OnPopularMusic. ByT.W.Adorno WiththeassistanceofGeorgeSimpson. I.THEMUSICALMATERIAL. Thetwospheresofmusic. Popularmusic,whichproducesthestimuliwearehereinvestigating,isusuallycharacter ized by its difference from serious music.

This difference is generally taken for granted andislookeduponasadifferenceoflevelsconsideredsowelldefinedthatmostpeople regardthevalueswithinthemastotallyindependentofoneanother.Wedeemitneces sary,however,firstofalltotranslatethesesocalledlevelsintomorepreciseterms,mu sical as well as social, which not only delimit them unequivocally but throw light upon thewholesettingofthetwomusicalspheresaswell. Onepossiblemethodofachievingthisclarificationwouldbeanhistoricalanalysisofthe division as it occurred in music production and of the roots of the two main spheres. Since,however,thepresentstudyisconcernedwiththeactualfunctionofpopularmusic initspresentstatus,itismoreadvisabletofollowthelineofcharacterizationofthephe nomenon itself as it is given today than to trace it back to its origins. This is the more justifiedasthedivisionintothetwospheresofmusictookplaceinEuropelongbefore Americanpopularmusicarose.Americanmusicfromitsinceptionacceptedthedivision assomethingpregiven,andthereforethehistoricalbackgroundofthedivisionapplies toitonlyindirectly.Henceweseek,firstofall,aninsightintothefundamentalcharacter isticsofpopularmusicinthebroadestsense. A clear judgment concerning the relation of serious music to popular music can be ar rived at only by strict attention to the fundamental characteristic of popular music: standardization.1)

(page17)
1)

The basic importance of standardization has not altogether escaped the attention of

currentliteratureonpopularmusic."Thechiefdifferencebetweenapopularsonganda standard,orserious,songlikeMandalay,Sylvia,orTrees,isthatthemelodyandthelyric ofapopularnumberareconstructedwithinadefinitepatternorstructuralform,where asthepoem,orlyric,ofastandardnumberhasnostructuralconfinements,andthemu sicisfreetointerpret(hemeaningandfeelingofthewordswithoutfollowingsetpattern or form. Putting it another way, the popular song is 'custom built,' while the standard song allows the composer freer play of imagination and interpretation." (Abner Silver andRobertBruce,HowtoWriteandSellaSongHit,NewYork,1939,p.2.)Theauthor fail, however, to realize the externally superimposed, commercial character of those patternswhichaimsatcanalizedreactionsor,inthelanguageoftheregularannounce mentofoneparticularradioprogram,at"easylistening."They.confusethemechanical patternswithhighlyorganized,strictartforms:"Certainlytherearefewmorestringent verseformsinpoetrythanthesonnet,andyetthegreatestpoetsofalltimehavewoven undyingbeautywithinitssmallandlimitedframe.Acomposerhasjustasmuchoppor tunityforexhibitinghistalentandgeniusinpopularsongsasinmoreseriousmusic"(pp. 23).Thusthestandardpatternofpopularmusicappearstothemvirtuallyonthesame levelasthelawofafugue.Itisthiscontaminationwhichmakestheinsightintothebasic standardizationofpopularmusicsterile.ItoughttobeaddedthatwhatSilverandBruce calla"standardsong" isjustthe oppositeofwhatwemeanbya standardizedpopular song.

(page18) Thewholestructureofpopularmusicisstandardized,evenwheretheattemptismade tocircumventstandardization.Standardizationextendsfromthemostgeneralfeatures tothemostspecificones.Bestknownistherulethatthechorusconsistsofthirtytwo barsandthattherangeislimitedtooneoctaveandonenote.Thegeneraltypesofhits arealsostandardized:notonlythedancetypes,therigidityofwhosepatternisunder stood,butalsothe"characters"suchasmothersongs,homesongs,nonsenseor"novel ty"songs,pseudonurseryrhymes,lamentsforalostgirl.Mostimportantofall,thehar moniccornerstonesofeachhitthebeginningandtheendofeachpartmustbeat outthestandardscheme.Thisschemeemphasizesthemostprimitiveharmonicfactsno matter what has harmonically intervened. Complications have no consequences. This inexorabledeviceguaranteesthatregardlessofwhataberrationsoccur,thehitwilllead back to the same familiar experience, and nothing fundamentally novel will be intro duced. Thedetailsthemselvesarestandardizednolessthantheform,andawholeterminology existsforthemsuchasbreak,bluechords,dirtynotes.Theirstandardization,however,is somewhatdifferentfromthatoftheframework.Itisnotovertlikethelatterbuthidden behindaveneerofindividual"effects"whoseprescriptionsarehandledastheexperts' secret,howeveropenthissecretmaybetomusiciansgenerally.Thiscontrastingcharac terofthestandardizationofthewholeandpartprovidesarough,preliminarysettingfor theeffectuponthelistener. Theprimaryeffectofthisrelationbetweentheframeworkandthedetailisthatthelis tener becomes prone to evince stronger reactions to the part than to the whole. His graspofthewholedoesnotlieinthelivingexperienceofthisoneconcretepieceofmu sichehasfollowed.Thewholeispregivenandpreaccepted,evenbeforetheactualex perienceofthemusicstarts;therefore,itisnotlikelytoinfluence,toanygreatextent, thereactiontothedetails,

(page19) excepttogivethemvaryingdegreesofemphasis.Detailswhichoccupymusicallystrate gicpositionsintheframeworkthebeginningofthechorusoritsreentranceafterthe bridgehaveabetterchanceforrecognitionandfavorablereceptionthandetailsnot sosituated,forinstance,middlebarsofthebridge.Butthissituationalnexusneverinter feres with the scheme itself. To this limited situational extent the detail depends upon thewhole.Butnostressiseverplaceduponthewholeasamusicalevent,nordoesthe structureofthewholeeverdependuponthedetails. Seriousmusic,forcomparativepurposes,maybethuscharacterized: Every detail derives its musical sense from the concrete totality of the piece which, in turn,consistsoftheliferelationshipofthedetailsandneverofamereenforcementofa musicalscheme.Forexample,intheintroductionofthefirstmovementofBeethoven's Seventh Symphony the second theme (in Cmajor) gets its true meaning only from the context.Onlythroughthewholedoesitacquireitsparticularlyricalandexpressivequali ty,thatis,awholebuiltupofitsverycontrastwiththecantusfirmuslikecharacterof thefirsttheme.Takeninisolationthesecondthemewouldbedisrobedtoinsignificance. Another example may be found in the beginning of the recapitulation over the pedal pointofthefirstmovementofBeethoven's"Appassionato."Byfollowingthepreceding outburst it achieves the utmost dramatic momentum. By omitting the exposition and developmentandstartingwiththisrepetition,allislost. Nothingcorrespondingtothiscanhappeninpopularmusic.Itwouldnotaffectthemusi calsenseifanydetailweretakenoutofthecontext;thelistenercansupplythe"frame work" automatically, since it is a mere musical automatism itself. The beginning of the chorusisreplaceablebythebeginningofinnumerableotherchoruses.Theinterrelation shipamongtheelementsortherelationshipoftheelementstothewholewouldbeun affected.InBeethoven,positionisimportantonlyinalivingrelationbetweenaconcrete totalityanditsconcreteparts.Inpopularmusic,positionisabsolute.Everydetailissub stitutable;itservesitsfunctiononlyasacoginamachine.

Themereestablishmentofthisdifferenceisnotyetsufficient.Itispossibletoobjectthat thefarreachingstandardschemesandtypesofpopularmusicareboundupwithdance, andthereforearealsoapplicabletodancederivativesinseriousmusic,forexample,the minuettoandscherzooftheclassicalVienneseSchool.Itmaybemaintainedeitherthat thispartofseriousmusicisalsotobe (page20) comprehended in terms of detail rather than of whole, orthat if the whole still is per ceivableinthedancetypesinseriousmusicdespiterecurrenceofthetypes,thereisno reasonwhyitshouldnotbeperceivableinmodernpopularmusic. Thefollowingconsiderationprovidesananswertobothobjectionsbyshowingtheradi cal differences even where serious music employs dancetypes. According to current formalisticviewsthescherzoofBeethoven'sFifthSymphonycanberegardedasahighly stylized minuetto. What Beethoven takes from the traditional minuetto scheme in this scherzoistheideaofoutspokencontrastbetweenaminorminuetto,amajortrio,and repetitionoftheminorminuetto;andalsocertainothercharacteristicssuchastheem phatic threefourths rhythm often accentuated on the first fourth and, by and large, dancelikesymmetryinthesequenceofbarsandperiods.Butthespecificformideaof thismovementasaconcretetotalitytransvaluatesthedevicesborrowedfromtheminu ettoscheme.Thewholemovementisconceivedasanintroductiontothefinaleinorder to create tremendous tension, not only by its threatening, foreboding expression but evenmorebytheverywayinwhichitsformaldevelopmentishandled. Theclassicalminuettoschemerequiredfirsttheappearanceofthemaintheme,thenthe introductionofasecondpartwhichmayleadtomoredistanttonalregionsformalisti callysimilar,tobesure,tothe"bridge"oftoday'spopularmusicandfinallytherecur renceoftheoriginalpart.AllthisoccursinBeethoven.Hetakesuptheideaofthematic

dualismwithinthescherzopart.Butheforceswhatwas,intheconventionalminuetto,a mute and meaningless gamerule to speak with meaning. He achieves complete con sistencybetweentheformalstructureanditsspecificcontent,thatistosay,theelabora tionofitsthemes.Thewholescherzopartofthisscherzo(thatistosay,whatoccursbe fore the entrance of the deep strings in Cmajor that marks the beginning of the trio), consistsofthedualismoftwothemes,thecreepingfigureinthestringsandthe"objec tive," stonelike answer of the wind instruments. This dualism is not developed in a schematicwaysothatfirstthephraseofthestringsiselaborated,thentheanswerofthe winds,andthenthestringthemeismechanicallyrepeated.Afterthefirstoccurrenceof thesecondthemeinthehorns,thetwoessentialelementsarealternatelyinterconnect edinthemannerofadialogue,andtheendofthescherzopartisactuallymarked,not bythefirst,butbythesecondthemewhichhasoverwhelmedthefirstmusicalphrase. Furthermore,therepetitionofthescherzoafterthetrioisscored (page21) sodifferentlythatitsoundslikeamereshadowofthescherzoandassumesthathaunt ing character which vanishes only with the affirmative entry of the Finale theme. The wholedevicehasbeenmadedynamic.Notonlythethemes,butthemusicalformitself havebeensubjectedtotension:thesametensionwhichisalreadymanifestwithinthe twofoldstructureofthefirstthemethatconsists,asitwere,ofquestionandreply,and thenevenmoremanifestwithinthecontextbetweenthetwomainthemes.Thewhole schemehasbecomesubjecttotheinherentdemandsof'thisparticularmovement. Tosumupthedifference:inBeethovenandingoodseriousmusicingeneralweare not concerned here with bad serious music which may be as rigid and mechanical as popular music the detail virtually contains the whole and leads to the exposition of thewhole,while,atthesametime,itisproducedoutoftheconceptionofthewhole.In

popularmusictherelationshipisfortuitous.Thedetailhasnobearingonawhole,which appearsasanextraneousframework.Thus,thewholeisneveralteredbytheindividual eventandthereforeremains,asitwere,aloof,imperturbable,andunnoticedthroughout thepiece.Atthesametime,thedetailismutilatedbyadevicewhichitcanneverinflu enceandalter,sothatthedetailremainsinconsequential.Amusicaldetailwhichisnot permittedtodevelopbecomesacaricatureofitsownpotentialities. Standardization. The previous discussion shows that the difference between popular and serious music can be grasped in more precise terms than those referring to musical levels such as "lowbrowandhighbrow,""simpleandcomplex,""naiveandsophisticated."Forexample, the difference between the spheres cannot be adequately expressed in terms of com plexityandsimplicity.AllworksoftheearlierVienneseclassicismare,withoutexception, rhythmicallysimplerthanstockarrangementsofjazz.Melodically,thewideintervalsofa goodmanyhitssuchas"DeepPurple"or"SunriseSerenade"aremoredifficulttofollow persethanmostmelodiesof,forexample,Haydn,whichconsistmainlyofcircumscrip tions of tonic triads, and second steps. Harmonically, the supply of chords of the so calledclassicsisinvariablymorelimitedthanthatofanycurrentTinPanAlleycomposer who draws from Debussy, Ravel, and even later sources. Standardization and non standardizationarethekeycontrastingtermsforthedifference. Structuralstandardizationaimsatstandardreactions.Listeningtopopularmusicisma nipulatednotonlybyitspromoters,butasit

(page22) were,bytheinherentnatureofthismusicitself,intoasystemofresponsemechanisms whollyantagonistictotheidealofindividualityinafree,liberalsociety.Thishasnothing to do withsimplicity and complexity. In serious music, each musical element,even the simplest one, is "itself," and the more highly organized the work is, the less possibility thereisofsubstitutionamongthedetails.Inhitmusic,however,thestructureunderlying the piece is abstract, existing independent of the specific course of the music. This is basic to the illusion that certain complex harmonies are more easily understandable in popularmusicthanthesameharmoniesinseriousmusic.Forthecomplicatedinpopular musicneverfunctionsas"itselfbutonlyasadisguiseorembellishmentbehindwhichthe scheme can always be perceived. In jazz the amateur listener is capable of replacing complicatedrhythmicalorharmonicformulasbytheschematiconeswhichtheyrepre sentandwhichtheystillsuggest,howeveradventuroustheyappear.Theeardealswith thedifficultiesofhitmusicbyachievingslightsubstitutionsderivedfromtheknowledge ofthe patterns.Thelistener,whenfacedwiththecomplicated,actuallyhears onlythe simplewhichitrepresentsandperceivesthecomplicatedonlyasaparodisticdistortion ofthesimple. No such mechanical substitution by stereotyped patterns is possible in serious music. Here even the simplest event necessitates an effort to grasp it immediately instead of summarizingitvaguelyaccordingtoinstitutionalizedprescriptionscapableofproducing only institutionalized effects. Otherwise the music is not "understood." Popular music, however, is composed in such a way that the process of translation of the unique into the norm is already planned and, to a certain extent, achieved within the composition itself. Thecompositionhearsforthelistener.Thisishowpopularmusicdiveststhelistenerof hisspontaneityandpromotesconditionedreflexes.Notonlydoesitnotrequirehiseffort tofollowitsconcretestream;itactuallygiveshimmodelsunderwhichanythingconcrete stillremainingmaybesubsumed.Theschematicbuildupdictatesthewayinwhichhe mustlistenwhile,atthesametime,itmakesanyeffortinlisteningunnecessary.Popular

musicis"predigested"inawaystronglyresemblingthefadof"digests"ofprintedmate rial. It is this structure of contemporary popular music, which in the last analysis, ac countsforthosechangesoflisteninghabitswhichweshalllaterdiscuss. Sofarstandardizationofpopularmusichasbeenconsideredinstructuraltermsthat is,asaninherentqualitywithoutexplicit (page23) referencetotheprocessofproductionortotheunderlyingcausesforstandardization. Thoughallindustrialmassproductionnecessarilyeventuatesinstandardization,thepro ductionofpopularmusiccanbecalled"industrial"onlyinitspromotionanddistribution, whereastheactofproducingasonghitstillremainsinahandicraftstage.Theproduc tionofpopularmusicishighlycentralizedinitseconomicorganization,butstill"individ ualistic" in its social mode of production. The division of labor among the composer, harmonizer,andarrangerisnotindustrialbutratherpretendsindustrialization,inorder to look more uptodate, whereas it has actually adapted industrial methods for die techniqueofitspromotion.Itwouldnotincreasethecostsofproductionifthevarious composersofhittunesdidnotfollowcertainstandardpatterns.Therefore,wemustlook for other reasons for structural standardization very different reasons from those whichaccountforthestandardizationofmotorcarsandbreakfastfoods. Imitation offers a lead for coming to grips with the basic reasons for it. The musical standardsofpopularmusicwereoriginallydevelopedbyacompetitiveprocess.Asone particularsongscoredagreatsuccess,hundredsofotherssprangupimitatingthesuc cessfulone.Themostsuccessfulhits,types,and"ratios"betweenelementswereimitat ed, and the process culminated in the crystallization of standards. Under centralized conditionssuchasexisttodaythesestandardshavebecome"frozen."1)Thatis,theyhave been taken over by cartelized agencies, the final results of a competitive process, and rigidly enforced upon material to be promoted. Noncompliance with the rules of the game became the basis for exclusion. The original patterns that are now standardized

evolvedinamoreorlesscompetitiveway.Largescaleeconomicconcentrationinstitu tionalizedthestandardization,andmadeitimperative.Asaresult,innovationsbyrugged individualistshavebeenoutlawed.Thestandardpatternshavebecomeinvestedwiththe immunity of bigness "the King can do no wrong." This also accounts for revivals in popularmusic.Theydonothavetheoutworncharacterofstandardizedproductsmanu facturedafteragivenpattern.Thebreathoffreecompetitionisstillalivewithinthem. On the other hand, the famous old hits which are revived set the patterns which have becomestandardized.Theyarethegoldenageofthegamerules. This"freezing"ofstandardsissociallyenforcedupontheagen
1)

SeeMaxHorkheimer,ZeitschriftfrSozialforschung,vol.VIII,1939,p.115.

(page24) cies themselves. Popular music must simultaneously meet two demands. One is for stimulithatprovokethelistener'sattention.Theotherisforthematerialtofallwithin thecategoryofwhatthemusicallyuntrainedlistenerwouldcall"natural"music:thatis, thesumtotalofalltheconventionsandmaterialformulasinmusictowhichheisaccus tomedandwhichheregardsastheinherent,simplelanguageofmusicitself,nomatter howlatethedevelopmentmightbewhichproducedthisnaturallanguage.Thisnatural language for the American listener stems from his earliest musical experiences, the nurseryrhymes,thehymnshesingsinSundayschool,thelittletuneshewhistlesonhis wayhomefromschool.Allthesearevastlymoreimportantintheformationofmusi cal language than his ability to distinguish the beginning of Brahms' Third Symphony fromthatofhisSecond.Officialmusicalcultureis,toalargeextent,ameresuperstruc

tureofthisunderlyingmusicallanguage,namelythemajorandminortonalityandallthe tonalrelationshipsitimplies.Butthesetonalrelationshipsoftheprimitivemusicallan guagesetbarrierstowhateverdoesnotconformtothem.Extravagancesaretolerated onlyinsofarastheycanberecastintothissocallednaturallanguage. Intermsofconsumerdemand,thestandardizationofpopularmusicisonlytheexpres sionofthisdualdesideratumimposeduponitbythemusicalframeofmindofthepub lic,thatitbe"stimulatory"bydeviatinginsomewayfromtheestablished"natural," andthatitmaintainthesupremacyofthenaturalagainstsuchdeviations.Theattitudeof the audience toward the natural language is reinforced by standardized production, whichinstitutionalizesdesideratawhichoriginallymighthavecomefromthepublic. Pseudoindividualisation. Theparadoxinthedesideratastimulatoryandnaturalaccountsforthedualcharac ter of standardization itself. Stylization of the^ever identical framework is only one as pect of standardization. Concentration and control in our culture hide themselves in theirverymanifestation.Unhiddentheywouldprovokeresistance.Thereforetheillusion and,toacertainextent,eventherealityofindividualachievementmustbemaintained. Themaintenanceofitisgroundedinmaterialrealityitself,forwhileadministrativecon troloverlifeprocessesisconcentrated,ownershipisstilldiffuse. Inthesphereofluxuryproduction,towhichpopularmusicbelongsandinwhichnone cessitiesoflifeareimmediatelyinvolved,while,atthesametime,theresiduesofindi vidualismaremostalivethereintheformofideologicalcategoriessuchastasteandfree

(page25) choice, it is imperative to hide standardization. The "backwardness" of musical mass production,thefactthatitisstillonahandicraftlevelandnotliterallyanindustrialone, conformsperfectlytothatnecessitywhichisessentialfromtheviewpointofculturalbig business.Iftheindividualhandicraftelementsofpopularmusicwereabolishedaltogeth er,asyntheticmeansofhidingstandardizationwouldhavetobeevolved.Itselements areevennowinexistence. Thenecessarycorrelateofmusicalstandardizationispseudoindividualization.Bypseu doindividualization we mean endowing cultural mass production with the halo of free choiceoropenmarketonthebasisofstandardizationitself.Standardizationofsonghits keeps the customers in line by doing their listening for them, as it were. Pseudo individualization,foritspart,keepstheminlinebymakingthemforgetthatwhatthey listentoisalreadylistenedtoforthem,or"predigested." Themostdrasticexampleofstandardizationofpresumablyindividualizedfeaturesisto befoundinsocalledimprovisations.Eventhoughjazzmusiciansstillimproviseinprac tice,theirimprovisationshavebecomeso"normalized"astoenableawholeterminology to be developed to express the standard devices of individualization: a terminology whichinturnisballyhooedbyjazzpublicityagentstofosterthemythofpioneerartisan shipandatthesametimeflatterthefansbyapparentlyallowingthemtopeepbehind the curtain and get the inside story. This pseudoindividualization is prescribed by the standardizationoftheframework.Thelatterissorigidthatthefreedomitallowsforany sortofimprovisationisseverelydelimited.Improvisationspassageswherespontane ousactionofindividualsispermitted("Swingitboys")areconfinedwithinthewallsof theharmonicandmetricscheme.Inagreatmanycases,suchasthe"break"ofpreswing jazz, the musical function of the improvised detail is determined completely by the scheme:thebreakcanbenothingotherthanadisguisedcadence.Hence,veryfewpos sibilitiesforactualimprovisationremain,duetothenecessityofmerelymelodicallycir cumscribingthesameunderlyingharmonicfunctions.Sincethesepossibilitieswerevery quicklyexhausted,stereotypingofimprovisatorydetailsspeedilyoccurred.Thus,stand

ardizationofthenormenhancesinapurelytechnicalwaystandardizationofitsownde viationpseudoindividualization. This subservience of improvisation to standardization explains two main socio psychological qualitiesof popular music. One is the fact that the detail remains openly connectedwiththeunderlyingschemesothatthelisteneralwaysfeelsonsafeground. Thechoice (page26) inindividualalterationsissosmallthattheperpetualrecurrenceofthesamevariations isareassuringsignpostoftheidenticalbehindthem.Theotheristhefunctionof"substi tution" the improvisatory features forbid their being grasped as musical events in themselves.Theycanbereceivedonlyasembellishments.Itisawellknownfactthatin daringjazzarrangementsworriednotes,dirtytones,inotherwords,falsenotes,playa conspicuousrole.Theyareapperceivedasexcitingstimulionlybecausetheyarecorrect edbytheeartotherightnote.This,however,isonlyanextremeinstanceofwhathap penslessconspicuouslyinallindividualizationinpopularmusic.Anyharmonicboldness, anychordwhichdoesnotfallstrictlywithinthesimplestharmonicschemedemandsbe ingapperceivedas "false,"thatis,asa stimuluswhichcarrieswithittheunambiguous prescriptiontosubstituteforittherightdetail,orratherthenakedscheme.Understand ing popular music means obeying such commands for listening. Popular music com mandsitsownlisteninghabits. Thereisanothertypeofindividualizationclaimedintermsofkindsofpopularmusicand differences in namebands. The types of popular music are carefully differentiated in production. The listener is presumed to be able to choose between them. The most widelyrecognizeddifferentiationsarethosebetweenswingandsweetandsuchname bandsasBennyGoodmanandGuyLombardo.Thelistenerisquicklyabletodistinguish

thetypesofmusicandeventheperformingband,thisinspiteofthefundamentalidenti tyofthematerialandthegreatsimilarityofthepresentationsapartfromtheirempha sized distinguishing trademarks. This labelling technique, as regards type of music and band, is pseudoindividualization, but of a sociological kind outside the realm of strict musicaltechnology.Itprovidestrademarksofidentificationfordifferentiatingbetween theactuallyundifferentiated. Popularmusicbecomesamultiplechoicequestionnaire.Therearetwomaintypesand their derivatives from which to choose. The listener is encouraged by the inexorable presenceofthesetypespsychologicallytocrossoutwhathedislikesandcheckwhathe likes.Thelimitationinherentinthischoiceandtheclearcutalternativeitentailsprovoke likedislikepatternsofbehavior.Thismechanicaldichotomybreaksdownindifference;it isimperativetofavorsweetorswingifonewishestocontinuetolistentopopularmusic. (page27) II.PRESENTATIONOFTHEMATERIAL. Minimumrequirements. Thestructureofthemusicalmaterialrequiresatechniqueofitsownbywhichitisen forced.Thisprocessmayberoughlydefinedas"plugging."Theterm"plugging"originally hadthenarrowmeaningofceaselessrepetitionofoneparticularhitinordertomakeit "successful."Wehereuseitinthebroadsense,tosignifyacontinuationoftheinherent processes of composition and arrangement of the musical material. Plugging aims to breakdowntheresistancetothemusicallyeverequaloridenticalby,asitwere,closing theavenuesofescapefromtheeverequal.Itleadsthelistenertobecomeenraptured withtheinescapable.Andthusitleadstotheinstitutionalizationandstandardizationof listening habits .themselves. Listeners become so accustomed to the recurrence of the samethingsthattheyreactautomatically.Thestandardizationofthematerialrequiresa

plugging mechanism from outside, since everything equals everything else to such an extentthattheemphasisonpresentationwhichisprovidedbypluggingmustsubstitute forthelackofgenuineindividualityinthematerial.Thelistenerofnormalmusicalintelli gencewhohearstheKundrymotifof"Parsifal"forthefirsttimeislikelytorecognizeit when it is played again because it is unmistakable and not exchangeable for anything else.Ifthesamelistenerwereconfrontedwithanaveragesonghit,hewouldnotbeable todistinguishitfromanyotherunlessitwererepeatedsooftenthathewouldbeforced to remember it. Repetition gives a psychological importance which it could otherwise neverhave.Thuspluggingistheinevitablecomplementofstandardization.1) Provided the material fulfills certain minimum requirements, any given song can be plugged and made a success, if there is adequate tieup between publishing houses, namebands,radioandmovingpictures.Mostimportantisthefollowingrequirement:To be plugged, a songhit must have at least one feature by which it can be distinguished fromanyother,andyetpossessthecompleteconventionalityandtrivialityofallothers. Theactualcriterionbywhichasongisjudgedworthyofpluggingisparadoxical.Thepub lisherwantsapieceofmusicthatisfundamentallythesameasalltheothercurrenthits andsimultaneouslyfundamentallydifferentfromthem.Onlyifitisthesamedoesithave achanceofbeing
1)

As the actual working of the plugging mechanism on the American scene of popular

musicitdescribedinfulldetailInastudybyDuncanMacDougald,thepresentstudycon fines itself to a theoretical discussion of some of the more general aspects of the en forcementofthematerial.

(page28) soldautomatically,withoutrequiringanyeffortonthepartofthecustomer,andofpre senting itself as a musical institution. And only if it is different can it be distinguished fromothersongs,arequirementforbeingrememberedandhenceforbeingsuccess ful. Of course, this double desideratum cannot be fulfilled. In the case of actual published andpluggedsongs,onewillgenerallyfindsomesortofcompromise,somethingwhichis byandlargethesameandbearsjustoneisolatedtrademarkwhichmakesitappearto beoriginal.Thedistinguishingfeaturemustnotnecessarilybemelodic,1)butmayconsist ofmetricalirregularities,particularchordsorparticularsoundcolors. Glamor. Afurtherrequirementofpluggingisacertainrichnessandroundnessofsound.Thisre quirementevolvesthatfeatureinthewholepluggingmechanismwhichismostovertly boundupwithadvertisingasabusinessaswellaswiththecommercializationofenter tainment.Itisalsoparticularlyrepresentativeoftheinterrelationshipofstandardization andpseudoindividualization. Itismusicalglamor:thoseinnumerablepassagesinsongarrangementswhichappearto communicate the "now we present" attitude. The musical flourishes which accompany MGM's roaring lion whenever he opens his majestic mouth are analogous to the non leoninesoundsofmusicalglamorheardovertheair. Glamormindednessmayoptimisticallyberegardedasamentalconstructofthesuccess storyinwhichthehardworkingAmericansettlertriumphsoverimpassivenature,which is finally forced to yield up its riches. However, in a world that is no longer a frontier world,theproblemofglamorcannotberegardedassoeasilysoluble.Glamorismade

into the eternal conqueror's song of the common man; he who is never permitted to conquerinlifeconquersinglamor.Thetriumphisactuallytheselfstyledtriumphofthe
1)

Technicalanalysismustaddcertainreservationstoanyacceptanceoflistenerreactions

attheirfacevalueinthecaseoftheconceptofmelody.Listenerstopopularmusicspeak mainly about melody and rhythm, sometimes about instrumentation, rarely or never aboutharmonyandform.Withinthestandardschemeofpopularmusic,however,mel odyitselfisbynomeansautonomousinthesenseofanindependentlinedevelopingin the horizontal dimension of music. Melody is, rather, a function of harmony. The so called melodies in popular music are generally arabesques, dependent upon the se quence of harmonies. What appears to the listener to be primarily melodic is actually fundamentallyharmonic,itsmelodicstructureamerederivative. Itwouldbevaluabletostudyexactlywhatlaymencallamelody.Itwouldprobablyturn outtobeasuccessionoftonesrelatedtooneanotherbysimpleandeasilyunderstanda ble harmonic functions, within the framework of the eight bar period. There is a large gapbetweenthelayman'sideaofamelodyanditastrictlymusicalconnotation. (page29) businessmanwhoannouncesthathewillofferthesameproductatalowerprice. The conditions for this function of glamor are entirely different from those of frontier life. They apply to the mechanization of labor and to the workaday life of the masses. Boredom has become so great that only the brightest colors have any chance of being liftedoutofthegeneraldrabness.Yet,itisjustthoseviolentcolorswhichbearwitnessto theomnipotenceofmechanical,industrialproductionitself.Nothingcouldbemoreste

reotypedthanthepinkishredneonlightswhichaboundinfrontofshops,movingpicture theatresandrestaurants.Byglamorizing,theyattractattention.Butthemeansbywhich theyareusedtoovercomehumdrumrealityaremorehumdrumthantherealityitself. Thatwhichaimstoachieveglamorbecomesamoreuniformactivitythanwhatitseeks toglamorize.Ifitwerereallyattractiveinitself,itwouldhavenomoremeansofsupport than a really original popular composition. It would violate the lawof the sameness of the putatively unsame. The term glamorous is applied to those faces, colors, sounds which,bythelighttheyirradiate,differfromtherest.Butallglamorgirlslookalikeand theglamoreffectsofpopularmusicareequivalenttoeachother. As far as the pioneer character of glamor is concerned, there is an overlapping and a changeoffunctionratherthananinnocentsurvivalofthepast.Tobesure,theworldof glamorisashow,akintoshootinggalleries,theglaringlightsofthecircusanddeafening brassbands.Assuch,thefunctionofglamormayhaveoriginallybeenassociatedwitha sortofadvertisingwhichstroveartificiallytoproducedemandsinasocialsettingnotyet entirely permeated by the market. The postcompetitive capitalism of the present day usesforitsownpurposesdevicesofastillimmatureeconomy.Thus,glamorhasahaunt ing quality of historic revival in radio, comparable to the revival of the midway circus barker in today's radio barker who implores his unseen audience not to fail to sample waresanddoessointoneswhicharousehopesbeyondthecapacityofthecommodity tofulfill.Allglamorisboundupwithsomesortoftrickery.Listenersarenowheremore tricked by popular music than in its glamorous passages. Flourishes and jubilations ex press triumphant thanksgiving for the music itself a selfeulogy of its own achieve mentinexhortingthelistenertoexultationandofitsidentificationwiththeaimofthe agency in promoting a great event. However, as this event does not take place apart fromitsowncelebration,thetriumphantthanksgivingofferedupbythemusicisaself betrayal.Itislikelytomakeitselffeltas

(page30) suchunconsciouslyinthelisteners,justasthechildresentstheadult'spraisingthegifts he made to the child in the same words which the child feels it is his own privilege to use. Babytalk. Itisnotaccidentalthatglamorleadstochildbehavior.Clamor,whichplaysonthelisten er'sdesireforstrength,isconcomitantwithamusicallanguagewhichbetokensdepend ence. The children's jokes, the purposely wrong orthography, the use of children's ex pressionsinadvertising,taketheformofamusicalchildren'slanguageinpopularmusic. There are many examples of lyrics characterized by an ambiguous irony in that, while affectingachildren'slanguage,theyatthesametimedisplaycontemptoftheadultfor thechildorevengiveaderogatoryorsadisticmeaningtochildren'sexpressions("Goody, Goody,""ATisketaTasket,""LondonBridgeisFallingDown,""Cry,Baby,Cry").Genuine and pseudonursery rhymes are combined with purposeful alterations of the lyrics of originalnurseryrhymesinordertomakethemcommercialhits. The music, as well as the lyrics, tends to affect such a children's language. Some of its principal characteristics are: unabating repetition of some particular musical formula comparabletotheattitudeofachildincessantlyutteringthesamedemand("IWantto BeHappy");1)thelimitationofmanymelodiestoveryfewtones,comparabletotheway in which a small child speaks before he has the full alphabet at his disposal; purposely wrongharmonizationresemblingthewayinwhichsmallchildrenexpressthemselvesin incorrectgrammar;alsocertainoversweetsoundcolors,functioninglikemusicalcook ies and candies. Treating adults as children is involved in that representation of fun whichisaimedatrelievingthestrainoftheiradultresponsibilities.Moreover,thechil dren's language serves to make the musical product "popular" with the subjects by at

temptingtobridge,inthesubjects'consciousness,thedistancebetweenthemselvesand thepluggingagencies,byapproachingthemwiththetrustingattitudeofthechildasking an adult for the correct time even though he knows neither the strange man nor the meaningoftime. Pluggingthewholefield. Thepluggingofsongsisonlyapartofamechanismandobtainsitspropermeaningwith intheaystemasawhole.Basictothesystem
1)

The most famous literary example of this attitude it "Want to shee the wheels go

wound"(JohnHabberton,Helen'sBabies,NewYork,p.9ff).Onecouldeasilyimaginea "novelty"songbeingbaaeduponthatphrase. (page31) isthepluggingofstylesandpersonalities.Thepluggingofcertainstylesisexemplifiedin thewordswing.Thistermhasneitheradefiniteandunambiguousmeaningnordoesit markasharpdifferencefromtheperiodofpreswinghotjazzuptothemiddlethirties. Thelackofjustificationinthematerialfortheuseofthetermarousesthesuspicionthat itsusageisentirelyduetoplugginginordertorejuvenateanoldcommoditybygiving itanewtitle.Similarlypluggedisthewholeswingterminologyindulgedinbyjazzjour nalism and used by jitterbugs, a terminology which, according to Hobson, makes jazz

musicianswince.1)Thelessinherentinthematerialarethecharacteristicspluggedbya pseudoexpertterminology,themorearesuchauxiliaryforcesasannouncersandcom mentariesneeded. There is good reason to believe that this journalism partly belongs immediately to the pluggingmechanism,insofarasitdependsuponpublishers,agencies,andnamebands. Atthispoint,however,asociologicalqualificationispertinent.Undercontemporaryeco nomic conditions, it is often futile to look for "corruption," because people are com pelled to behave voluntarily in ways one expected them to behave in only when they were paid" for it. The journalists who take part in the promotion of a Hollywood "oomphgirl"neednotbebribedatallbythemotionpictureindustry.Thepublicitygiven to the girl by the industry itself is in complete accord with the ideology pervading the journalism which takes it up. And this ideology has become the audience's. The match appearstohavebeenmadeinheaven.Thejournalistsspeakwithunboughtvoices.Once acertainlevelofeconomicbackingforplugginghasbeenreached,thepluggingprocess transcendsitsowncausesandbecomesanautonomoussocialforce. Aboveallotherelementsofthepluggingmechanismstandsthepluggingofpersonalities, particularlyofbandleaders.Mostofthefeaturesactuallyattributabletojazzarrangers areofficiallycreditedtotheconductor;arrangers,whoareprobablythemostcompetent musicians in the United States, often remain in obscurity, like scenario writers in the movies.Theconductoristhemanwhoimmediatelyfacestheaudience;heisclosekinto theactorwhoimpressesthepubliceitherbyhisjovialityandgenialmannerorbydicta torialgestures.Itisthefacetofacerelationwiththeconductorwhichmakesitpossible totransfertohimanyachievement. Further,theleaderandhisbandarestilllargelyregardedbytheaudienceasbearersof improvisatoryspontaneity.Themore 1)WilderHobson,AmericanJazzMusic,p.153,NewYork,1939.

(page32) actualimprovisationdisappearsintheprocessofstandardizationandthemoreitissu persededbyelaborateschemes,themoremusttheideaofimprovisationbemaintained before the audience. The arranger remains obscure partly because of the necessity for avoidingtheslightesthintthatpopularmusicmaynotbeimprovised,butmust,inmost cases,befixedandsystematized. III.THEORYABOUTTHELISTENER. Recognitionandacceptance. Mass listening habits today gravitate aboutrecognition.Popular music and its plugging arefocusedonthishabituation.Thebasicprinciplebehinditisthatoneneedonlyrepeat somethinguntilitisrecognizedinordertomakeitaccepted.Thisappliestothestand ardizationofthematerialaswellastoitsplugging.Whatisnecessaryinordertounder standthereasonsforthepopularityofthecurrenttypeofhitmusicisatheoreticalanal ysisoftheprocessesinvolvedinthetransformationofrepetitionintorecognitionandof recognitionintoacceptance. Theconceptofrecognition,however,mayappeartobetoounspecifietoexplainmodern masslistening.Itcanbearguedthatwherevermusicalunderstandingisconcerned,the factorofrecognition,beingoneofthebasicfunctionsofhumanknowing,mustplayan importantrole.CertainlyoneunderstandsaBeethovensonataonlybyrecognizingsome of its features as being abstractly identical with others which one knows from former experience,andbylinkingthemupwiththepresentexperience.TheideathataBeetho vensonatacouldbeunderstoodinavoidwithoutrelatingittoelementsofmusicallan guagewhichoneknowsandrecognizeswouldbeabsurd.Whatmatters,however,is

whatisrecognized.WhatdoesareallistenerrecognizeinaBeethovensonata?Hecer tainlyrecognizesthe"system"uponwhichitisbased:themajorminortonality,thein terrelationship of keys which determines modulation, the different chords and their relative expressive value, certain melodic formulas, and certain structural patterns. (It wouldbeabsurdtodenythatsuchpatternsexistinseriousmusic.Buttheirfunctionisof adifferentorder.Grantedallthisrecognition,itisstillnotsufficientforacomprehension ofthemusicalsense.)Alltherecognizableelementsareorganizedingoodseriousmusic byaconcreteanduniquemusicaltotalityfromwhichtheyderivetheirparticularmean ing,inthesamesenseasawordinapoemderivesitsmeaningfromthetotalityofthe poemandnotfromtheeverydayuseoftheword,althoughtherecognitionofthiseve rydaynessoftheword (page33) maybethenecessarypresuppositionofanyunderstandingofthepoem. Themusicalsenseofanypieceofmusicmayindeedbedefinedasthatdimensionofthe piecewhichcannotbegraspedbyrecognitionalone,byitsidentificationwithsomething oneknows.Itcanbebuiltuponlybyspontaneouslylinkingtheknownelementsare actionasspontaneousbythelistenerasitwasspontaneousbythecomposerinorder toexperiencetheinherentnoveltyofthecomposition.ThemusicalsenseistheNew somethingwhichcannotbetracedbacktoandsubsumedundertheconfigurationofthe known,butwhichspringsoutofit,ifthelistenercomestoitsaid. Itispreciselythisrelationshipbetweentherecognizedandthenewwhichisdestroyedin popularmusic.Recognitionbecomesanendinsteadofameans.Therecognitionofthe mechanicallyfamiliarinahittuneleavesnothingwhichcanbegraspedasnewbyalink ing of the various elements. As a matter of fact, the link betweenthe elements is pre given in popular music as much as, or even to a greater extent than, the elements are

themselves.Hence,recognitionandunderstandingmustherecoincide,whereasinseri ous music understanding is the act by which universal recognition leads to the emer genceofsomethingfundamentallynew. Anappropriatebeginningforinvestigatingrecognitioninrespectofanyparticularsong hitmaybemadebydraftingaschemewhichdividestheexperienceofrecognitioninto its different components. Psychologically, all the factors we enumerate are interwoven tosuchadegreethatitwouldbeimpossibletoseparatethemfromoneanotherinreali ty, and any temporal order given them would be highly problematical. Our scheme is directed more toward the different objective elements involved in the experience of recognition,thantowardthewayinwhichtheactualexperiencefeelstoaparticularin dividualorindividuals. Thecomponentsweconsidertobeinvolvedarethefollowing: a)Vagueremembrance. b)Actualidentification. c)Subsumptionbylabel. d)Selfreflectionontheactofrecognition. e)Psychologicaltransferofrecognitionauthoritytotheobject. a) The more or less vague experience of being reminded of something ("I must have heard this somewhere"). The standardization of the material sets the stage for vague remembranceinpracticallyeverysong,sinceeachtuneisreminiscentofthegeneralpat ternandof

(page34) everyother.Anaboriginalprerequisiteforthisfeelingistheexistenceofavastsupplyof tunes, an incessant stream of popular music which makes it impossible to remember eachandeveryparticularsong. b) The moment of actual identification the actual "that's it" experience. This is at tainedwhenvagueremembranceissearchlightedbysuddenawareness.Itiscompara bletotheexperienceonehassittinginaroomthathasbeendarkenedwhensuddenly theelectriclightflaresupagain.Bythesuddennessofitsbeinglit,thefamiliarfurniture obtains,forasplitsecond,theappearanceofbeingnovel.Thespontaneousrealization thatthisverypieceis"thesameas"whatoneheardatsomeothertime,tendstosub late, for a moment, the everimpending peril that something is as it always was. It is characteristicofthisfactoroftherecognitionexperiencethatitismarkedbyasudden break.Thereisnogradationbetweenthevaguerecollectionandfullawarenessbut,ra ther, a sort of psychological "jump." This component may be regarded as appearing somewhatlaterintimethanvagueremembrance.Thisissupportedbyconsiderationof thematerial.Itisprobablyverydifficulttorecognizemostsonghitsbythefirsttwoor threenotesoftheirchoruses;atleastthefirstmotifmusthavebeenplayed,andtheac tualactofrecognitionshouldbecorrelatedintimewiththeapperceptionorrealiza tionofthefirstcompletemotifical"Gestalt"ofthechorus, c)Theelementofsubsumption:theinterpretationofthe"that'sit"experiencebyanex periencesuchas"that'sthehit'NightandDay.'"Itisthiselementinrecognition(proba blyboundupwiththeremembranceofthetitletrademarkofthesongorthefirstwords ofitslyrics1)whichrelatesrecognitionmostintimatelytothefactorofsocialbacking. Themostimmediateimplicationofthiscomponentmaybethefollowing:themoment thelistenerrecognizesthehitasthesoandso

1)

Theinterplayoflyricsandmusicinpopularmusicissimilartotheinterplayofpicture

and word in advertising. The picture provides the sensual stimulus, the words add slo gansorjokesthattendtofixthecommodityinthemindsofthepublicandto"subsume" itunderdefinite,settledcategories.Thereplacementofthepurelyinstrumentalragtime byjazzwhichhadstrongvocaltendenciesfromthebeginning,andthegeneraldeclineof purelyinstrumentalhits,arecloselyrelatedtotheincreasedimportanceoftheadvertis ing structure of popular music. The example of "Deep Purple" may prove helpful. This wasoriginallyalittleknownpianopiece.Itssuddensuccesswasatleastpartlyduetothe additionoftrademarkinglyrics. Amodelforthisfunctionalchangeexistsinthefieldofraisedentertainmentinthenine teenth century. The first prelude of Bach's "Well Tempered Clavichord" became a "sa cral"hitwhenGounodconceivedthefiendishideaofextractingamelodyfromthese quelofharmoniesandcombiningitwiththewordsofthe"AveMaria.Thisprocedure, meretricious from its very inception, has since been generally accepted in the field of musicalcommercialism. (page35) thatis,assomethingestablishedandknownnotmerelytohimalonehefeelssafe tyinnumbersandfollowsthecrowdofallthosewhohaveheardthesongbeforeand whoaresupposedtohavemadeitsreputation.Thisisconcomitantwithorfollowshard upontheheelsofelementb).Theconnectingreactionconsistspartlyintherevelationto the listener that his apparently isolated, individual experience of a particular song is a collectiveexperience.Themomentofidentificationofsomesociallyestablishedhighlight oftenhasadualmeaning:onenotonlyidentifiesitinnocentlyasbeingthisorthat,sub sumingitunderthisorthatcategory,butbytheveryactofidentifyingit,onealsotends unwittingly to identify oneself with the objective social agencies or with the power of those individuals who made this particular event fit into this preexisting category and

thus"established"it.Theveryfactthatanindividualiscapableofidentifyinganobjectas this or that allows him to take vicarious part in die institution which made the event whatitisandtoidentifyhimselfwiththisveryinstitution. d)Theelementofselfreflectionontheactofidentification.("Oh,Iknowit;thisbelongs to me.") This trend can be properly understood by considering the disproportion be tweenthehugenumberoflesserknownsongsandthefewestablishedones.Theindi vidualwhofeelsdrownedbythestreamofmusicfeelsasortoftriumphinthesplitse condduringwhichheiscapableofidentifyingsomething.Massesofpeopleareproudof theirabilitytorecognizeanymusic,asillustratedbythewidespreadhabitofhummingor whistlingthetuneofafamiliarpieceofmusicwhichhasjustbeenmentioned,inorderto indicateone'sknowledgeofit,andtheevidentcomplacencywhichaccompaniessuchan exhibition. Bytheidentificationandsubsumptionofthepresentlisteningexperienceunderthecat egory "this is the hit so and so," this hit becomes an object to the listener, something fixed and permanent. This transformation of experience into object the fact that by recognizingapieceofmusiconehascommandoveritandcanreproduceitfromone's ownmemorymakesitmoreproprietablethanever.Ithastwoconspicuouscharacter isticsofproperty:permanenceandbeingsubjecttotheowner'sarbitrarywill.Theper manenceconsistsinthefactthatifoneremembersasongandcanrecallitallthetime,it cannot be expropriated. The other element, that of control over music, consists in the abilitytoevokeitpresumablyatwillatanygivenmoment,tocutitshort,andtotreatit whimsically.Themusicalpropertiesare,asitwere,atthemercyoftheirowner.Inorder toclarifythiselement,itmaybeappropriatetopointtooneofitsextremethoughbyno meansraremanifestations.Manypeople,

(page36) when they whistle or hum tunes they know, add tiny upbeat notes which sound as though they whipped or teased the melody. Their pleasure in possessing the melody takestheformofbeingfreetomisuseit.Theirbehaviortowardthemelodyislikethatof childrenwhopulladog'stail.Theyevenenjoy,toacertainextent,makingthemelody winceormoan. e)Theelementof"psychologicaltransfer":"Damnit,'NightandDay'isagoodone!"This isthetendencytotransferthegratificationofownershiptotheobjectitselfandtoat tributetoit,intermsoflike,preference,orobjectivequality,theenjoymentofowner shipwhichonehasattained.Theprocessoftransferisenhancedbyplugging.Whileac tuallyevokingthepsychicprocessesofrecognition,identification,andownership,plug gingsimultaneouslypromotestheobjectitselfandinvestsit,inthelistener'sconscious ness,withallthosequalitieswhichinrealityareduelargelytothemechanismofidentifi cation. The listeners are executing the order to transfer to the music itself their self congratulationontheirownership. Itmaybeaddedthattherecognizedsocialvalueinherentinthesonghitisinvolvedin thetransferofthegratificationofownershiptotheobjectwhichthusbecomes"liked." Thelabellingprocessherecomestocollectivizetheownershipprocess.Thelistenerfeels flatteredbecausehetooownswhateveryoneowns.Byowninganappreciatedandmar ketedhit,onegetstheillusionofvalue.Thisillusionofvalueinthelisteneristhebasis for the evaluation of the musical material. At the moment of recognition of an estab lishedhit,apseudopublicutilitycomesunderthehegemonyoftheprivatelistener.The musicalownerwhofeels"Ilikethisparticularhit(becauseIknowit)"achievesadelusion ofgrandeurcomparabletoachild'sdaydreamaboutowningtherailroad.Liketheriddles inanadvertisingcontest,songhitsposeonlyquestionsofrecognitionwhichanyonecan answer.Yetlistenersenjoygivingtheanswersbecausetheythusbecomeidentifiedwith thepowersthatbe. Itisobviousthatthesecomponentsdonotappearinconsciousnessastheydoinanaly sis.Asthedivergencebetweentheillusionofprivateownershipandtherealityofpublic

ownershipisaverywideone,andaseveryoneknowsthatwhatiswritten"Especiallyfor You"issubjecttotheclause"anycopyingofthewordsormusicofthissongoranypor tionthereofmakestheinfringerliabletoprosecutionundertheUnitedStatescopyright law,"onemaynotregardtheseprocessesasbeingtoounconsciouseither.Itisprobably correcttoassumethatmostlisteners,inordertocomplywithwhattheyregardassocial desiderataandtoprovetheir"citizenship,"halfhumorously (page37) "join"theconspiracy1)ascaricaturesoftheirownpotentialitiesandsuppressbringingto awarenesstheoperativemechanismsbyinsistingtothemselvesandtoothersthatthe wholethingisonlygoodcleanfunanyhow. Thefinalcomponentintherecognitionprocesspsychologicaltransferleadsanaly sisbacktoplugging.Recognitionissociallyeffectiveonlywhenbackedbytheauthority of a powerful agency. That is, the recognitionconstructs do not apply to any tune but onlyto"successful"tunes,successbeingjudgedbythebackingofcentralagencies.In short,recognition,asasocialdeterminantoflisteninghabits,worksonlyonpluggedma terial.Alistenerwillnotabidetheplayingofasongrepeatedlyonthepiano.Playedover theairitistoleratedwithjoyallthroughitsheyday. The psychological mechanism here involved may be thought of as functioning in this way: If some songhit is played again and again on the air, the listener begins to think thatitisalreadyasuccess.Thisisfurtheredbythewayinwhichpluggedsongsarean nouncedinbroadcasts,ofteninthecharacteristicformof"Youwillnowhearthelatest smashhit."Repetitionitselfisacceptedasasignofitspopularity.2)

Popularmusicand"leisuretime." Sofartheanalysishasdealtwithreasonsfortheacceptanceofanyparticularsonghit.In order to understand why this whole type of music maintains its hold on the masses, someconsiderationsofamoregeneralkindmaybeappropriate. The frame of mind to which popular music originally appealed, on which it feeds, and whichitperpetuallyreinforces,issimultaneouslyoneofdistractionandinattention.Lis tenersaredistractedfromthedemandsofrealitybyentertainmentwhichdoesnotde mandattentioneither. The notion of distraction can be properly understood only within its social setting and notinselfsubsistenttermsofindividualpsychology.Distractionisboundtothepresent mode of production, to the rationalized and mechanized process of labor to which, di rectlyorindirectly,massesaresubject.Thismodeofproduction,whichengendersfears and anxiety about unemployment, loss of income, war, has its "nonproductive" corre lateinentertainment;thatis,
1)

Cf.HadleyCantrilandGordonAllport,ThePsychologyofRadio,NewYork,1935p.69. Thesamepropagandatrickcanbefoundmoreexplicitlyinthefieldofradioadvertising

2)

of commodities. Beautyskin Soap is called "famous" since the listener has heard the nameofthesoapovertheairinnumerabletimesbeforeandthereforewouldagreetoits "fame."Itsfameisonlythesumtotaloftheseveryannouncementswhichrefertoit. (page38) relaxationwhichdoesnotinvolvetheeffortofconcentrationatall.Peoplewanttohave fun.Afullyconcentratedandconsciousexperienceofartispossibleonlytothosewhose

livesdonotputsuchastrainonthemthatintheirsparetimetheywantrelieffromboth boredom and effort simultaneously. The whole sphere of cheap commercial entertain ment reflects this dual desire. It induces relaxation because it is patterned and pre digested.Itsbeingpatternedandpredigestedserveswithinthepsychologicalhousehold ofthemassestosparethemtheeffortofthatparticipation(eveninlisteningorobserva tion) without which there can be no receptivity to art. On the other hand, the stimuli theyprovidepermitanescapefromtheboredomofmechanizedlabor. The promoters of commercialized entertainment exonerate themselves by referring to thefactthattheyaregivingthemasseswhattheywant.Thisisanideologyappropriate to commercial purposes: the less the mass discriminates, the greater the possibility of sellingculturalcommoditiesindiscriminately.Yetthisideologyofvestedinterestcannot bedismissedsoeasily.Itisnotpossiblecompletelytodenythatmassconsciousnesscan bemoldedbytheoperativeagenciesonlybecausethemasses"wantthisstuff." But why do they want this stuff? In our present society the masses themselves are kneaded by the same mode of production as the articraft material foisted upon them. Thecustomersofmusicalentertainmentarethemselvesobjectsor,indeed,productsof the same mechanisms which determine the production of popular music. Their spare timeservesonlytoreproducetheirworkingcapacity.Itisameansinsteadofanend.The poweroftheprocessofproductionextendsoverthetimeintervalswhichonthesurface appear to be "free." They want standardized goods and pseudoindividualization, be causetheirleisureisanescapefromworkandatthesametimeismoldedafterthose psychologicalattitudestowhichtheirworkadayworldexclusivelyhabituatesthem.Pop ularmusicisforthemassesaperpetualbusman'sholiday.Thus,thereisjustificationfor speakingo'fapreestablishedharmonytodaybetweenproductionandconsumptionof popularmusic.Thepeopleclamorforwhattheyaregoingtogetanyhow. Toescapeboredomandavoideffortareincompatiblehencethereproductionofthe veryattitudefromwhichescapeissought.Tobesure,thewayinwhichtheymustwork on the assembly line, in the factory, or at office machines denies people any novelty. They seek novelty, but the strain and boredom associated with actual work leads to

avoidanceofeffortinthatleisuretimewhichofferstheonlychanceforreallynewexpe rience.Asasubstitute,theycravea (page39) stimulant.Popularmusiccomestoofferit.Itsstimulationsaremetwiththeinabilityto vest effort in the everidentical. This means boredom again. It is a circle which makes escapeimpossible.Theimpossibilityofescapecausesthewidespreadattitudeofinat tentiontowardpopularmusic.Themomentofrecognitionisthatofeffortlesssensation. The sudden attention attached to this moment burns itself out instanter and relegates the listener to a realm of inattention and distraction. On the one hand, the domain of productionandpluggingpresupposesdistractionand,ontheother,producesit. In this situation the industry faces an insoluble problem. It must arouse attention by meansofevernewproducts,butthisattentionspellstheirdoom.Ifnoattentionisgiven tothesong,itcannotbesold;ifattentionispaidtoit,thereisalwaysthepossibilitythat people willno longer accept it, because they know it too well. This partly accounts for theconstantlyrenewedefforttosweepthemarketwithnewproducts,tohoundthem totheirgraves;thentorepeattheinfanticidalmaneuveragainandagain. Ontheotherhand,distractionisnotonlyapresuppositionbutalsoaproductofpopular music. The tunesthemselveslullthelistenertoinattention.Theytellhim nottoworry forhewillnotmissanything.1) Thesocialcement. Itissafetoassumethatmusiclistenedtowithageneralinattentionwhichisonlyinter rupted by sudden flashes of recognition is not followed as a sequence of experiences thathaveaclearcutmeaningoftheirown,graspedineachinstantandrelatedtoallthe

precedentandsubsequentmoments.Onemaygosofarastosuggestthatmostlisteners ofpopularmusicdonotunderstandmusicasalanguageinitself.Iftheydiditwouldbe vastly difficult to explain how they could tolerate the incessant supply of largely undif ferentiatedmaterial.What,then,doesmusicmeantothem?Theansweristhatthelan guage that is music is transformed by objective processes into a language which they thinkistheirown,intoalanguagewhichservesasareceptaclefortheirinstitutional izedwants.Thelessmusicisalanguagesuigeneristothem,themoredoesitbecome established as such a receptacle. The autonomy of music is replaced by a mere socio psychologicalfunction.Musictodayislargelyasocialcement.Andthe.meaninglisteners attributetoamaterial,the
1)

The attitude of detraction is not a completely universal one. Particularly youngsters

whoinvestpopularmusicwiththeirownfeelingsarenotyetcompletelybluntedtoallits effects.Thewholeproblemofagelevelswithregardtopopularmusic,however,itbe yond the scope of the present study. Demographic problems, too, must remain out of consideration. (page40) inherent logic of which is inaccessible to them, is above all a means by which they achievesomepsychicaladjustmenttothemechanismsofpresentdaylife.This"adjust ment" materializes in two different ways, corresponding to two major socio psychologicaltypesofmassbehaviortowardmusicingeneralandpopularmusicinpar ticular,the"rhythmicallyobedient"typeandthe"emotional"type.

Individualsoftherhythmicallyobedienttypearemainlyfoundamongtheyouththe socalled radio generation. They are most susceptible to a process of masochistic ad justmenttoauthoritariancollectivism.Thetypeisnotrestrictedtoanyonepoliticalatti tude.Theadjustmenttoanthropophagouscollectivismisfoundasoftenamongleftwing political groups as among rightwing groups. Indeed, both overlap: repression and crowdmindednessovertakethefollowersofbothtrends.Thepsychologiestendtomeet despitethesurfacedistinctionsinpoliticalattitudes. Thiscomestotheforeinpopularmusicwhichappearstobealooffrompoliticalparti sanship. It may be noted that a moderate leftist theatre production such as "Pins and Needles"usesordinaryjazzasitsmusicalmedium,andthatacommunistyouthorgani zationadaptedthemelodyof"Alexander'sRagtimeBand"toitsownlyrics.Thosewho askforasongofsocialsignificanceaskforitthroughamediumwhichdeprivesitofso cialsignificance.Theuseofinexorablepopular,musicalmediaisrepressiveperse.Such inconsistenciesindicatethatpoliticalconvictionandsociopsychologicalstructurebyno meanscoincide. Thisobedienttypeistherhythmicaltype,thewordrhythmicalbeingusedinitseveryday sense.Anymusicalexperienceofthistypeisbasedupontheunderlying,unabatingtime unitofthemusic,its"beat."Toplayrhythmicallymeans,tothesepeople,toplayin suchawaythatevenifpseudoindividualizationscounteraccentsandother"differen tiations"occur,therelationtothegroundmetreispreserved.Tobemusicalmeansto them to be capable of following given rhythmical patterns without being disturbed by "individualizing"aberrations,andtofiteventhesyncopationsintothebasictimeunits. This is the way in which their response to music immediately expresses their desire to obey.However,asthestandardizedmetreofdancemusicandofmarchingsuggeststhe coordinated battalions of a mechanical collectivity, obedience to this rhythm by over comingtherespondingindividualsleadsthemtoconceiveofthemselvesasagglutinized withtheuntoldmillionsofthemeekwhomustbesimilarlyovercome.Thusdotheobe dientinherittheearth.

Yet,ifonelooksattheseriouscompositionswhichcorrespondtothiscategoryofmass listening,onefindsoneverycharacteristicfea (page41) ture: that of disillusion. All these composers, among them Stravinsky and Hindemith, haveexpressedan"antiromantic"feeling.Theyaimedatmusicaladaptationtoreality, a reality understood by them in terms of the "machine age." The renunciation of dreamingbythesecomposersisanindexthatlistenersarereadytoreplacedreamingby adjustmenttorawreality,thattheyreapnewpleasurefromtheiracceptanceoftheun pleasant.Theyaredisillusionedaboutanypossibilityofrealizingtheirowndreamsinthe world in which they live, and consequently adapt themselves to this world. They take whatiscalledarealisticattitudeandattempttoharvestconsolationbyidentifyingthem selveswiththeexternalsocialforceswhichtheythinkconstitutethe"machineage."Yet theverydisillusionuponwhichtheircoordinationisbasedistheretomartheirpleasure. The cult of the machine which is represented by unabating jazz beats involves a self renunciation that cannot but take root in the form of a fluctuating uneasiness some whereinthepersonalityoftheobedient.Forthemachineisanendinitselfonlyunder given social conditions, where men are appendages of the machines on which they work.Theadaptationtomachinemusicnecessarilyimpliesarenunciationofone'sown humanfeelingsandatthesametimeafetishismofthemachinesuchthatitsinstrumen talcharacterbecomesobscuredthereby. Astotheother,the"emotional"type,thereissomejustificationforlinkingitwithatype of movie spectator. The kinship is with the poor shop girl who derives gratification by identification with Ginger Rogers, who, with her beautiful legs and unsullied character, marries the boss. Wishfulfillment is considered the guiding principle in the social psy chologyofmovingpicturesandsimilarlyinthepleasureobtainedfromemotional,erotic music.Thisexplanation,however,isonlysuperficiallyappropriate.

HollywoodandTinPanAlleymaybedreamfactories.Buttheydonotmerelysupplycat egoricalwishfulfillmentforthegirlbehindthecounter.Shedoesnotimmediatelyidenti fy herself withGingerRogersmarrying.Whatdoesoccurmaybeexpressedasfollows: when the audience at a sentimental film or sentimental music become aware of the overwhelming possibility of happiness, they dare to confess to themselves what the whole order of contemporary life ordinarily forbids them to admit, namely, that they actually have no part in happiness. What is supposed to be wishfulfillment is only the scant liberation that occurs with the realization that at last one need not deny oneself thehappinessofknowingthatoneisunhappyandthatonecouldbehappy.Theexperi enceoftheshopgirlisrelatedtothatoftheoldwomanwhoweepsattheweddingser vices (page42) ofothers,blissfullybecomingawareofthewretchednessofherownlife.Noteventhe mostgullibleindividualsbelievethateventuallyeveryonewillwinthesweepstakes.The actual function of sentimental music lies rather in the temporary release given to the awarenessthatonehasmissedfulfillment. Theemotionallistenerlistenstoeverythingintermsoflateromanticismandofthemu sicalcommoditiesderivedfromitwhicharealreadyfashionedtofittheneedsofemo tionallistening.Theyconsumemusicinordertobeallowedtoweep.Theyaretakenin bythemusicalexpressionoffrustrationratherthanbythatofhappiness.Theinfluence ofthestandardSlavicmelancholytypified byTchaikowskyandDvorakisbyfargreater thanthatofthemost"fulfilled"momentsofMozartoroftheyoungBeethoven.Theso called releasing element of music is simply the opportunity to feel something. But the actualcontentofthisemotioncanonlybefrustration.Emotionalmusichasbecomethe imageofthemotherwhosays,"Comeandweep,mychild."Itiskatharsisforthemasses, butkatharsiswhichkeepsthemallthemorefirmlyinline.Onewhoweepsdoesnotre

sistanymorethanonewhomarches.Musicthatpermitsitslistenerstheconfessionof their unhappiness reconciles them, by means of this "release," to their social depend ence. Ambivalence,spite,fury. The fact that the psychological "adjustment" effected by today's mass listening is illu sionaryandthatthe"escape"providedbypopularmusicactuallysubjectstheindividuals totheverysamesocialpowersfromwhichtheywanttoescapemakesitselffeltinthe veryattitudeofthosemasses.Whatappearstobereadyacceptanceandunproblematic gratificationisactuallyofaverycomplexnature,coveredbyaveilofflimsyrationaliza tions.Masslisteninghabitstodayareambivalent.Thisambivalence,whichreflectsupon the whole question of popularity of popular music, has to be scrutinized in order to throwsomelightuponthepotentialitiesofthesituation.Itmaybemadeclearthrough ananalogyfromthevisualfield.Everymoviegoerandeveryreaderofmagazinefictionis familiarwiththeeffectofwhatmaybecalledtheobsoletemodern:photographsoffa mousdancerswhowereconsideredalluringtwentyyearsago,revivalsofValentinofilms which, though the most glamorous of their day, appear hopelessly oldfashioned. This effect, originally discovered by French surrealists, has since become hackneyed. There arenumerousmagazinestodaythatmockfashionsasoutmoded,althoughtheirpopular itydatesbackonlyafewyearsandalthoughthe

(page43) verywomenwhoappearridiculousinthepaststylesareatthesametimeregardedas thepeakofsmartnessinpresentdayfashions.Therapiditywithwhichthemodernbe comes obsolete has a very significant implication. It leads to the question whether the change of effect can possibly be due entirely to the objects in themselves, or whether thechangemustbeatleastpartlyaccountedforbythedispositionofthemasses.Many ofthesewhotodaylaughattheBabsHuttonof1929notonlyadmiretheBabsHuttonof 1940butwerethrilledbyherin1929also.TheycouldnotnowscoffattheBarbaraHut tonof1929unlesstheiradmirationforher(orherpeers)atthattimecontainedinitself elementsreadytotiltoverintoitsoppositewhenhistoricallyprovoked.The"craze"or frenzyforaparticularfashioncontainswithinitselfthelatentpossibilityoffury. Thesamethingoccursinpopularmusic.Injazzjournalismitisknownas"corniness."Any rhythmicalformulawhichisoutdated,nomatterhow"hot"itisinitself,isregardedas ridiculousandthereforeeitherflatlyrejectedorenjoyedwiththesmugfeelingthatthe fashionsnowfamiliartothelisteneraresuperior. One could not possibly offer any musical criterion for certain musical formulas today consideredtabubecausetheyarecornysuchasasixteenthonthedownbeatwitha subsequentdottedeighth.Theyneednotbelesssophisticatedthananyofthesocalled swingformulas.Itisevenlikelythatinthepioneerdaysofjazztherhythmicalimprovisa tionswerelessschematicandmorecomplexthantheyaretoday.Nevertheless,theef fectofcorninessexistsandmakesitselffeltverydefinitely. Anadequateexplanationthatcanbeofferedevenwithoutgoingintoquestionsthatre quirepsychoanalyticalinterpretationisthefollowing:Likesthathavebeenenforcedup onlistenersprovokerevengethemomentthepressureisrelaxed.Theycompensatefor their "guilt" in having condoned the worthless by making fun of it. But the pressure is relaxed only as often as attempts are made to foist something "new" upon the public. Thus, the psychology of the corny effect is reproduced again and again and is likely to continueindefinitely.

Theambivalenceillustratedbytheeffectofcorninessisduetothetremendousincrease ofthedisproportionbetweentheindividualandthesocialpower.Anindividualpersonis facedwith anindividualsongwhichheisapparentlyfreeeithertoacceptorreject.By the plugging and support given the song by powerful agencies, he is deprived of the freedomofrejectionwhichhemightstillbecapableofmaintainingtowardtheindividual song.Todislikethesongisnolongeranexpressionofsubjectivetastebutratherarebel lionagainst (page44) the wisdom of a public utility and a disagreement with the millions of people who are assumed to support what the agencies are giving them. Resistance is regarded as the markofbadcitizenship,asinabilitytohavefun,ashighbrowinsincerity,forwhatnormal personcansethimselfagainstsuchnormalmusic? Suchaquantitativeincreaseofinfluencebeyondcertainlimits,however,fundamentally altersthecompositionofindividualityitself.Astrongwilledpoliticalprisonermayresist allsortsof pressureuntilmethodssuchas notallowinghimtosleepforseveralweeks areintroduced.Atthatpointhewillreadilyconfesseventocrimeshehasnotcommit ted. Something similar takes place with the listener's resistance as a result of the tre mendous quantity of force operating upon him. Thus, the disproportion between the strength of any individual and the concentrated social structure brought to bear upon him destroys his resistance and at the same time adds a bad conscience for his will to resistatall.Whenpopularmusicisrepeatedtosuchadegreethatitdoesnotanylonger appear to be a device but rather an inherent element of the natural world, resistance assumes a different aspect because the unity of individuality begins to crack. This of coursedoesnotimplyabsoluteeliminationofresistance.Butitisdrivenintodeeperand deeper strata of the psychological structure. Psychological energy must be directly in vestedinordertoovercomeresistance.Forthisresistancedoesnotwhollydisappearin

yieldingtoexternalforces,butremainsalivewithintheindividualandstillsurviveseven attheverymomentofacceptance.Herespitebecomesdrasticallyactive. It is the most conspicuous feature of the listeners' ambivalence toward popular music. Theyshieldtheirpreferencesfromanyimputationthattheyaremanipulated.Nothingis moreunpleasantthantheconfessionofdependence.Theshamearousedbyadjustment toinjusticeforbidsconfessionbytheashamed.Hence,theyturntheirhatredratheron thosewhopointtotheirdependencethanonthosewhotietheirbonds. The transfer of resistance skyrockets in those spheres which seem to offer an escape fromthematerialforcesofrepressioninoursocietyandwhichareregardedastheref uge of individuality. In the field of entertainment the freedom of taste is hailed as su preme.Toconfessthatindividualityisineffectivehereaswellasinpracticallifewould leadtothesuspicionthatindividualitymayhavedisappearedaltogether;thatis,thatit hasbeenreducedbystandardizedbehaviorpatternstoatotallyabstractideawhichno longerhasanydefinitecontent.Themassoflistenershavebeenputincompletereadi ness (page45) tojointhevaguelyrealizedconspiracydirectedwithoutinevitablemaliceagainstthem, to identify themselves with the inescapable, and to retain ideologically that freedom whichhasceasedtoexistasareality.Thehatredofthedeceptionistransferredtothe threatofrealizingthedeceptionandtheypassionatelydefendtheirownattitudesinceit allowsthemtobevoluntarilycheated. The material, to be accepted, necessitates this spite, too. Its commoditycharacter, its domineeringstandardization,isnotsohiddenastobeimperceptiblealtogether.Itcalls for psychological action on the part of the listener. Passivity alone is not enough. The listenermustforcehimselftoaccept.

Spiteismostapparentinthecaseofextremeadherentsofpopularmusicjitterbugs. Superficially,thethesisabouttheacceptanceoftheinescapableseemstoindicatenoth ingmorethantherelinquishingofspontaneity:thesubjectsaredeprivedofanyresidues offreewillwithrelationtopopularmusicandtendtoproducepassivereactionstowhat isgiventhemandtobecomemerecentersofsociallyconditionedreflexes.Theentomo logicaltermjitterbugunderscoresthis.Itreferstoaninsectwhohasthejitters,whois attracted passively by some given stimulus, such as light. The comparison of men with insectsbetokenstherecognitionthattheyhavebeendeprivedofautonomouswill. But this idea requires qualifications. They are already present in the official jitterbug terminology. Terms like the latest craze, swing frenzy, alligator, rugcutter, indicate a trendthatgoesbeyondsociallyconditionedreflexes:fury.Noonewhohaseverattend edajitterbugjamboreeordiscussedwithjitterbugscurrentissuesofpopularmusiccan overlooktheaffinityoftheirenthusiasmtofury,whichmayfirstbedirectedagainstthe criticsoftheiridolsbutwhichmaytiltoveragainsttheidolsthemselves.Thisfurycannot beaccountedforsimplybythepassiveacceptanceofthegiven.Itisessentialtoambiva lencethatthesubjectnotsimplyreactpassively.Completepassivitydemandsunambig uous acceptance. However, neither the material itself nor observation of the listeners supportstheassumptionofsuchunilateralacceptance.Simplyrelinquishingresistanceis notsufficientforacceptanceoftheinescapable. Enthusiasmforpopularmusicrequireswilfulresolutionbylisteners,whomusttransform theexternalordertowhichtheyaresubservientintoaninternalorder.Theendowment ofmusicalcommoditieswithlibidoenergyismanipulatedbytheego.Thismanipulation is not entirely unconscious therefore. It may be assumed that among those jitterbugs whoarenotexpertsandyetareenthusiastic

(page46) aboutArtieShaworBennyGoodman,theattitudeof"switchedon"enthusiasmprevails. They "join the ranks," but this joining does not only imply their conformity to given standards; it also implies a decision to conform. The appeal of the music publishers to the public to "join the ranks" manifests that the decision is an act of will, close to the surfaceofconsciousness.1) Thewholerealmofjitterbugfanaticismandmasshysteriaaboutpopularmusicisunder thespellofspitefulwilldecision.Frenziedenthusiasmimpliesnotonlyambivalenceinso farasitisreadytotiltoverintorealfuryorscornfulhumortowarditsidolsbutalsothe effectuationofsuchspitefulwilldecision.Theegoinforcingenthusiasm,mustoverforce it,since"natural"enthusiasmwouldnotsufficetodothejobandovercomeresistance.It is this element of deliberate overdoing which characterizes frenzy and selfconscious2) hysteria.Thepopularmusicfanmustbethoughtofasgoinghiswayfirmlyshuttinghis eyes and gritting his teeth in order to avoid deviation from what he has decided to acknowledge.Aclearandcalmviewwouldjeopardizetheattitudethathasbeeninflicted uponhimandthatheinturntriestoinflictuponhimself.Theoriginalwilldecisionupon which his enthusiasm is based is so superficial that the slightest critical consideration woulddestroyitunlessitisstrengthenedbythecrazewhichhereservesaquasirational purpose. Finallyatrendoughttobementionedwhichmanifestsitselfinthegesturesofthejitter bug:thetendencytowardselfcaricaturewhichappearstobeaimedatbythegaucheries ofthejitterbugssooftenadvertisedbymagazinesandillustratednewspapers.Thejitter buglooksasifhewouldgrimaceathimself,athisownenthusiasmandathisownen joymentwhichhedenouncesevenwhilepretendingtoenjoyhimself.Hemockshimself asifheweresecretlyhopingforthedayofjudgment.Byhismockeryheseekstogain exonerationforthefraudhehascommittedagainsthimself.Hissenseofhumormakes everythingsoshiftythathecannotbeputor,rather,puthimselfonthespotfor anyofhisreactions.Hisbadtaste,hisfury,hishiddenresistance,hisinsincerity,hisla tentcontemptforhimself,everythingiscloakedby"humor"andtherewithneutralized.

Thisinterpretationisthemorejustifiedasitisquiteunlikelythattheceaselessrepetition of the same effects would allow for genuine merriment. No one enjoys a joke he has heardahundredtimes.3)
1)

On the back of the sheet version of a certain hit, there appears the appeal: ''Follow

YourLeader,ArtieShaw."
2)

Onehitgoes:"I'mJustaJitterbug." Itwouldbeworthwhiletoapproachthisproblemexperimentallybytakingmotionpic

3)

tures of jitterbugs in action and later examining them in terms of gestural psychology. Suchanexperimentcouldalsoyieldvaluableresultswithregardtothequestion (footnotecontinuedonnextpage) (page47) Thereisanelementoffictitiousnessinallenthusiasmaboutpopularmusic.Scarcelyany jitterbugisthoroughlyhystericalaboutswingorthoroughlyfascinatedbyaperformance. In addition to some genuine response to rhythmical stimuli, mass hysteria, fanaticism andfascinationthemselvesarepartlyadvertisingslogansafterwhichdievictimspattern theirbehavior.Thisselfdelusionisbaseduponimitationandevenhistrionics.Thejitter bugistheactorofhisownenthusiasmortheactoroftheenthusiasticfrontpagemodel presented to him. He shares withthe actor the arbitrariness of his own interpretation. Hecanswitchoffhisenthusiasmaseasilyandsuddenlyasheturnsiton.Heisonlyun deraspellofhisownmaking.

Butthecloserthewilldecision,thehistrionics,andtheimminenceofselfdenunciation inthejitterbugaretothesurfaceofconsciousness,thegreateristhepossibilitythatthe setendencieswillbreakthroughinthemass,and,onceandforall,dispensewithcon trolled pleasure. They cannot be altogether the spineless lot of fascinated insects they arecalledandliketostylethemselves.Theyneedtheirwill,ifonlyinordertodownthe alltooconsciouspremonitionthatsomethingis"phony"withtheirpleasure.Thistrans formationoftheirwillindicatesthatwillisstillaliveandthatundercertaincircumstanc esitmaybestrongenoughtogetridofthesuperimposedinfluenceswhichdogitsevery step. Inthepresentsituationitmaybeappropriateforthesereasonswhichareonlyexam plesofmuchbroaderissuesofmasspsychologytoasktowhatextentthewholepsy choanalyticaldistinctionbetweentheconsciousandtheunconsciousisstilljustified.Pre sentday mass reactions are very thinly veiled from consciousness. It is the paradox of the situation that it is almost insuperably difficult to break through this thin veil. Yet truthissubjectivelynolongersounconsciousasitisexpectedtobe.Thisisborneoutby thefactthatinthepoliticalpraxisofauthoritarianregimesthefranklieinwhichnoone actuallybelievesismoreandmorereplacingthe"ideologies"ofyesterdaywhichhadthe power to convince those who believed in them. Hence, we cannot content ourselves with merely stating that spontaneity has been replaced by blind acceptance of the en forcedmaterial.Eventhebeliefthatpeopletodayreactlikeinsectsandaredegenerating into mere centers of socially conditioned reflexes, still belongs to the facade. Too well doesitservethepurposeofthose of how musical standards and "deviations" in popular music are apperceived. If one wouldtakesoundtrackssimultaneouslywiththemotionpicturesonecouldfindouti.e. how far the Jitterbugs react gesturally to the syncopations they pretend to be crazy aboutandhowfartheyrespondsimplytothegroundbeats.Ifthelatteristheitwould furnishanotherindexforthefictitiousnessofthiswholetypeoffrenzy.

(page48) whoprateabouttheNewMythosandtheirrationalpowersofcommunity.Rather,spon taneityisconsumedbythetremendouseffortwhicheachindividualhastomakeinorder toacceptwhatisenforceduponhimaneffortwhichhasdevelopedfortheveryrea sonthattheveneerveilingthecontrollingmechanismshasbecomesothin.Inorderto becomeajitterbugorsimplyto"like"popularmusic,itdoesnotbyanymeanssufficeto giveoneselfupandtofallinlinepassively.Tobecometransformedintoaninsect,man needsthatenergywhichmightpossiblyachievehistransformationintoaman.