 0C 500 ppm max. 0.25% max. 0.12% Typical
20% max 1 mg/100 ml. 10,800 Kcals/Kg 45 min. > 6 0C 500 ppm max. 0.25% max. 0.05% ULSD
-0.10% wt. max 10,400 Kcals/Kg 40 (approx.) Winter 12 Summer 18 0.25 % V max 1.8 % max.
-0.25% 10,200 Kcals/Kg < 20 25 0C 1% max. 4.5 % max.

TECHNICAL PRESENTATION TO
FICCI TECHNICAL MEET ON COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY

1
STORAGE
PROBLEMS
ASPHALTENES PRECIPITATION CLOGGING OF FILTERS AND PIPES SATURATION OF SEPARATORS CLOGGING OF INJECTION SYSTEM
ORIGIN
ASPHALTENES PRECIPITATION BLEND OF NON-COMPATIBLE FUELS STORAGE TEMPERATURE
SOLUTION
ELF ACS 82 2
COMBUSTION PROCESS & LOSS OF ENERGY
COMBUSTION MECHANISM
Atomisation
Viscosity
Vaporization
Distillate cuts
Ignition
C/H Ratio
Combustion
Distillate cuts Density Metals Conradson Carbon
Simple droplet combustion model

EMISSIONS OF PARTICLES
SOOT
0.02 m
FUEL DROPLET
CENOSPHERE
1 to 100 m
UNBURNT PARTICLES FLAME FRONT LIGHT GASEOUS FRACTIONS SOLID ACCUMULATION
CENOSPHERES
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
Basic Combustion Chemistry

C + O2 2C + O2 2H2 + O2 S + O2 2CO + O2 CO2 + 2CO + 8084 kCal / kg
2430 kCal / kg
2H2O + 28992 kCal / kg SO2 + 2224 kCal / kg
2CO2 + 5654 kCal / kg

8
EFFICIENCY EVALUATION OF BOILERS

There are two methods of evaluating the efficiency of Boilers: 1) Direct 2) Indirect Methods DIRECT METHOD: Heat Output Boiler Efficiency = --------------Heat Input Steam flow rate X (steam enthalpy feedwater enthalpy) ---------------------------------------------------------------------Fuel firing rate X Gross Calorific Value
10
ADVANTAGES:
Is excellent for plant people to evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers Requires only a few parameters for computation Needs only a simple instrumentation for monitoring
DISADVANTAGE: Not being able to calculate losses under different heads to indicate why the efficiency is low
INDIRECT METHOD:
The disadvantages inherent in the Direct Method can be overcome by the second method
Total Heat Loss = Lfg + Lmf + Ln + Lma + Luc + Lco + Lsa + Lbd + Lst
11
Where as,
Lfg = Dry flue gas loss

Lmf = Heat loss due to moisture in fuel Ln = Heat loss due to moisture from burning Hydrogen Lma = Heat loss due to moisture in air Luc = Heat loss due to combustibles in refuse Lco = Heat loss due to formation of Carbon Monoxide Lsa = Heat loss due to sensible heat in bottom ash Lbd = Blowdown loss Lst = Loss due to surface radiation and convection
Thermal Efficiency of boiler (%) = (Heat input per hour - total heat loss per hour) X 100% ----------------------------------Heat input per hour
12
TOTAL PERCENTAGE LOSS FOR LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUELS Total Percentage Loss = Dry flue gas loss + Loss due to refuse + Hydrogen & Moisture loss + Surface loss 1. Dry Flue Gas Loss: Ts = Ta = % CO2 = Stack Temperature 0C Ambient Temperature 0C Dry CO2 % in stack gas = K (Ts Ta) ------------- % % CO2
Dry Flue Gas Loss Note : 2. 3.
BS-845 indicates that a value of 0.56 can be taken on L.C.V. basis for all liquid pertroleum fuels = = 6.6% approx. 2 % approx.
Hydrogen & Moisture loss Surface loss
13

TECHNICAL PRESENTATION TO
FICCI, Bangalore ON ELF AC 13S & ACS 82
ADDITIVES FOR HEAVY FUEL OILS

CRUDE OILS AND FUEL OILS HEAVY FUEL OILS COMBUSTION MECHANISM POTENTIAL PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
ACS 82, AC 13 S
FRACTIONS FROM 3 DIFFERENT CRUDES FRACTIONS FROM 3 DIFFERENT CRUDES

ARABIAN HEAVY
Viscosity,20C % asphaltenes Gasoline (C5-80) Heavy gasoline (80-160) Kerosene (160-250) Middle distillate (250-300) Heavy distillate (300-400) Residue (400 +) 35.8 5.8 4.09 9.05 12.58 14.12 7.51 50.42
ARABIAN LIGHT
10.2 0.93 5.56 12.02 15.5 17.19 8.72 38.71
NIGERIAN BONNY
11.2 0.08 5.06 15.0
44.6
9.32 25.2
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME CRUDE OILS

Arabian light
Viscosity,20 C,cSt Sulfur,% Vanadium, ppm Nickel, ppm Asphaltenes, % Conradson carbon,% 9.2 1.8 15 5 0.7 5.1
Arabian heavy
40 2.8 30 10 2.7
Ekofisk
10 0.12 <1 1.4 0.88
Nigeria light
6.7 0.11 2 6 0.08 0.86
Basrah heavy
57 3.58 54 22 8.3
Boscan
250000 5.2 1200 100 10.8 16.4
Ural
12.5 1.8 65 20 2.7
REFINERY SCHEMES
Gas Naphta
AD
Reforming
Gasolines Kerosene Diesel oils Heavy fuels SR

1
FCC
VD
Gasolines Gasolines Kero,Diesel Heavy fuels H2, no Heavy 4 Fuels Asphalts Heavy fuels
3 2
Hydrocr. Visbreak.
DA
Coking
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
RESIDUE OR HEAVY FUEL OIL RESIDUE OR HEAVY FUEL OIL
MALTENES MALTENES
ASPHALTENES ASPHALTENES
"OIL" "OIL"
"RESINS" "RESINS"
SATURATED SATURATED AROMATIC AROMATIC
MODEL OF ASPHALTENE MOLECULE

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 S S CH2 CH2 CH CH3 CH3 CH3 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3 CH2
CH2
S
CH3 CH3 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH3
CH2 CH3 CH2 CH3
CH2
CH2 CH3 CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2
S CH2 CH3
CH CH2 CH2
CH3
CH3
ASPHALTENES CHARACTERISTICS
Polycondensed aromatic structures with few alkyl chains Contains hetero-atoms: S, N, O Contains metals: V, Ni, Na Not soluble in oil Size of the micellar unit: 8 - 20 A Cannot boil even under reduced pressure Molecular structure depends on crude oil origin
8
RESINS CHARACTERISTICS
Chemical structure close to asphaltenes structure but:
LONGER ALKYL CHAINS LESS CONDENSED RINGS MORE SOLUBLE IN OIL
Molecular structure depends on crude oil origin Presence necessary to provide a good stability to the fuel
9
HEAVY FUEL OILS
DISPERSED AND STABLE
FLOCULATED
Resins ensure seperation of heavy asphaltene molecules. Flocculated Asphaltene molecules tend to form sludge and settle at the bottom of the tank.
10
COMBUSTION MECHANISM
Atomisation
Viscosity
Vaporization
Distillate cuts
Ignition
C/H Ratio
Combustion
Distillate cuts Density Metals Conradson Carbon
11
Simple droplet combustion model

EMISSIONS OF PARTICLES
SOOT
0.02 m
FUEL DROPLET
CENOSPHERE
1 to 100 m
UNBURNT PARTICLES FLAME FRONT LIGHT GASEOUS FRACTIONS SOLID ACCUMULATION
12
CENOSPHERES
13
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
SOOT
(Soot number from 0 to 9 Bacharach) GAS PHASE COMBUSTION Catalyst M 2 H2O H2 + 2 OH*
OH* increases the rate of oxidation of soot precursors
UNBURNT PARTICLES (mg/Nm3)

HETEROGENEOUS COMBUSTION (CENOSPHERES) Catalyst M Cenospheres + H 2 Ov CO + H2
14
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS
STORAGE STABILITY AND COMPATIBILITY
UNBURNT PARTICLES
15
STORAGE
PROBLEMS
ASPHALTENES PRECIPITATION CLOGGING OF FILTERS AND PIPES SATURATION OF SEPARATORS CLOGGING OF INJECTION SYSTEM
ORIGIN
ASPHALTENES PRECIPITATION BLEND OF NON-COMPATIBLE FUELS STORAGE TEMPERATURE
SOLUTION
ELF ACS 82
16
ELF ACS 82
Preventive action Curative action
Fuel without additive
Fuel with ACS 82
17
ELF ACS 82
DOSING RATE
1 LITRE FOR 2000 TO 5000 LITRES OF FUEL.
IMPROVES HEAVY FUEL OIL STABILITY PREVENTS ASPHALTENE PRECIPITATION AVOIDS COMPATIBILITY PROBLEMS NON TOXIC PRODUCT NON TOXIC COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
18
UNBURNT PARTICLES
PROBLEM
EMISSIONS OF UNBURNT PARTICLES HEATING SURFACES FOULING FREQUENT BOILER CLEANING COST OF EMISSION LIMITATIONS
ORIGIN
NEED OF COMBUSTION IMPROVER VERY LOW METAL CONTENT
SOLUTION
ELF AC 13 S 19
EFFICIENCY OF ELF AC 13 S
Unburnt HC mg/th 400 300 200 B 100 1 2 0 10 20 % Excess of air 20 A FUEL C 1 : + ELF AC 13 S (1/3000 l) 2 : + ELF AC 13 S (1/2000 l)
ELF AC 13 S
DOSING RATE:
1 LITRE FOR 2000 TO 4000 LITRES OF FUEL.
REDUCES EMISSIONS OF UNBURNT PARTICLES

MORE THAN 50 %
ALLOWS TO REDUCE EXCESS OF AIR. REDUCES FOULING ACHIEVES A MORE STABLE COMBUSTION YIELD. REDUCES DEPOSITS ON HEAT TRANSFERS. NON TOXIC PRODUCT NON TOXIC COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
21
Pennar
PENNAR ELF ACS 82
Pennar Elf ACS 82 is a stability and compatibility improvement additive for fuel oils. It is a blend of totally organic copolymers dissolved in organic solvent. The chemical structure of this ashless additive resembles that of resins in oil. ACS 82 acts as peptising agent between asphaltene molecules thereby preventing their flocculation.
The additive performs the following functions : a) Prevents asphaltene precipitation b) Disperses sludge into oil c) Separates water d) Prevents corrosion induced by water (due to C) e) Rejects inorganic impurities to the bottom
Pennar
PENNAR ELF ACS 82

Efficacy of the additive can be tested (preliminary) in lab before using it on large scale. Sludge dispersion can be tested by mixing sludge, additive & oil and maintaining it at tank temp. for certain hours. The sludge quantity in additive dosed mixture as compared to undosed mixture can be observed in the bottom of beakers for comparision.
Similarly water separation can be tested by keeping dosed and undosed mixtures in different separating funnels. bottom. Separated water collects at the
Different dosages of additive, duration of action and temperature conditions will be tried to arrive at desired end results.
Pennar
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF PENNAR ELF ACS 82

The chemical structure of additive ACS 82 is similar to that of resins in furnace oils. When it is added to furnace oil, the additive molecules establish polar bonds between asphaltene molecules and keep them apart (stereo effect). This avoids flocculation. If already asphaltenes are flocculated, they will be deflocculated since the bond between additive asphaltenes is stronger than that among asphaltene molecules. The deflocculated asphaltenes will be dispersed in oil. Water separation from the sludge is effected by tensloactive effect of the additive. It decreases the surface tension between water and oil. The inorganic particles in sludge are dispersed in oil by the additive molecules through polar bonds (filmogene effect)
Physical and chemical properties ELF ACS 82

Pennar
- APPEARANCE * physical state: [S] * colour: - ODOUR : [I] - SPECIFIC TEMPERATURES OF CHANGE OF PHYSICAL STATE: [I] - DISTILLATION CHARACTERISTICS: [A] - Flash point: [I] - SELF IGNITION TEMPERATURE: [A] : Liquid : Brown - Red : Aromatic solvent : Pour point: < - 12C
: Initial boiling point > 155C : > 62C : > 450C
- VAPOUR PRESSURE: [A] - VAPOUR DENSITY: [A] - DENSITY: [I] - SOLUBILITY : [I] * in water: [I] * in organic solvents: [A] - VISCOSITY : [I]
: < 10 hPa at 40C : > 1 (air = 1) : 905-925kg/m3 at 15C
: insoluble : Soluble in most organic solvents : < 10cSt at 20C
CASE STUDIES ELF ACS 82

Pennar
POWER CO. The company uses Low Sulfur Waxy Residue as fuel. Gradually over a course of time, sludge in the form of solid lumps will be settled at the bottom. Practice was is to clean the tank for next fuel filling, by taking out this sludge manually and not utilizing it for burning. The project was taken up by Pennar Chemicals Ltd., to disperse sludge into oil. A series of axperiments were conducted in PCL lab to arrive at economical dosage of additive and sludge. Same experiment was repeated in Tata Electric lab. To the main storage tank, having 100 KL of sludge, 900 KL of fresh LSWR was added with appropriate dosage of additive (in this case 100 ppm). Tank was put under circulation for thorough mixing. At the end of 5 days, water drain pipe was opened and 4.5 KL water got discharged. 60% of the sludge had got dispersed into the oil and could be comfortably fired in the boiler. The balance sludge had become soft and smooth. Since it contained mostly silica, it was not advisable to use it any further. Even the disposal of this balance sludge was an easy task.
Pennar
CASE STUDIES ELF ACS 82

THERMAL POWER STATION
This Power Station had long accumulated sludge in their FO tank. But they had no spare tank where the treated oil and sludge could be transferred. FO from this main tank has to be directly sent to the boiler. Here a simple lab trial was done which revealed the additive dosage to be 200 ppm for good sludge dispersion. But the sludge needs to be dispersed gradually or
else the heavy molecules may enter the oil line and block the oil filter in the initial stages affecting oil firing. Hence 50 ppm dosage was added to the oil tank
containing FO and sludge. After 2 days another 50 ppm of Elf ACS 82 was added. After a week another 100 ppm dosage was added. It was observed that even from the bottom most part of the tank, smooth oil delivery could be taken without any problems to oil flow.
SLUDGE REDUCTION & WATER SEPARATION IN DG NO.7 AT A STEEL UNIT

Pennar
Pre-Additive Data : (from 25/03/04 to 01/04/04)

Initial level of sludge on 25/03/04 Dip level of Sludge+Water on 01/04/04 Level after water draining Last level after total sludge drain-out Therefore, level of Water drained out in mm : 44 mm : 130 mm : 75 mm : 25 mm = (130-75) = 55
Level of Sludge formed during this period in mm = (75-44) = 31
Dimension of Sludge Tank : Length = 8770 mm Breadth = 2260 mm
Volume of Sludge formed during this period
= (8770x2260x31) = 614 Ltrs (appx.)
Volume of water drained out = (8770x2260x55) FO Consumption in DG No.7 during this period
= 1090 Ltrs(appx.) = 214530 Ltrs
Hence % Sludge generated
= (614/214530)
x 100 = 0.286%
% Water removed
= (1090/214530) x 100 = 0.51%
Pennar
Post-Additive Data : ( from 02/04/04 to 08/04/04) STEEL UNIT

Dip level of Sludge + Water on 09/04/04 Level after water draining Last level after total sludge drain-out : 107 mm : : 30 mm 25 mm
level of Water drained out in mm = (107-30) = 77 Level of Sludge formed during this period in mm = (30-25*) = 05
* Last level after total sludge drain-out on 01/04/04. The volume of Sludge formed = (8770x2260x05) (8770x2260x77) = 99 Ltrs (appx.) = 1526 Ltrs (appx.) = 201370 Ltrs = 0.049% = 0.76 %
The volume of water drained out =
FO Consumption in DG No. 7 during this period Hence % Sludge generated = (99/201370) x 100 % Water removed = (1526/201370)x 100 By the addition of ELF ACS 82
% Reduction in Sludge quantity observed = ((0.286-0.049)/0.286) x 100 = 82.9% % Improvement in emulsified water removal = ((0.76-0.51)/0.51x100
= 49%
Pennar
STEEL UNIT - Improvement in Sludge & Water treatment
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Sludge % in FO
Sludge % in FO
Pre-Additive Post-Additive
Water removal in %
Water removal in % 0.51 0.76
Pre-Additive Post-Additive
0.286 0.049
Pennar
Pennar ELF ACS 82 Dosing Details Polyester Unit

CURATIVE DOSING: As part of curative dosing programme 200 ppm of Pennar ELF ACS 82 was added for the existing fuel (LDO) quantity. However, instead of adding entire 200 ppm, gradual dosing of the additive was done. Its purpose was to ensure that big size asphaltenes from the tank bottom dont choke the line and filters due to powerful surfactant action of the additive.
DOSING NO.
DATE
TIME
VOL. OF LDO IN STORAGE TANK (KL) 148 KL 198 KL 203 KL 160 KL
PENNAR ELF ACS 82 ADDED @ 50 ppm IN STORAGE TANK 7.5 Lts. 10 Lts. 10 Lts. 8.0 Lts.
I II III IV
03/12/99 06/12/99 13/12/99 20/12/99
11:20 A.M 12:00 A.M 12:00 A.M 12:30 P.M
PREVENTIVE DOSING: As part of preventive dosing, 100 ppm of Pennar ELF ACS 82 was added in every incoming tanker supply.
CASE STUDY POLYESTER UNIT - p 1

Pennar
Effect of Pennar ELF ACS 82 on centrifuge sludge
DATE
3 / 12 / 1999 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
DAY NO.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
SLUDGE ELF ACS 82 QUANTITY IN DOSAGE KG.

50 PPM 50 PPM 5.2 5.1 4.7 4.9 4.6 4.5 4 3.7 3 3.3 3 1 .8 .8 .7 .65
CASE STUDY POLYESTER UNIT p 2

Pennar
DATE
21/12/1999 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1/1/2000 2 3 4 5 6
DAY NO.
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

50 PPM 50 PPM .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .15 .15 .15 .15 .15 .15

Pennar
DATE
1/7/2000 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
DAY NO.
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

1 2 1.5 2.3 2.2 2.5 2.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1 1
Pennar
Normally, in residual fuels like FO / LDO, the asphaltenes content varies from batch to batch and it is advisable to control the dosage of the additive based on the centrifuge sludge operation.
In case the asphaltene level is high, a slightly higher dosage of the additive can be used to control the sludge operation within the desired level. Further, by controlled
bunkering, sludge accumulation can be minimized and the amount of additive required can be optimized for. This
means that trucks are received regularly and bunching up of 4-5 trucks a day is avoided.
ROLE OF ADDITIVES IN HEAVY FUEL PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT

T. RANGA PRASAD Executive Vice President Pennar Chemicals Limited-Hyderabad
Background
The presentation covers only a few selected fuel additives, which play an important role in industries consuming liquid petroleum energy. There are many additives being widely used in the oil industries. The Oil Industry world over has been passing through a series of quality improvement measures and new standards of specifications are being introduced very often. Specs. for Petrol lays emphasis on Anti-knock index, RVP and Benzene content. Specs. for HSD brings out the importance of HFRR lubricity, Cetane Number and close Distillation range. Several of the performance related parameters and specifications standards can be achieved only with the use of fuel additives. If the same standards are sought to be achieved through refining, it will make the refining process highly complex and cost un-economical.
Need for Residual Fuel Additives:

In FO firing, in spite of the best atomisation, the emission of some unburnt hydrocarbons, the formation of soot by vapour phase cracking and the formation and deposition of cenospheres (hard sticky carbonaceous material) due to liquid phase cracking are inevitable. To overcome the above problems in operation and get optimum results in the process of combustion, the addition of Chemical Catalyst has been found to be the most effective and superior solution.
1) ELF AC 13S COMBUSTION IMPROVER CATALYST:

PRODUCT DETAILS:
The product ELF AC 13S, is a combustion catalyst with a stable Organo-metallic complex as the active ingredient in an aromatic solvent. The product has been developed some years ago after through understanding of the chemistry of residual fuels and the combustion process by the two process and research giants ELF & IFP France. The product has been evaluated and certified by the National Analytical Laboratory (NAL) France, International Research Foundation for Flame Studies, Holland and by IFP. It has also been evaluated in a range of Industrial boilers.
BENEFITS:
The product catalyses the chemical reaction between water vapour and unburnt hydrocarbons as well as carbon soot formed in the combustion process. As a result of this the following benefits are achieved: a) Reduction in excess air for combustion b) A more complete combustion c) As a consequence, Higher Flame Temperature and more efficient radiant heat transfer. d) Reduction of deposit formation and NOx emissions. e) Reduction deposits on heat transfer surfaces and consequently more efficient heat transfer in the convection and radiation zones. f) Reduced emission of unburnt hydrocarbons and other solids by 50 60%. g) As a result of all the above factors, reduction in fuel consumption to the extent of 4 5%.
Dosage and Economics:

The heavy fuel oil available in India has higher density, viscosity as well as higher asphaltenes and metal contents. Considering these, the preferred dosage for optimum results is fixed at 500 ppm i.e. 1 litre per 2000 litres of fuel oil. The cost of additive treatment would be about 1.5% of FO cost at market price against which fuel saving of 5% can be achieved. In addition, there will be several intangible but very valuable benefits like cleaner heat transfer surface, reduced down time, lower maintenance cost, reduced pollution and higher capacity utilisation of boilers and furnaces.
2) AC S82 SLUDGE MODIFIER ADDITIVE FOR FURNACE OIL / LSHS / LDO

Heavy fuel oils are complex mixtures which can induce problem of instability,
compatibility and which can be contaminated with impurities such as water and mineral sediments (e.g. salt, sand, rust etc.)
Instability
Two kinds of instability have to be considered. a) Viscosity Increase: the viscosity of the fuel increases during storage and the fuel becomes too viscous with respect to its viscosity specification. b) Precipitation Instability: Where a good chemical continuity between the
different components does not exist (mainly fluxants and resins or resins and asphaltenes) there is the occurrence of flocculation of the asphaltenes, followed by their precipitation as Sludge.
Compatibility
Incompatibility problems can occur while mixing two residual fuels, even if they are perfectly stable in themselves. The stability of the resulting mixture is not always ensurable because of difference in the chemical nature of the components.
Inorganic Impurities
They are introduced into the fuel during its handling and its storage : sand particles from the air borne dust, water enering the storage tank from atmospheric humidity (during the filling operation) and the resultant rust particles from the insides of the storage tank.
As a result, the sludge, usually present at the bottom of the storage tanks, is a complex mixture of asphaltenes, water and inorganic sediments. AC S82 is a blend of different dispersant molecules which acts on the fuel oil at different stages. Since its chemical structure is close to resins, it prevents the increase in viscosity of the fuel, during storage and so avoids the flocculation of asphaltenes, by creating weak polar bonds with asphaltenes. Besides, because of the presence of long fatty chain of molecules, flocculation of asphaltenes is avoided (sterio effect). If the asphaltenes have already flocculated, since the polar bond between additive and asphaltenes is stronger than the polar bond between asphaltenes themselves, they destroy slowly the agglomerates of asphaltenes (curative effect), resulting in dispersion of the sludge. Additionally AC S82, by effecting decrease of the surface tension between water and oil (tensio active effect) and because of creation of bonds with inorganic particles (filmogene effect) leads to sludge removal. These organic materials are not dissolved into the fuel by the additive but dispersed.
CONCLUSION
From the context of Energy Management one can observe that there are a number of Additives manufactured by all the leading Petroleum MNCs in the World to suit various applications. The applications range from Fuel savings to corrosion prevention to pollution control. The results are easily realisable and the investment costs are basically revenue in nature. The pay back period is always very attractive. Since BIS standards are not existant in this field, the User Industry has to carefully evaluate the credentials of the additive suppliers and choose the right type of additive to get the best results.
Honeywell
Burner Management Solutions for Industrial Markets

Safeguarding Profitability
SAFETY MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS
This photographer captured a before and after photograph of the initial blast at Kansas City Power & Light Co.
Industrial Burner Management Solutions
Page 2
Safety Management Solutions
Law Suit: Example of System causing accident accident

Power Plant Equipment Control System Maker Ordered to Pay $97 Million in Power Plant Explosion
ST. LOUIS--In a lawsuit arising from an explosion that destroyed an electric power plant near Kansas City in 1999, the Kansas City Power & Light Co. won a $97. 6 million verdict March 5 against a company that provided computer controls for the plant's safety system (Kansas City Power & Light v. Bibb & Associates Inc., Mo. Cir. Ct., No. 01-CV-207987, verdict 3/05/04). KCP&L charged that the control system provided by the defendant, Allen-Bradley Co., a division of Rockwell International Corp., allowed a release of gas into a boiler at the company's Hawthorn Generating Station during a shutdown of the boiler, and failed to prevent the gas from igniting. As a result, the boiler exploded and was destroyed along with other KCP&L property. The company's total losses from the explosion were around $600 million, including property damage, costs of replacement power and lost profits, the company claimed. KCP&L brought claims of strict liability and negligence against Allen-Bradley over the design of the control system and the contents of trouble-shooting guides and training provided by Allen-Bradley to KCP&L and its workers. The jury assessed damages at $452 million, allocating 70 percent of fault to KCP&L and 30 percent to Allen Bradley.

Page 3
Agenda
Overview of International Function Safety Standard
IEC61508
International Approvals - TUV BMS specific standards-NFPA 85 and NFPA 86 BMS Benefits with Safety Systems BMS application Emerging trends - Integrated Systems SMS Consultancy- TUV_FS Certification Program

Page 4
Application of SIS for Industrial Solutions

Power Generation
Burner Management Systems (BMS) Boiler/Furnace Interlocks (ESD)
Refining , Oil&Gas
(recovery) Boilers, Heaters, BMS Calciners, Incinerators
Pulp and Paper

Power boilers Recovery boilers
Metals, Minerals & Mining

(recovery) Boilers, Heaters, BMS Calciners, Incinerators
Page 5
BMS Important Standards
ANSI/ISA S84.01; Application of IEC61508 (and IEC 61511);
safety instrumented systems for the process industries, 1996 Functional safety - safety related systems systems hazard code furnaces
NFPA 85; Boiler and combustion NFPA 86; Standard for ovens and

Page 6
IEC 61508 Functional safety of electrical/electronic/ programmable electronic safety-related systems

Page 7
Participating countries in IEC 61508 development

Australia Austria Finland France Germany Italy Japan Norway + 9 other countries reviewing and voting Sweden The Netherlands United Kingdom United States of America

Page 8
Primary Cause of Control System Failures
Specification 44,1 %
Changes after Commissioning 20.6 % Design & Implementation 14.7 % Installation &
Operation & Maintenance 14,7 %
Commissioning 5,9 %
Note: based on 34 investigated incidents in the UK : Out of Control, HSE

Page 9
IEC 61508 - A safety umbrella for the world

Design & implementation Installation & commissioning failures failures Specification Operation & maintenance failures failures Random failures Modification failures
IEC 61508

Page 10
Generic and application sector standards

Machinery sector Medical sector
IEC 62061
IEC 61508
IEC 61511
IEC 61513
Nuclear sector
Process sector
Page 11
. . . . . . sector
Strategy to achieve functional safety of SR systems

Safety life cycle Safety life cycle
Competence Of persons
Failure Causes
Specification
+
Safety management
Design & implementation Installation & commissioning Operation & maintenance Changes after commissioning
+
Technical requirements

Page 12
IEC 61508 - Key Item 1: risk reduction

Residual Residual risk risk Acceptable risk Acceptable risk EUC risk EUC risk
Necessary risk reduction Actual risk reduction

Partial risk covered by other technology safety-related systems Partial risk covered by E/E/PE safety-related systems Partial risk covered by external risk reduction facilities
Increasing risk
Risk reduction achieved by all safety-related systems and external risk reduction facilities

Page 13
Definition of a Safety Instrumented Function
Temperature transmitter Temperature transmitter
SAFETY INSTRUMENTED FUNCTION

Solenoid Shut-off valve
Level switch
Logic Solver
(PLC)
Pump
Flow transmitter
Solenoid
Globe valve
Safety Instrumented System

Page 14
IEC 61508 - Key Item 2: Safety Integrity Levels

Target failure measures for a safety function, allocated to an E/E/PE safety-related system
TABLE 2: SAFETY INTEGRITY LEVELS: TARGET FAILURE MEASURES SAFETY Low demand mode High demand or INTEGRITY of operation continuous mode LEVEL (Average probability of operation of failure to perform (Probability of a (SIL) its design function on dangerous failure per demand) hour)
4 3 2 1
10-5 to < 10-4 10-4 to < 10-3 10-3 to < 10-2 10-2 to < 10-1 10-9 to < 10-8 10-8 to < 10-7 10-7 to < 10-6 10-6 to < 10-5

Page 15
IEC 61508 : Safety Lifecycles

Overall Safety
Lifecycle
1 2 3 4 5 Concept Overall scope definition Hazard and risk analysis Overall safety requirements Safety requirements allocation
Overall planning Overall operation & 6 maintenanc e planning Overall
7 validation
planning
Overall installation and commissioning planning
Safety related systems: E/E/PES Realization (see E/E/PES safety lifecycle) Overall Installation and commissioning Overall safety validation Overall operation and maintenance and repair Decommissioning or disposal
10
Safety related systems: other technologies Realization
11
External risk reduction facilities Realization
12 13 14 16
Back to appropriate overall safety life cycle phase
15
Overall modification and retrofit

Page 16
Phases 1 - 5: Specify Requirements

1
Concept
SPECIFY:
2
Overall Scope Definition
Hazard and Risk Analysis
Overall Safety Requirements
Process Hazards Safety-related functions Safety Integrity Levels

REQUIRED
Allocation to systems
5
Allocation of Safety requirements to designated safety related systems

Page 17
Phases 6 - 12: Implement System

Hardware Software Plan Validation, Operation
Overall Planning Overall Operation & Maintenance Planning Overall Validation Planning Overall Installation & Commissioning Planning 9 Safety related systems E/E/PES Realization (see E/E/PES Safety Lifecycle)
IMPLEMENT
& Maintenance Install Commission
12
Overall Installation

Page 18
Phases 13 - 15: Operate System
OPERATE
Validate Safety
13
Overall Safety Validation Overall Operation and Maintenance
Functions Operate Maintain Modify Decommission to the appropriate Back

Overall Safety Lifecycle phase Overall Modification and Retrofit
14
15
16
Decommissioning

Page 19
Competence of persons
Competence of persons for all persons involved, including
management:
appropriate training technical knowledge experience qualifications relevant to the specific duties
Competence factors to be addressed:

engineering appropriate to the application area safety engineering appropriate to the technology (e.g. software engineering) knowledge of legal and safety regulatory framework the consequences in the event of failure of the safety related system the safety integrity levels of the safety related system the novelty of the design, design procedures or application previous experiences to the duties and technologies applied relevance of the qualifications to specific duties to be performed

Page 20
IEC 61508 Compliance
Compliance of E/E/PES subsystems (and certified by a

third-party organization such as TV) makes plant and system design much easier and cheaper.
Third-party certificates are no guarantee that the

products can only be used in a safe way!!! The restrictions are listed in the report to the certificate.

Page 21
TUV (Technische Uberwachungs Verein)

TUV is the global market leader for the certification of
programmable controllers (PLC) related to Safety & Safety related systems
It carries out all nationally & internationally standardized

safety tests Preferably beginning from design stage
Multiple TUV organization. Three are of International

prominence - TUV SUD (Munich) - TUV Rheinland (Cologne) - TUV NORD (Honnover)

Page 22

TUV Certification means -
Thorough analysis of product hardware and software with

regard to quality, reliability and functional safety.
The product hardware and software is consistent with known

functional safety standards (IEC61508)
The TUV report states the conditions and restriction identified

during the testing phase of certification

Page 23

Benefits of TUV-
TUV certification is de-facto standard in the Power Industries,

Oil& Gas industries.
The certification is based on mandatory & state of art

standards such as IEC,.DIN,VDE,UL,ISA.IEEE etc
TUV recertifies the systems based on standards upgrades &

revisions .So end user does not have to keep track of standards.
High level of confidence associated with TUV certification TUV certificate accepted globally. Piece of mind for end user

Page 24
TV-Report

lists all parts of the product which have been assessed list of all standards considered with a brief description describes how the tests have been executed RESULTS OF TESTS ARE STATED
The reports from TV-bodies state: GUIDELINES LIMITATIONS in use WARNINGS RESTRICTIONS

Page 25
BMS Standards and Solutions

What is NFPA 85?
NFPA 85 is a Boiler and Combustion system Hazards code that provides common and specific requirements for-Single burner boiler -Multiple burner boiler -Heat recovery Steam Generator etc
What is NFPA 86?

NFPA 86 is a standard for Ovens and Furnaces and applies to Class A and Class B ovens, dryers and furnaces

Page 26

Common Requirements between NFPA 85 and 86
-Both standards apply to burners, the only difference being the application
of burners -Logic system for BMS shall be designed specifically so that single failure in that system does not prevent an appropriate SAFE shutdown -BMS system shall generate system alarms to notify any internal faults to the operator -The logic must be protected against any un-authorized access and changes -Operator shall be provided with a manual switch for safe shutdown of burners

Page 27

NFPA 85 Specific Requirements to SIS:
Independence of the SIS system from other logic systems (Boiler,
HRSG). Data communication to other logic system is permitted NFPA 85: 1-9.3.2.3(a thru e) Master Fuel Trip (MFT) switch to be part of BMS for safe shutdown of burners on activation by operator NFPA 85: 1-9.3.2.2(2) Application design related
Backward sheet transfers to be minimal to avoid delays in scan time due to looping effect - NFPA 85:1.9.3.2.2(5) BMS safety functions to include purge interlocks & timings, mandatory safety shutdowns, trial timing for ignition and flame monitoring NFPA 85: 1.9.3.2.3(b)
Fuel Valves
Logic sequences or devices that cause a safety shutdown shall cause burner trip or Master fuel trip. - NFPA 85:1.9.3.2.4 It is not permitted to install any momentary contact or resetting device that can cause chattering between SIS and main/ignition fuel valves NFPA 85:1.9.3.2.5

Page 28

NFPA 86 Specific Requirements to SIS:
Before start-up, application to be verified by end user for

functional safety
NFPA 86: 5-3.1.1
Any changes to the SIS hardware or software to be documented

NFPA 86: 5.3.3.3/5.3.4.1
Combustion safety functions

Logic for combustion safety functions shall not interfere with other safety interlocks - NFPA 86:5-3.2
Safety Logic
Any other logic other than Safety logic needs to be separated from safety logic - NFPA 86:5-3.4.3

Page 29
BMS Benefits
Improved Profitability
Increased up-time due to the improved availability of the burner
management system,
Unreliable relay-based systems that tend to fail causing spurious trips of

the process are eliminated
Reduced maintenance costs inherent in self-checking and diagnostic

capabilities that are readily available to control systems, information systems and plant personnel
Improved Safety
Risk reduction for People, Plant, and Environment Personnel safety will be improved by not having to access the old relay
boxes which may be located in hazardous and high-temperature areas of the boiler.
Regulatory Compliance
Honeywell BMS Solutions comply with strict safety standards with TV
approval for: DIN and VDE for function safety, EN 54-2 fire detection standard, IEC 61508, ANSI/ISA-S84.01, NFPA 8502 First system approved for UL-1998 safety system, UL and CSA electrical Industrial Burner Management Solutions
Page 30
BMS Risk Management

SIS
Personnel Safety
Profit
Protection of Equipment
DCS
Environmental Safety Protection from Litigation

Page 31
Layers of Protection
COMMUNITY EMERGENCY REPSONSE PLANT EMERGENCY REPSONSE PHYSICAL PROTECTION (DIKES) PHYSICAL PROTECTION (RELIEF DEVICES) AUTOMATIC ACTION SIS OR ESD
CRITICAL ALARMS, OPERATOR SUPERVISION, AND MANUAL INTERVENTION BASIC CONTROLS, PROCESS ALARMS, AND OPERATOR SUPERVISION
PROCESS DESIGN
LAH 1

Page 32
BMS Regulatory Compliance
An Honeywell-based BMS Solution meets or exceeds the

following standards and regulations:
A relay-based or general-purpose PLC-based BMS system DOES NOT!!

Page 33
Effects of OSHA Ruling

S84.01 is a national consensus
standard
OSHA considers S84.01 to be

recognized and generally accepted good engineering practice for SIS.
Per 1910.119(f)(1)(iv) the employer is

required to develop and implement written operating procedures involving safety systems.
If an employer documents per

1910.119(d)(3)(I)(F) that it will comply with S84.01 for SIS and it meets all S84.01requirements, the employer will be considered in compliance with OSHA PSM requirements for SIS

Page 34
BMS Solutions Increase Profitability

Improved Uptime
Production efficiency improves as process
stay running to meet production demand, and
Capital Equipment remains efficient

through protective BMS systems
Cost of Spurious Trips
Honeywell SMS can significantly reduce

(several $M per year) the cost of operations through nuisance shutdown reduction.
Old, aging relay based safety systems

frequently case unwanted plant downtime
Operating Costs $
Reduction in Operations Costs
Maintenance costs are reduced by

replacing solid-state technology with extensive self-checking and diagnostic capabilities readily available to control systems, information systems, and plant personnel. Industrial Burner Management Solutions
Page 35
% of Boilers with FSC BMS Systems
Time
Application of Safety System in a Burner application

Honeywell SM
DCS Network
Third party devices
Ignition Ignition Transformer Transformer FTA and Marshalling Cabinets
Damper Damper Ignition Ignition Flame Flame
Igniter Igniter Ignition Flame Det Cooling Air Main Burner Main Flame Det
BTG Insert Panel (Option)
Main Flame
Damper Burner Front Panel (Option) Wind Box Purge Air


Page 36
Fuel
BMS Logic Design
Modular Logic Blocks Allow Fast and Easy
Customization Compartmentalization of logic and operator interface Multiple operator interfaces or filed switches Logic independent of number of interfaces or filed
switches
HrdWr HrdWr
Operator Com -SCAN Inputs Sheet

Com -GUS
Operator Outputs Sheet
Com -SCAN Com -GUS
HrdWr
Furnace Inputs
Logic Trip/Purge Sheets

Page 37
Furnace Outputs
HrdWr

Safety Builder engineering tool

Application Editor
IEC1131 compliant TV approved logic library Explorer-based FLD browser Drag-and-drop logic element programming Detailed Point properties Custom function Block programming

Page 38
Integrated Control and Safety Systems

FSC & Safety Manager PKS connects to the FTE network Delivers a TV approved SIL 3 redundant fault tolerant connection Control, Safety & Operations Safety Fail Safe
Controller Manager PKS
WAN
Distributed System Architecture
Fault Tolerant Ethernet

LAN
Experion Servers
ControlNet
C200 Controller PM I/O & Others
Integration Node
HART
4-20 ma Devices Investment Protection TDC2K TDC3K TPS FSC
Industrial Burner Management Solutions HART, DE, Others

Page 39
Foundation Fieldbus,
Experion PKS Integration
Control S/W Algorithms :: : : : : :
Uniform, integrated operator interface
Integrated Diagnostics
Establishes Unified Safety & Control Safety Platform

Page 40
Integrated Sequence-ofEvent (SOE) Reporting
The TV-Rheinland Functional Safety Program

The business field Automation, Software and Information
Technology (ASI), of TV Industrie Service GmbH, has developed an extended vocational training program together with national and international companies of the Functional Safety business.
The TV Functional Safety Program supports engineers

(and/or persons in the functional safety business) to deepen their knowledge and their experience in order to achieve a worldwide acknowledged know how and practical experience within the area of functional safety according to the IEC 61508 and IEC 61511 and further relevant international standards.

Page 41
TV Functional Safety Program

The TV Functional Safety Program offers Courses and Trainings of different Companies concerning various subjects of functional safety. The focus is mainly on the following subjects:
Safety Instrumented Systems System-Hardware/Software-Designer Safety of Machineries Basic training for sales and marketing etc.

Page 42
TV Qualifications
Two qualifications can be obtained:
TV Functional Safety Engineer TV Functional Safety Expert

Page 43
Requirements
Eligibility requirements The following requirements have to be met, to participate in a training/course of the TV Functional Safety Program: a minimum of 3 to 5 years experience in the field of functional safety. University degree, or Equivalent engineer level responsibilities status certified by employer Validity of certificate The certificate is valid for 5 years. To prolong a certificate a written proof is necessary, either in form of a short exam covering updates in standards and best practices in functional safety or a recent written case study.

Page 44
Your partner for BMS Solutions

Let Honeywell help you improve plant up-time, reduce safety system maintenance costs, ensure regulatory compliance, and reduce acceptable risk to plant and personnel for your BMS applications over existing relay or general purpose PLC based BMS systems. Honeywell offers a complete solution approach to BMS
applications:
Consulting and Engineering Services performed by

Experienced Professionals
State-of-the-Art Software and Hardware technologies, and Documentation and validation
Throughout the Life-cycle of your Plant

Page 45
Question & Answers
Points to note
SIS for BMS application (SIL/AK Class
levels)
Restrictions in TUV report, Safety manual

Failsafe & Line Monitoring Signals On Line modification Addition of Modules, I/O chassis
Proven in use Compliance to BMS specific StandardsNFPA 85&86
Integrated BMS system TUV website http://www.tuv-fs.com/plclist.htm List of approved system, report for
vendors..etc
Page 46
WELCOMES
ALL THE DELEGATES FOR PRESENTATION ON
NOx, CO, SOx And OTHER EMISSIONS

TECHNICAL MEET ON Eclipse Combustion bv 1 COMBUSITON TECHNOLOGY
Pollutants and Emissions affect everyday life, health, Enviornment, animals, plants & will affect future generations Pollution around Tajmahal Pollution in Chembur, Ankaleshwar, Kurkumbh Is it SCIENCE ART POLITICS ECONOMICS
Eclipse Combustion bv 2
NOx & Other Emissions NOx & Other Emissions

Theory of Combustion NOx Formation CO Formation Emission Control Emission Norms & Measurements Eclipse Low Emission Products
Eclipse Combustion bv
Theory of Combustion
What is Combustion? What is Combustion?

A rapid chemical reaction or oxidation of a fuel resulting in the production of combustion products, heat, and usually, visible flame.
Three Basic Ingredients Three Basic Ingredients

Fuel (C, H) Oxygen (Air = 21% O2) Ignition (spark = temperature)
Three Basic Conditions Three Basic Conditions

Mixing the air with fuel Raising the temperature of the mixture Allowing room for the reaction
Various Combustion Conditions Various Combustion Conditions

Perfect combustion (stoichiometric) Excess air (lean mixture - oxidizing atmosphere) Excess gas (rich mixture - reducing atmosphere)
Perfect Combustion Perfect Combustion

With air and fuel at proper proportions, perfect combustion is achieved.
CH4 + 2O2 + ignition CO2 + 2H2O + heat
Excess Air Excess Air

A Lean Reaction/Oxidizing Flame
CH4 + 3O2 + ignition CO2 + 2H2O + O2 + heat
results in a shorter and clearer flame with a reduction in flame temperature and heat output.
10
Excess Fuel Excess Fuel

A Rich Reaction/Reducing Flame 2C + O2 + ignition 2CO + heat
results in longer flames which may be smoky in appearance. This is also known as incomplete combustion.
11
Criteria Pollutants // Criteria Pollutants Emissions Emissions

Nitrogen Compounds NOx Nitrogen Compounds NOx Sulphur Compounds SOx Sulphur Compounds SOx Ozone Ozone Carbon Monoxide CO Carbon Monoxide CO Particulates PM & PM10 Particulates PM & PM10 Lead Lead Volatile Organic Compounds Volatile Organic Compounds
EMISSION EMISSION CONSIDERATIONS CONSIDERATIONS

Nox is harmful to humans, known to initiate reaction in production of ozone ( photo chemical smog ), acid rain, damage fabric, cause rubber crack, reduce visibility, damage buildings, harm forest / lakes, cause health issue SOx reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid mist, fog, acid rain & snow, very corrosive CO contributes to ozone formation, readily absorbed in body & impairs oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin affecting heart, brain Particulate Matter PM & PM 10 are nitrates,sulfates,chlorides,fluorides,carbons,silicates, oxides are corrosive, toxic to animals, humans, cough, irritation, broncoytis Ozone is a highly reactive form of oxygen formed by reaction of VOCs with NOx in sunlight; leads to smog, irritation in eyes, nose, throat, lungs and damages crops. Harmful at ground but good in stratosphere to block UV Lead is poison leads to fatigue, headache,digestive upset, central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract aching muscles problems
13
Emissions Emissions
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO+NO2=NOx) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Unburned Hydro-carbons (CxHy) Aldehydes Formaldehyde (HCHO) Formic acid (HCOOH)
14
NOx Formation
N2
NOx Formation
CO2 Heat H2O
Combustion Air
O2
CH4 Natural Gas
N2
8N2 + 2O2 + CH4

8N2 + CO2 + 2H2O

16
N2
How NOx is Formed How NOx is Formed

NO NO NO NO2 NO NO NO2 NO NO
CO2 Heat H2O
Combustion Air
O2
CH4 Natural Gas

Thermal NOx: Prompt NOx: Fuel NOx O + N2 = NO + N CH + N2 = HCN + N Reaction of fuel nitrogen with O2 in air
17
N2
NOx Formation
NO NO NO NO2
CO2 Heat
Combustion Air
NO NO NO2 NO NO
H2O N2
O2
CH4 Natural Gas

Thermal NOx: Prompt NOx: Fuel NOx
O + N2 = NO + N CH + N2 = HCN + N
18
Nox Emisions Nox Emisions

Prompt Nox formed in early low temprature stages of combustion by reaction between N2 & O2 in air and hydrocarbons in fuel small part in total Nox Thermal Nox Combination of nitrogen and oxygen in air at high tempratures makes up majoruty of Nox Fuel Nox formed by reaction of nitrogen in the fuel and oxygen in the air about 50% of total Nox About 95% Nox is produced during combustion About 80% NOx is present in the atmosphere is from combustion Primary sources are automobiles, jet engines, power plants
standard nozzle mixing burner standard nozzle mixing burner

High NOx
Temperature C (F) 1400 (2600)
NOx Formation NOx Formation
A
B
20
NOx vs. Temperature NOx vs. Temperature

Hi
NOx Prompt NOx Lo Hot

Cold Flame Temperature (Flame Heat Flux)

21
NOX vs Air/Fuel Ratio NOX vs Air/Fuel Ratio

120 100 90
NO x
Rich Lean
5 0
0 15% 20-25% 40%
Air/Fuel Ratio
22
NOx Prevention Techniques NOx Prevention Techniques

Lower flame temperature Shorten residence time Eliminate nitrogen Eliminate oxygen
23
Premix & High Excess Air Premix & High Excess Air
Standard Nozzle Temperature C (F) Premix Nozzle With 50% Excess Air
1400 (2600) 1000 (1800)
A
B
24
CO Formation
What causes CO formation? What causes CO formation?

Too lean gas/air mixture in combination with poor mixing Flame quenching by process air or burner construction Flame is cooled by burner / system materials XS-gas combustion (reducing)
26
Carbon Monoxide Formation Carbon Monoxide Formation

CO is formed if flame temperature <750C CO is formed if, enough oxygen is not present to complete combustion
27
Carbon Monoxide Formation -Prevention Techniques

Flame quenching Air / Gas mixing
(3 Ts) - Time (increase) - Temperature > 800 C (>1500 F) - Turbulence (increase)
28
N2
CO Formation
CO2
Combustion Air H2O O2 CH4 Natural Gas 8N2 + CO2 + 2H2O N2
Heat
8N2 + 2O2 + CH4

29
N2
CO Formation
CO CO2
Combustion Air CO O2 CH4 Natural Gas 2CH4 + 3O2

Heat H2O N2
2 CO + 4 H2O
30
CO formation CO formation
Burne r Ra dia nt Conve ctive
CO forms between the radiant and convective sections of the flame via quenching.
CO Formation CO Formation
AIR QUENCHED AREA
ALDEHYDES, ACIDS & CARBON MONOXIDE
AIR
QUENCHED AREA
32
Time & Temperature Window Time & Temperature Window

for Simultaneous CO & NOx Control for Simultaneous CO & NOx Control
100 80
se c
4 NOx (Logarithmic Scale)
CO (Normalized Scale)
60 40 20 0 600
x, 1
NO
x, 0
Se c.
.1 S e c.
NO
NO x,
0.0 1
CO
c. Se 01 , 0.
CO,
0.1
c. Se
1 1800
33
1000
1300
Temperature, C
Effect Of Excess Air On Emissions

(Typical Nozzle Mix Burner Firing Natural Gas)
70
NOx [ppm @ 3% O2) NOx (ppm @ 3% O2]
1400
CO [ppm @ 3% O2) CO (ppm @ 3% O2]
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Excess Air (%) Excess Air[%] NOx CO
1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 100 110
Burner adjustment typically has a small effect on NOx and large effect on CO.
EMISSION CONTROL
Emision Control Emision Control

NOx ---- Flame Geometry, temperature, nitrogen in fuel, heat release, excess air, comb air temp, Flue gas
recirculation SOx ---- Low sulfur fuels, desulfurizing, flue gas desulfurization CO ---- Poor burner or firing conditions, air to fuel ratio Particulate Matter ---- Electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers Ozone ---- Poor maintenance of furnace, boilers, avoid VOCs Lead ---- Use Lead free fuels
Pollutant Emissions from Fuel Gas Combustion

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
NOx = NO & NO2 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Other pollutant emissions

SOx - PM 10 (< 10 microns) - Hydrocarbons
Process Effects Upon Emissions Process Effects Upon Emissions

Direct Air heating Systems
Furnaces & ovens Indirect Fired Heaters
38
Wall
Burner Radiant
CO forms where the CO forms where the flame envelope flame envelope (>750C) comes into (>750C) comes into contact with a surface contact with a surface (<750C) and the flame (<750C) and the flame is quenched is quenched
39
Process Air Stream
Burner
CO forms where cool gases quench the flame.
Chamber conditions affect CO more than NOx.

External Flue Gas Recirculation

(FGR)
Reduce NOx by lowering flame temp Reduce O2 in combustion air About 20% FGR is practical FGR is more effective if flue gases are cooled Typical NOx reduction is 30-60%
41
Internal Flue Gas Recirculation

Swirl Vortex Generator
Eclipse Winnox
40 60% excess air Nozzle mixing Fast mixing
42
Flue Gas Recirculation

(NOx reduction vs. percentage FGR)
120
NOx ratio (FGR/standard), -
100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 43
Flue Gas Recirculation, %
High Velocity = Improved Temperature Uniformity
Low NOx
Nozzle design Exhaust gas recirculation
500 ft/sec
EMISSION NORMS & MEASUREMENTS

Emission standards Emission standards

Local regulations Customer requirements Product requirements
47
American Example American Example

Congress established Environmental Protection agency National Ambient Air Quality Standards Clean Air Act Amendments Purpose to create awareness & follow state & local rules affected by weather, geography, demography New Source Performance Standards eg Boilers Air Toxin Regulations Best Available Control Technology State & Local regulations emision inventory, start up & operating permits Evolution of regulatory process as technology changes, cleaner sources are available, and weather in Kurkumbh affects crops in Baramati
Emission standards Emission standards

Standards in Germany TA-Luft for direct air heating systems: NOx: 80 ppm (100mg/m3) at 17% O2 CO: 104 (200 mg/m3) at 17% O2
49
How to check emission? How to check emission?

Emissions are stated in ppm (parts per million) or mg/m3. Because dilution of flue gases influences the measured emission concentration, emissions are corrected to a fixed O2 level
50
Correction of emission measurements Correction of emission measurements

Always measure emission and O2 in flue gases
( 20,95 - %O2 ref ) ppm(at %O2ref) = ( 20,95 - %O2 measured ) x ppm(measured)
51

Example: Burners on an oven: Measured: 80 ppm NOx, 5,5% O2 Regulations: 104 ppm NOx at 3% O2 - Is emission within this regulation? ( 20,95 - 3 ) ppm(at %O2ref) = ( 20,95 - 5,5 ) x 80 ppm
= 93 ppm at 3%

Example: Burners on a direct air heater: Measured: 50 ppm CO, 19,5% O2 Regulations: 80 ppm CO at 17% O2 - Is emission within this regulation? ( 20,95 - 17 ) ppm(at %O2ref) = ( 20,95 - 19,5 ) x 50 ppm
= 136 ppm at 3%
Expressing Emissions Expressing Emissions

ppmv = Parts Per Million by volume - dry sample is assumed Corrected to standard conditions - ppmv at X% O2 - mass / time ppmv (uncorrected concentration)
54
Expressing Emissions Expressing Emissions

North America ppmv at 3% O2 lbs / hour, Tons / year lbs / million BTU Standard conditions
= 68 F (20 C) & 1 atm (14.7 psi)

Europe and Asia ppmv at 3, 11, or 17 % O2 mg / Nm3 @ 17% O2 Normal conditions
= 0 C (32 F) & 1 atm (1.01 bar)

55
Correcting to x% O22 Correcting to x% O

ppmv, corrected to X% = ppmv, test x
(20.9 X%) (20.9 O2, test%)
Example: - Requirement is NOX less than 30 ppm at 3% O2. - Measured NOX = 18 ppm at 11.4% O2. - Is the requirement met? MS Excel conversion, CONVERT emissions.xls
ECLIPSE LOW EMISSION PRODUCTS

Eclipse Product for Low Emission (< 30 ppm NOx at 3% O )

2
Linnox (LX) Winnox (WX) Minnox Furnnox (FN) Vorto, Low Nox Thermjet Others by application
Premix & High Excess Air NOx Suppression in Air Heaters

Eclipse Linnox and Minnox
40 60% excess air T < 1500 C (2700 oF)
Premix creates uniform flame temperature Excess air lowers flame temperature
Staged Air Gas Burner

Secondary Air
Fuel Gas Primary Air
New Ecl ipse Fur nno x
60
Furnnox Furnnox
Split air flow
61
Furnnox
50% air
50% air, all gas
62
Furnnox Furnnox
-
Six burners installed at Carlton Forge production furnace Measured 23ppm at 2300F
63
Furnnox RL Furnnox RL
-Fabricated body required for insulated version -600C pre-heat -120C Surface temperature standard -Special option available for >60C surface temperature -5 sizes to be released up to 5mm Btu/hr
64
65
NOx v's Input
35 30
25
NOx @ 3% O2
20
15
10
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Input 1000Btu/hr
66
-Do
-Follow the recommended combustion circuit -Start with 50% gas 100% air -Always use above 750C
67
-Ambient Air Furnnox. - will be released Sept 2005 -Refractory Lined Furnnox
-to be released Nov 2005 -Refractory Lined Furnnox 60C surface temp. - will be a special order.
69
Do Not Obstruct the burner flow path Do not use gas rich Do not let customer manufacture the block
70
ThermJet Burner
ThermJet Burner
Best velocity burner in the world
72
ThermJet Burner
Unique patented nozzle design Highest velocity ( Medium velocity available) Highest turndown Direct Spark Ignition Multiple Fuel Capability High Excess Air Capability Gas rich firing Low NOx Three Firing Tube Options Integral Air & Gas Orifices Platform Design Fixed Air or Proportional Control Pre-heated air
73
Nozzle Design Nozzle Design
74
NOZZLE COMBUSTION ZONES
II
III
IV
NOZZLE Air Flow
NOZZLE,
Combustion Zones
Zone I. Premix zone
NOZZLE
Combustion Zones
Zone II. Base of nozzle
NOZZLE
Combustion Zones
Zone III. Center of Nozzle
NOZZLE
Combustion Zones
Zone IV, Front face of Nozzle and Firing Tube
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
Minimum Input (10:1 turndown)
Maximum Input
FIXED AIR CONTROL
FIXED AIR CONTROL
Minimum Input (50:1 turndown)
FIXED AIR CONTROL
10% Input
FIXED AIR CONTROL
50% Input
FIXED AIR CONTROL
Maximum Input
NOx Emissions
TJ0100 100 90 80 70
NOx ppm @ 3% O2
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100
200
300
400
500
600 Input KBtu/hr
700
800
900
1000
1100
30 ppm NOx at maximum capacity. ( natural gas)
Ignition
Direct spark ignition at any input Air must lead Do not flood with gas
Alloy Combustion Tube
Alloy Firing Tubes

TJ0100 450
400
Combustor Temperature F
350
300
250
200 100
200
300
400
500
600 Input KBtu/hr
700
800
900
1000
1100
Multi Fuel
Large gas port Air velocity provides mixing No gas impingement
Excess air
Flame retreats into the nozzle Stabilized in the pre-mix zone. 4000% excess air on low fire (180F flame temp)
Excess Gas
Stabilized by the multi zones. As low as Lambda 0.5 possible
ThermJet Burner
Three Combustor options Alloy tube 310 StSt 950C 1750F Refractory block 1550C 2800F SiC combustor 1370C 2500F
96
The ThermJet Range

14 Sizes TJ0015 to TJ2000
ThermJet Burner
Integral Air & Gas Orifices
98
ThermJet Burner Platform design

Rotate gas inlet Rotate Air Inlet NPT or BSP inlet blocks Easy access to spark and flame rod Remove nozzle from rear O ring seals (reusable)
MODEL NO. SERIAL NO. BTU/HR MAX. DATE INPUT KW

ECLIPSE COMBUSTION
ThermJet
17178
99
ThermJet Burner
Unique patented nozzle design Highest velocity Highest turndown Direct Spark Ignition at any input Alloy tube possible Multiple Fuel Capability High Excess Air High Excess Gas Low NOx Remove nozzle from rear Rotate gas inlet Rotate Air Inlet Easy access to spark and flame rod Integral air and gas orifice O Ring seals Alloy tube, SiC tube or refractory block. Preheated air
100
THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION DURING ECLIPSE PRESENTATION
101
Questions ? Questions ?
102
TECHNICAL MEET ON COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY (27th TO 28th June 06)
Case Study on Efficient Combustion of Cheaper & Waste Fuels

By : Mr. Anil Kewalramani
General Manager (Technology)
IPCL, Baroda
CONTENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Purchased Fuels & Energy Bill. Methodology of Burning of Cheaper & Waste Fuels. Burning of CBFS. Modifications Requirement. Annual Savings with Waste fuels and Fuel switch Burning of Waste fuels by blending. Burning of Fuel Oil with additive. Conclusion.
Purchased Fuels & Energy Bill

Fuel Oil forms a major part of the Purchased Energy of an industry. Rising international price of crude per barrel is line justification increasing the cost of the Purchased Fuels. It has become more Challenging to reduce the Purchased Energy Bill as reduced consumption of energy wont reduce the Energy Bill. Alternative is to go for : - Burning of Cheaper Fuel - Burning of various Waste Streams with low Sale value but has good Energy content. - Burning of Fuel Oil with additive.
Methodology of burning of Cheaper & Waste Fuel Streams

Detailed Analysis of Individual Alternative / Waste Stream Parameters to be analyzed are: - Gross Cal. Valve, Kcal/Kg - Density at 15 oC, kg/m3 - Viscosity, CS at 50 oC, 100 oC, 120 oC - Moisture , % wt, Sulphur, % wt - Pour Point, oC - Ash Content, % wt - Sediments, %wt - CCR (Conradson Carbon residue), % wt - Metals, PPM like Na, Fe, Ni, V, Cu - IBP, oC - Acidity, mgKOH/gm

Miscibility test based on the fuel composition between the main and waste stream. Test helps to know whether there is precipitation on mixing or solid deposition is there or not. For various proportions the above tests are done, like 5:1, 4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1 & reverse. Identification of limit of miscibility of fuels mixing ratios, based on the above results. Based on this decision to burn individual or by mixing to be taken.

Once the mixing ratio between fuels are decided. Then following few analysis done: o o o o Viscosity at 50 C, 80 C, 100 C & 120 C o Flash point, C IBP, oC CCR, % wt In Dual fuel fired burner minimum gas firing helps in improving combustion of waste fuels.
Burning of Carbon Black Feed Stock (CBFS)

CBFS is byproduct of Naphtha Cracker plant.
Typical Analysis of CBFS is: - Gross Calorific value, 9352 kcal/kg - Sulphur content, 0.05 wt% - Flash Point, 78 oC - Pour Point, -21 oC - Sediments, Nil % wt - CCR, 12.1 % wt
Higher CCR means not easier to burn. Coke formation tendency is there and due to which the Cal. Val. of the fuel is lower.

Combustion is also not good due to high CCR. Lower viscosity creates problem in wear and tear of screw pump gears. For such service best is centrifugal pump. Lubricity improvement additives available to overcome from such problem or to go for special gear pump with gears mounted outside the pump. Pump suction strainer of Fuel Oil pumping and heating unit gets choked with high CCR / high viscosity / high sediments. Contd

In our Aux. Boiler unit we have pump suction mesh size of 40 and with 30 on the discharge side. CBFS storage temp. decided keeping flash point in mind. Firing temp. at the Burner tip is decided keeping the viscosity in mind. It should be less than 10 cst. Similar exercise carried out for Slop oil containing mainly spent Naphtha and Mixed containing py. Gasoline oil from other sites of IPCL.
Contd

Changeover of Purchased fuel from LSHS to cheaper RIL, Jamnagar furnace Oil was done. Spent oil from LDPE plant was successfully burned by blending with CBFS.
Modifications Required for Burning of Waste Fuels & Fuel Switch

Changed fuel involved creation of infrastructure for storing of fuels for CBFS, Slop Oil and JN-FO and unloading station. Field change order (modification proposal) for change of piping connections, new pump installation etc. Installation of filters in the fuel unloading area based on the sediments content.
Annual Savings with Waste Fuels & Fuel Switch

a) b) c) Fuel switch from LSHS to FO from RIL, Jamnagar. Burning of CBFS substituting expensive LSHS. Burning of slop oil & mixed oil substituting expensive LSHS. Annual saving is Rs. 907 Lakhs in 2004-05 Annual saving is Rs. 1903 Lakhs in 2005-06
Burning of LDPE Spent Oil with CBFS

Sr. no. Test Spec. Fresh sample oil 29/09/2004 29/09/2004 11DA239 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Appearance Sp. gravity ASTM colour Acid no. mg KOH /gm Flash point Pour point Copper corrosion test Kin. viscosity @ 40 0C @ 100 0C Viscosity index Moisture content Calorific value Clear liquid 1.085-1.095 2 Max. 0.04 Max. 230 Min. - 3 Max 1b Passes 1.088 0.5 0.024 260 - 12 1a Dark yellow orange 1.087 3 0.71 225 - 15 1a 12DA239 Yellow colour 1.078 1.5 0.145 197 - 12 1a
9 10 11
260-320 42 min 200 min. 3000ppm -
265 45.6 230 2000 9914
257 43 225 6200 9919
287.7 41.6 200 2800 9982
Burning of LDPE Spent Oil with CBFS

Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Test Moisture % wt Free moisture Flash point,oC Kin. Viscosity @ 40 0C cst Kin. Viscosity @ 100 0C cst Compatibility with CBFS 5 % Calorific value Results 0.65 Nil 80 17.5 3.95 Miscible 10558
Burning Fuel Oil with Additive

Growing concern with Fuel Availability is increased asphaltenes, carbon residue & ash. Problems with such Fuels : Poor combustion Increased fouling Reduced steam generation Increased maintenance Global warming
Contd
Burning Fuel Oil with Additive

Requirement of fuel oil additive: Fully compatible in all blends of liquid fuels. Purely organic. If inorganic then metal content like Al, Si & Fe causes corrosion. Should have neutral pH. Easily blendable with Fuel Oil in various proportions. Act as dispersant to disperse the sludge of hydrocarbon agglomerates and not separate the heavies.
Advantages of Additives
Reduced surface tension of oil droplet results in improved atomization. Improved combustion excess air. Disposal of sludge. Reduced fuel consumption and hence energy bill. results in low
CONCLUSION
Reducing Pollution. Conserving Resources. Removing hassle of storage problems. Reducing of Energy Bill.

Technical Meeting on Combustion Technology

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TECHNICAL MEET ON COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY 27-28 JUNE 2006, BANGALORE

Improving Combustion Efficiency in Burners by Prof K Ramamurthi, IIT-Madras

Properties of Agro Residues

Properties of Gaseous Fuels

Water Vapour Water Vapour

Type of fuel and size of fuel particle govern speed combustion.

C on stitu en ts C arbo n H ydro gen O xygen N itro gen S ulphur H 2O ` A sh

% B y w eigh t 85.9 12 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.35 0.05

Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Amount of Air (contd.)

Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Amount of Air (contd.)

Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Amount of Air (contd.)

Calculation of theoretical CO2 content in flue gases

Theoritica l CO2 % by volume =

Moles of CO2 x 100 Total moles (dry )

7.16 = x 100 7.16 + 38.84 + 0.016

Calculation of constituents of flue gas with excess air

15.5 % Excess air = 1 x 100 10

1412.45 kg 1412.45 X 1.55

315.25 kg 108.00 kg 1 kg 178.68 kg 1087.58 + 598.17 1685.75 kg

Calculation of Theoretical CO2% in Dry Flue Gas By Volume

Theoritica l CO2 % by volume =

Theoretical O2% by volume

5.58 x100 x 100 = 7.5% 72.956

Air for combustion

Optimizing Excess Air and Combustion

Control of Air and Analysis of Flue Gas

Relation Between CO2 and Excess Air for Fuel Oil

250 200 150 100 50 0

Res idual Oxygen (%)

Figure 1.3: Relation between Residual Oxygen and Excess Air

Oxygen vs Excess air

Advantages of measuring O2 vs CO2

Oil Firing Burners

Spray at 10 psi pressure

Spray at 100-psi pressure

Spray at 300-psi pressure

Effects of Viscosity On Nozzle Performance

High viscosity spray

Natural gas combustion

Furnace volume for different fuels

IMPROVING COMBUSTION IN BURNERS

K. RAMAMURTHI MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MADRAS CHENNAI

IMPROVING COMBUSTION IN BURNERS

BURNS WITH SECONDARY AIR : CO + O2 = CO2

OXIDATION ZONE II OXIDATION ZONE I

PRIMARY AIR : LIMIT OR ELSE QUENCHED

LARGE COAL BURNER

RAMAGUNDAM 2600 MW NTPC

COMBUSTION PROCESS IN A HAND-FIRED GRATE

FIRE TUBE BOILER

Locomotive Boiler from D. A. Low

HEAT LOSSES PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT TRAPPED RADIATION WITHIN SPLINTERS

ENTRAPPED RADIATION CONTRIBUTES TO IGNITION AND MAINTAINING THE FLAME

Cast Iron Wood Stove

THE HINDU March 1, 2006

PHILLIPS DEVELOPS EFFICIENT STOVE A WOOD STOVE

REDUCES SMOKE AND TOXIC EMISSIONS

DOMESTIC GAS BURNER

VARIANT OF BUNSEN BURNER

SECONDARY AIR ENTRAINED ABOVE BURNER

FLAME ATTACHED TO RIM

SHAPE, DIAMETER OF JET

DIAMETER OF BURNER PORT