CHAPTER-1 PROCESS OF REFINERY

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of producing various valuable petroleum products from crude oil is termed as oil refining. Refining is a complex engineering application which involves both Physical and Chemical processes for converting crude oil into useful products. Oil Refinery is the industry where the refining of Crude Oil takes place and it is converted into petroleum products. These products have various applications like Domestic (LPG & Kerosene), Commercial (Heating oil, Petrochemical Feed, Lube Oil) & Transportation (MS, ATF & HSD). Refining involves almost all aspect of Engineering and a continuous R&D for developing the Refining Technology.

RAW MATERIAL
CRUDE OIL A mixture of a wide range of molecules is pumped or mined from underground reservoirs. As a mixture it has very little value; too runny for paving, too thick for an engine. Fortunately each molecule boils at a different temperature, which is the basis of distillation. Crude Oil is classified based on its Origin, Physical & Chemical Properties. Major Oil producing nations are part of an organization called OPEC that regulates the Oil scenario across the Globe. The major oil producing Nation are Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Libya, Nigeria, Venezuela. Other countries also produce Oil but comparatively in lower quantity.

Classification of Crude Oil

a) Based on Origin: Middle East, West African, Far East, North Sea, South American etc. b) Based on Properties: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Specific Gravity Measured in Term of API. Sulphur Content High, Moderate & Low Sulphur Acidity High TAN (Total Acid Number) & Low TAN Other properties like Viscosity, Metals, Asphaltenes, and Nitrogen. Distillate Yield White Oil content

In an Oil Refinery apart of Crude Oil other material used are utilities like steam, power, catalysts and chemicals, which are part of processing requirement. But crude oil is the only raw material of a Refinery and constitute to 90-95% of total input cost.

TYPES OF CRUDE
There are two types of crude1) LIGHT CRUDE: - which produces the products like LPG, NAPTHA, and KEROSENE etc. 2) HEAVY CRUDE: - which produces the products like industrial oil, furnace oil etc.

1.2 REFINING PROCESS

The crude oil is processed in a refinery to produce various hydrocarbon products like LPG, Naphtha, Petrol, Kerosene, ATF, Diesel, Furnace Oil, Lube Base Oils etc. The complexity of refinery depends upon the factor that to what extent it is able to produce white oil called Distillates and its ability to process difficult crude like Heavy, high sulphur, high acidity and other properties which will lead to either handling difficulties or processing problems like corrosion. Various equipment which forms a Refinery are Distillation Columns, Reactors, various type of Heat Exchangers, Pumps, Compressors, Boilers, Control Valves, Instrumentation, Advanced electrical & electronics applications and power equipments. Refining Process involves: a) Primary Process The primary process involves Primary unit called Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) where separation of various hydrocarbon streams based on its vapour pressure takes place. In primary process unit we get direct products which do not require any type of treatment other than fractional distillation like NAPTHA, KEROSENE, DIESEL, ATF etc. b) Secondary Process These process accounts for complexity of Refinery and these Refining processes are classified based on the process involved. This processing unit includes various processes like cracking, hydrotreating reforming etc. From this unit we get indirect products like sulphur. fuel gas etc. Crude oil is a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons chemical compounds consisting roughly of six parts of carbon and one of hydrogen, both of which are fuels; it generally also carries small quantities of sulphur, salts, metals, oxygen and nitrogen. It was formed from organic remains accumulated undersea and eventually trapped in sedimentary rocks; these rocks are where crude oil exploration is concentrated. Generally the oil is compressed, and gushes out if a pipe is pushed into an oil-bearing trap. But as it is extracted, the pressure diminishes, and it is often artificially reinforced by injection of air or water into the reservoir to push up the oil.
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Crude oil contains hydrocarbons that vary in their boiling point; refining is a process in which crude oil is heated in a vacuum until it evaporates and then allowed to rise up a column. Different hydrocarbons liquefy at different temperatures and can be collected at various heights in the distillation column. In the basic refinery process, crude is heated to 600C by injection of superheated steam and pumped in at the bottom of a vertical distillation column. As the vapour rises up the column, it cools. The column has trays at various heights with holes. As the vapour cools, fractions with different boiling points liquefy, collect in the trays and are drained off; products with high boiling points rise to the top, while products with low boiling points collect on lower trays. The principal products, with their approximate boiling points, are petroleum gas (20C), naphtha (40C), petrol (70C), kerosene and jet fuel (120C), diesel (200C), lubricant (300C), and furnace oil (370C); solid petroleum coke collects at the bottom after the liquid fractions are removed.

1.3 PRODUCTION PROCESS

FIGURE 1.1-BASIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF PRODUCTION PROCESS

1.4 MAJOR PRODUCTS

1) Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 2) Naphtha & Derivatives 3) Motor Spirit (Petrol) 4) Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) 5) Superior Kerosene Oil (SKO) 6) Diesel (HSD) 7) Furnace Oil (FO) 8) Lube Base Stock 9) Extracts 10) Asphalt (Bitumen) 11) Wax 12) Sulphur 13) Bitumen

1.5 MAJOR PRODUCTION UNITS

1. Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation Unit (AVU) 2. Continuous Catalytic Reformer Unit (CCRU) 3. Visbreaking Unit (VBU) 4. Hydrogen Generation Unit (HGU) 5. Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU) 6. Once through Hydrocracker Unit (OHCU) 7. Diesel Hydro Desulphurization Unit (DHDS) 8. Amine Regeneration Unit (ARU) 9. Sour Water Stripper Unit (SWSU) 10. Bitumen Blowing Unit (BBU) 11. Sulphur Recovery Unit (SRU) 12. Motor Spirit Quality Unit (MSQU)

CHAPTER- 2 ATOMSPHERIC AND VACUUM DISTILLATION UNIT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The ADU (Atmospheric Distillation Unit) separates most of the lighter products such as gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and gas oil from the crude oil. The bottoms of the ADU are then sent to the VDU (Vacuum Distillation Unit).Crude oil is preheated by the bottoms feed exchanger, further preheated and partially vaporized in the feed furnace and then passed into the atmospheric tower where it is separated into off gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, gas oil and bottoms. Atmospheric and Vacuum unit (AVU) of Mathura Refinery is designed to process100% Bombay High Crude and 100% Arab Mix crude (consisting of Light and Heavy crude in 50:50 proportions by weight) in blocked out operation @ 11.0 MMTPA.AVU consists of following sections: 1. Crude Desalting section 2. Atmospheric Distillation section 3. Stabilizer section 4. Vacuum Distillation section

TYPES OF CRUDE
Low Sulphur Indian: Bombay High Nigerian: Girasol, Farcados, And Bonny light High Sulphur Imported: Arab Mix, Kuwait, Dubai, Ratawi, Basra etc AVU is the mother of all units in for all refineries because we cannot process and cant get the desired products. This is the main unit for all refineries. AVU is the combination of two units i.e. CDU and VDU. CDU is the crude distillation unit in which distillation of crude is occurred and after CDU the process of VDU starts in which vacuum distillation is occurred.

2.2 UNIT OPRETION

FIGURE 2.1: FLOW CHART OF OPERATION OF AVU

First the feed or crude is preheated then it goes to a desalting process and then for vaporization and after that the crude goes through distillation towers for process of distillation. Distillation process completed in two processes. First crude is simply distilled and then further goes to an atmospheric distillation process.

DISTILLATION
A process in which liquid or vapour mixture of two or more substances is separated into its component fraction of desired purity, by the application and removal of heat.Distillation process is done distillation tower which number of trays according to their tempareture ranges.

AVU PROCESSING SYSTEM

FIGURE 2.2: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AVU UNIT

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS

DESALTER It is used to remove the salt impurities present in the crude oil. It also removes water from the crude. Before this the crude is preheated and then fed to desalter. The temperature of desalter is near about 130oC. Crude contains salts impurity mainly NaCl, Cacl2, Mgcl2 etc. Since at high temperature salts get hydrolyzed in presence of water. PRE-TOPPING COLUMN This column is used to reduce the load of the main fractionator column. It separates gases from the crude. The main products of the column are LPG, over headed gases and unstabilized Naptha. In this column we inject the ammonia in the form of aqueous solution for preventing HCL corrosion in the column. MAIN FRACTIONER It is a distillation process. The bottom products of pre-topping column are heated in the train of heat exchangers and fired heater and in main fractionator column at 360oC. The main products of this column are Heavy Naptha, Kerosene and bottom product is RCO. The column is provided with 56 trays of which 8 are baffle trays in the stripping section.
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Heated and partly vaporized crude feed coming from fired heater enters the flash zone of the column at tray no.46 at 355C/365C. Hydrocarbon vapours flash in this zone and get liberated. Non-flashed liquid a move down which is largely bottom product, called RCO.MP steam having some degree of superheat is introduced in the column below tray no.46 at approximately 3.5 kg/cm2(g) and 290C for stripping of RCO. Steam stripping helps to remove lighter constituents from the bottom product (RCO). Hydrocarbon vapours liberated by flashing move up along with the steam in the column for further mass transfer at trays in the upper section. Reduced crude oil product is collected at the bottom of the column and the overhead vapours are totally condensed in overhead air condenser and train condenser. This condensed overhead product is separated as hydrocarbon and water in the reflux drum. Water is drawn out under inter phase level control and sent to sour water drums. STABLIZER The unstablized naptha where LPG is separated from gasoline and finally we get LPG and stabilized Naptha. Fuel Gas generated during BH/AM operation is routed to Fuel Gas Amine treatment Unit. Unstable Naphtha containing Fuel Gas, LPG and Naphtha is sent to stabilizer under cascaded flow. VACUUM DISTILLATION COLUMN - Atmospheric Distillation unit distills crude oil into fractions. Vacuum Distillation unit further distills residual bottoms after atmospheric distillation. Above 360 degree the heavy hydrocarbons starts cracking so to avoid cracking and separate the middle distillate and feed for RFCCU the RCO is heated to 387 degree and is further distilled in VDU. Hot RCO from the atmospheric column bottom at 355 C is mixed with slop recycle from vacuum column, heated and partially vapourized in 8-pass vacuum furnace and introduced to the flash zone of the vacuum column. The flash zone pressure is maintained at 115-120mm of Hg. Steam (MP) is injected into individual passes and regulated manually. Three injection points have been provided on each pass. This is to maintain required velocities in the heater, which is Fuel Gas, Fuel Oil or combination fuel fired. Each cell is provided with 10 burners fired vertically upshot from furnace floor along the centerline of the cell.The vapourized portions entering the flash zone of the column along with stripped light ends from the bottoms rise up in the vacuum column and are fractionated into four side stream products in 5 packed sections. The hydrocarbon vapours are condensed in the Vac Slop, HVGO, LDO and LVGO sections by circulating refluxes to yield the side draw products. Vacuum is maintained by a two-stage ejector system with surface condensers. The condensed portion from the condensers are routed to the hot well from where the non-condensable are sent to the vacuum furnace low-pressure burners or vented to the atmosphere. Oil carried over along with the steam condensate is pumped to the vacuum diesel run down line by over head oil pumps.

CHAPTER - 3 DHDS
3.1 DHDS (DIESEL HYDRO DE SULPHURIZATION UNIT)
Hydrodesulphurization (HDS) is a catalytic chemical process widely used to remove sulphur (S) from natural gas and from refined petroleum products such as gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel fuel, and fuel oils. The purpose of removing the sulphur is to reduce the sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions that result from using those fuels in automotive vehicles, aircraft, railroad locomotives, ships, gas or oil burning power plants, residential and industrial furnaces, and other forms of fuel combustion. Another important reason for removing sulphur from the naphtha streams within a petroleum refinery is that sulphur, even in extremely low concentrations, poisons the noble metal catalysts (platinum and rhenium) in the catalytic reforming units that are subsequently used to upgrade the octane rating of the naphtha streams. The industrial hydrodesulphurization processes include facilities for the capture and removal of the resulting hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas. In petroleum refineries, the hydrogen sulphide gas is then subsequently converted into byproduct elemental sulphur or sulphuric acid (H2SO4). In fact, the vast majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005 was byproduct sulphur from refineries and other hydrocarbon processing plants. An HDS unit in the petroleum refining industry is also often referred to as a hydrotreater. DHDS (Diesel hydro desulphurization unit) is set up for the following purposes: A step towards pollution control To produce low sulphur diesel (0.25 w/w %) as per govt. directive w.e.f. Oct.1999. Feed consists of different proportion of straight run LGO, HGO, LVGO and TCO. Mainly two proportions are used: 74% SR LGO, 21% SR HGO, 5% SR LVGO 48% SR LGO, 24% SR HGO, 8% SR LVGO, 20% TCO The DHDS unit treats different gas oils from various origins, straight run or cracked products. The feed is a mixture of products containing unsaturated components (diolefins, olefins), Aromatics, Sulphur compounds and Nitrogen compounds. Sulphur and nitrogen contents are dependent upon the crude. The purpose of DHDS Unit is to hydro-treat a blend of straight run gas oil and cracked gas oil (TCO) for production of HSD of sulfur content less than 500ppm wt. The Hydrodesulphurization reaction releases H2S in gaseous hydrocarbon effluents. This H2S removal is achieved by means of a continuous absorption process using a 25% wt. DEA solution. In addition to the desulphurization, the di-olefins and olefins will be saturated and a denitrification will occur. De-nitrification improves the product stability. The hydrogen is supplied from the hydrogen unit. Lean amine for absorption operation is available from Amine Regeneration Unit (ARU). Rich Amine containing absorbed H2S is sent to ARU for amine regeneration.
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3.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION

In an industrial hydro desulfurization unit, such as in a refinery, the hydro desulfurization reaction takes place in a fixed-bed reactor at elevated temperatures ranging from 300 to 400 C and elevated pressures ranging from 30 to 130 atmospheres of absolute pressure, typically in the presence of a catalyst consisting of an alumina base impregnated with cobalt and molybdenum (usually called a Co-Mo catalyst). Occasionally, a combination of nickel and molybdenum (called Ni-Mo) is used, in addition to the Co-Mo catalyst, for specific difficult-to-treat feed stocks, such as those containing a high level of chemically bound nitrogen. .

FIGURE 3.1: SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF DHDS UNIT The liquid feed (at the bottom left in the diagram) is pumped up to the required elevated pressure and is joined by a stream of hydrogen-rich recycle gas. The resulting liquid-gas mixture is preheated by flowing through a heat exchanger. The preheated feed then flows through a fired heater where the feed mixture is totally vaporized and heated to the required elevated temperature before entering the reactor and flowing through a fixed-bed of catalyst where the hydride desulphurization reaction takes place. The hot reaction products are partially cooled by flowing through the heat exchanger where the reactor feed was preheated and then flows through a water-cooled heat exchanger before it flows through the pressure controller (PC) and undergoes a pressure reduction down to about 3 to 5 atmospheres. The resulting mixture of liquid and gas enters the gas separator vessel at about 35 C and 3 to 5 atmospheres of absolute pressure.
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Most of the hydrogen-rich gas from the gas separator vessel is recycle gas, which is routed through an amine contactor for removal of the reaction product H2S that it contains. The H2Sfree hydrogen-rich gas is then recycled back for reuse in the reactor section. Any excess gas from the gas separator vessel joins the sour gas from the stripping of the reaction product liquid.

3.3 PROCESS VARIABLES

HYDROGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE The hydrogen partial pressure has to be kept as high as possible, in order to favor the desirable reactions: Hydrodesulphurization Hydrogenation of nitrogen and oxygen compounds. High hydrogen partial pressure decreases the undesirable reactions of: Hydro cracking Coking TEMPERATURE The reaction temperature must be kept as low as possible because the most desirable reactions do not need high temperature to remain at desirable rates.

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CHAPTER 4 CATALYTIC REFORMING UNIT

4.1 CATALYTIC REFORMING
This is used to increase the octane ratings of the oil concerned. Octane number is a measure of the 'knock' or 'pinking' that occurs in an internal combustion engine when an unsuitable (too low Octane) fuel is used. The octane number is defined by an arbitrary scale which allocates zero Octane number to n-heptanes and 100 to2, 2, 4-trimethyl pentane (iso-octane). The octane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture with n-heptanes that gives the same degree of knocking as the fuel in a special test engine. Catalytic reforming is a major conversion process that transforms low octane naptha feed stock to high octane naptha for use as a gasoline blending component to make lead free petrol. A rich hydrogen gas (about 90% purity) and LPG are obtained as valuable by products. The reformer can also be run for production of reformate rich in benzene, toluene, xylenes (BTX). The capacity of CRU is 0.33MMTPA. The feed of this unit is the combination of straight run naptha and small qualities of hydrocracker heavy naptha and vis-breaker naptha. CATALYST Catalysts are an integral part of both functions of refining. Catalysts may be solid or liquid. Catalysts vary widely in size, shape, and function. The most common catalyst in a refinery is that which removes sulfur from oil.

Major products of CRU

There are main four products of catalytic reforming:1) High octane reformate stream 2) Rich hydrogen gas stream 3) Light reformate 4) LPG stream

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4.2 DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS

FIGURE 4.1: FLOW DIAGRAM OF CRU

4.3 FCCU (FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT)

In the newer designs for Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit, cracking takes place using a very active zeolite - based catalyst in a short-contact time vertical or upward sloped pipe called the "riser". Pre-heated feed is sprayed into the base of the riser via feed nozzles where it contacts extremely hot fluidized catalyst at 1230 to 1400 F (665 to 760 C). The hot catalyst vaporizes the feed and catalyzes the cracking reactions that break down the high molecular weight oil into lighter components including LPG, gasoline, and diesel. The catalyst-hydrocarbon mixture flows upward through the riser for just a few seconds and then the mixture is separated via cyclones. The catalyst-free hydrocarbons are routed to a main fractionator for separation into fuel gas, LPG, gasoline, light cycle oils used in diesel During the trip up the riser, the cracking catalyst is "spent" by reactions which deposit coke on the catalyst and greatly reduce activity and selectivity. The "spent" catalysis disengaged from the cracked hydrocarbon vapours and sent to a stripper where it is contacted with steam to remove hydrocarbons remaining in the catalyst pores. The "spent catalyst then flows into a fluidized-bed regenerator where air (or in some cases air plus oxygen) is used to burn off the coke to restore catalyst activity and also provide the necessary heat for the next reaction cycle, cracking being an endothermic reaction. The
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"regenerated" catalyst then flows to the base of the riser, repeating the cycle. The gasoline produced in the FCC unit has an elevated octane rating but is less chemically stable compared to other gasoline components due to its olefin profile. Olefins in gasoline are responsible for the formation of polymeric deposits in storage tanks, fuel ducts and injectors. The FCC LPG is an important source of C3-C4 olefins and iso butane that are essential feeds for the alkylation process and the production of polymers such as poly propylene. In this process Heavy Gas Oil cut (Raw Oil) from Vacuum Distillation Section of AVU is catalytically cracked to obtain more valuable light and middle distillates. The present processing capacity of the unit is about 1.48 MMT/Yr. It consists of the following sections: Cracking section Catalytic section, Fractionation section and Gas concentration section. CO boiler The unit is designed to process two different types of feed i.e. Arab Mix HVGO and Bombay High HVGO.

CRACKING SECTION Cracking process uses high temperature to convert heavy hydrocarbons into more valuable lighter products. This can be accomplished either thermally or catalytically. The catalytic process has completely superseded thermal cracking as the catalyst helps the reactions to take place at lower pressures and temperatures. At the same time, the process produces a higher octane gasoline, more stable cracked gas and less of the undesirable heavy residual product. The process is also flexible in that it can be tailored to fuel oil, gas oil operations producing high yields of cycle oils or to LPG operations producing yields of C3-C4fraction.The fluid Catalytic Cracking process employs a catalyst in the form of minute spherical particles, which behaves like a fluid when aerated with a vapour. This fluidized catalyst is continuously circulated from the reaction zone to the regeneration zone. The catalyst also transfers heat carried with it from one zone to the other viz. in the vessels reactor and regenerator. The reaction and regeneration zones form the heart of the catalytic cracking unit.

Feed to the FCC Unit is gas oils obtained by vacuum distillation of long residue from the crude distillation unit. In our unit the vacuum cut boiling in the range 380-530oC will be used as feedstock to the FCC Unit. Carbon content in the feedstock should be limited to 0.5% by wt. maximum. This carbon content increases with heavier charge stock. Catalyst section consists of the reactor and regenerator together with the standpipes and riser form the catalyst circulation circuit. The catalyst circulates up the riser to the reactor, down through the stripper to the regenerator across to the regenerator standpipe and back to the riser. The vertical riser is in fact
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the reactor in which the entire reaction takes place. The reactor is a container for cyclone separators at the end of vertical riser. Fresh feed after heat exchange and heating up to 340360oC in a feed pre-heater enters through 4 fresh feed nozzles to the riser. Recycle is introduced by 2 HCO and 2Slurry feed nozzles to the riser. The feed is vaporized and raised to the reactor temperature by the hot catalyst flowing upward through the riser. Cracking reactions start immediately as the gas oil comes into contact with the hot catalyst. These reactions continue till the oil vapours are separated from the catalyst in the reactor. The separators mounted on top of the riser separates the catalyst from the oil vapours. This separation is required to prevent secondary reactions, which will result in higher gas production. Catalyst and hydrocarbon vapours, after cracking, flow upwards and pass through two cyclone separators attached to top of the reactor. These cyclones remove most of the entrained catalyst. Oil vapours containing a small quantity of catalyst pass over head through the vapour line into the fractionator.

CATALYTIC SECTION The Fluid Catalytic Cracking process employs a catalyst in the form of minute spherical particles, which behaves like a fluid when aerated with a vapour. This fluidized catalyst is continuously circulated from the reaction zone to the regeneration zone. Feed to the FCC Unit is gas oils obtained by vacuum distillation of long residue from the crude distillation unit. In our unit the vacuum cut boiling in the range 380-530Cis used as feedstock to the FCC Unit. Conrads on carbon content in the feedstock should be limited to 0.5% by wt. maximum. Metal contaminants of the feedstock are also to be limited to a metal factor of 2.5 maximum. Metal Factor = Fe + V + (Ni + Cu) Catalyst section consists of the reactor and regenerator together with the standpipes and riser form the catalyst circulation circuit. The catalyst circulates up the riser to the reactor, down through the stripper to the regenerator across to the regenerator standpipe and back to the riser. The vertical riser is in fact the reactor in which the entire reaction takes place. The reactor is a container for cyclone separators at the end of vertical riser. Fresh feed after heating up to 350 degree C in a feed pre-heater along with recycle streams enters the base of the riser. In the riser the combined feed is vaporized and raised to the reactor temperature by the hot catalyst flowing upward through the riser. Cracking reactions start immediately as the gas oil comes into contact with the hot catalyst. Entrained catalyst and hydrocarbon vapours, after cracking, flow upwards and pass through two cyclone separators attached to top of the reactor. These cyclones remove most of the entrained catalyst. Oil vapours containing a small quantity of catalyst pass overhead through the vapour line into the fractionator. Coke is deposited on the catalyst in the reaction zone. The spent catalyst flows downwards into the stripping section of the reactor. After steam stripping to remove oil vapours from it the catalyst flows from the reactor standpipe to the regenerator through a slide valve in the regenerator, the coke is burnt off, oxygen for burning
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being supplied by an air blower. The heat of combustion raises the catalyst temperature to more than 600 degree C. Most of the heat in the catalyst is given to the feed in the reactor riser to raise it to the reaction temperature and to provide the heat of reaction. The regenerated catalyst from the standpipe flows into the riser through a slide valve to complete the catalyst circulation cycle. Catalyst particles in the flue gas leaving the regenerator are separated at the top of regenerator by three sets of two-stage cyclones. The flue gas contains both CO and CO2 as carbon is burnt off partly to CO and partly to CO2 in the regenerator. The sensible and chemical heat in flue gas is utilized to generate steam in CO Boiler.

FIGURE 4.2: CATALYTIC SECTION

FRACTIONATIOR SECTION In this section, the vapours coming out of the reactor top at very high temperature are fractionated into wet gas and un-stabilized gasoline overhead products, heavy naphtha, and light cycle oil as side products. Heavy cycle oil drawn from the column is totally recycled along with the feed after providing for the recycle stream to the column. The column bottom slurry containing a small quantity of catalyst is sent to a slurry settler. From the settler bottom, the
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thickened slurry is recycled back to the riser for recovering catalyst and further cracking. From the top of slurry settler, clarified oil product is taken out after cooling, which goes for blending in Fuel Oil.

GAS CONCENTRATION SECTION The wet gas from the fractionator overhead receiver is compressed in a two-stage centrifugal compressor and sent to a high-pressure (HP) receiver after cooling. Gas from the HP receiver is sent to the Primary Absorber for recovery of C3's and heavier components by absorption with stabilized gasoline taken from the debutanizer column bottom and un-stabilized gasoline from main column overhead receiver. Rich gasoline from absorber bottom is recycled back to the HP receiver. The stripped gasoline is further stabilized in the debutanizer removing C3 and C4 components from it as cracked LPG and bottom product as stabilized FCC gasoline. Both LPG and gasoline are MEROX treated before routing to storage. CO BOILER The flue gas leaving the regenerator via orifice chamber contains 8-13% carbon monoxide, the rest being inert like nitrogen, steam, carbon dioxide, etc. In the CO Boiler, flue gas is burnt with air converting carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, thus releasing the heat of combustion of CO in the boiler. This heat as well as the sensible heat in flue gas available at a high temperature is utilized for raising medium pressure steam.

4.4 CONTINOUS CRACKING REFORMING UNIT

A catalytic reforming process converts a feed stream containing paraffins, Olefins and naphthalene to aromatics. The product stream of the reformer is generally referred to as reformate. Reformate produced by this process has a very high octane rating. Significant quantities of hydrogen are also produced as a by-product. Catalytic reforming is normally facilitated by a bi-functional catalyst that is capable of rearranging and breaking long-chain hydrocarbons as well as removing hydrogen from naphthalene to produce aromatics. The idea of a Catalytic Reforming Unit is to have RON (Research Octane Number) as high as possible at the same time keeping the Olefins, Benzene &Aromatics under the specified limits. The different types of reformers are classified as a fixed-bed type, semi-regenerative type, cyclic type and the continuous regenerative type. This classification is based on the ability of the unit to operate without bringing down the catalyst for Regeneration. During the regeneration process, the refinery will suffer production loss. In the Continuous Catalytic Reforming unit, the reactors are cleverly stacked, so that the catalyst can flow under gravity. From the bottom of the reactor stack, the 'spent' catalyst is 'lifted' by nitrogen to the top of the regenerator stack. In the
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regenerator, the above mentioned different steps, coke burning, oxy chlorination and drying are done in different sections, segregated via a complex system of valves, purge-flows and screens. From the bottom of the regenerator stack, catalyst is lifted by hydrogen to the top of the reactor stack, in a special area called the reduction zone. In the reduction zone, the catalyst passes a heat exchanger in which it is heated up against hot feed. Under hot conditions it is brought in contact with hydrogen, which performs a reduction of the catalyst surface, thereby restoring its activity. In such a continuous regeneration process, a constant catalyst activity can be maintained without unit shut down for a typical run length of 3 - 6 years. The purpose of the CCR unit is to produce a high octane no. reformate. The octane no. of the gasoline coming from the AVU is around 66, whereas the required value of the octane no. is 87, 88 and 93.

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CHAPTER 5 SULPHUR RECOVERY UNIT

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The unit consists of three identical units A, B and C. One of them is kept standby. The process design is in accordance with common practice to recover elemental sulfur known as the Clause process, which is further improved by Super Clause process. Each unit consists of a thermal stage, in which H2S is partially burnt with air, followed by two catalytic stages. A catalytic incinerator for incineration of all gases has been in corporate in order to prevent pollution of the atmosphere.

5.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The sulfur recovery process applied in the present design, which is known as the Clause process, is based upon the combustion of H2S with a ratio controlled flow of air which is maintained automatically in sufficient quantity to evolve the complete oxidation of all hydrocarbons and ammonia present in the sour gas feed and to burn one third of the hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxide and water. H2S + 3/2 O2 SO2+ H2O + Heat The major percentage of the residual H2S combines with the SO2 to form Sulphur, according to the following equilibrium reaction 2 H2S + SO2 3S + 2H2O + Heat Sulphur is formed in vapour phase in the main combustion chamber. The primary function of the waste heat boiler is to remove the major portion of heat involved in the combustion chamber. The secondary function of waste heat boiler is to condense the sulphur, which is drained to a sulphur pit. At this stage 60% of the sulphur present in the sour gas feed is removed. The third function of the waste heat boiler is to utilize the heat liberated there to produce LP steam (4 kg/cm2).The process gas leaving the waste heat boiler still contains a considerable part of H2S and SO2. Therefore, the essential function of the following equipment is to shift the equilibrium by adopting a low reactor temperature thus removing the sulphur as soon as it is formed. Conversion to sulphur is reached by a catalytic process in two subsequent reactors containing a special synthetic alumina catalyst. Before entering the first reactor, the process gas flow is heated to an optimum temperature by means of a line burner, with mixing chamber, in order to achieve a high conversion. In the line burner mixing chamber the process gas is mixed with the hot flue gas obtained by burning fuel gas with air. In the first reactor the reaction between the H2S and SO2 recommences until equilibrium is reached. The effluent gas from the first reactor passes to the first sulphur condenser where at this stage approximately 29% of the sulphur present in the sour gas feed is condensed and drained to the sulphur pit. The total sulphur recovery after the first reactor
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stage is 89% of the sulphur present in the sour gas feed. In order to achieve a figure of 94% sulphur recovery the sour gas is subjected to one more stage. The process gas flow is once again subjected to preheating by means of a second line burner then passed to a second reactor and the sulphur condensed in a second condenser accomplish a total sulphur recovery of 94%.

FIGURE 5.1: FLOW DIAGRAM OF A CLAUS PROCESS

5.3 CLAUS SECTION By the reactions described before, sulfur is formed in vapour phase in the main burner and combustion chamber. The primary function of waste heat boiler is to remove the heat generated in main burner. The secondary function of waste heat boiler is to utilize removed heat to produce MHP stream. The process gas from the waste heat boiler is passed into the 1st sulphur condenser, where the formed sulphur is removed from the gas. The process gas leaving the sulphur condenser still contains a considerable concentration of H2S and SO2. Therefore, the essential function of the following equipments is to convert these components to sulphur. In the 1st, 2nd and 3rd reactor stages, the H2S and SO2 again react to form sulphur but this time at lower temperatures. In the SUPERCLAUS stage, the remaining H2S is selectively oxidized to sulphur. For this reason it is essential that the combustion in the main burner is such that in the downstream of the 3rd reactor stage, the amount of H2S in the range of 0.5 0.7 volume % and the SO 2 concentration is as low as possible. Before entering the 1st reactor, the process gas flow is heated by indirect steam to obtain the optimum temperature for a high conversion of H 2S and SO2 to elemental sulfur and simultaneously a high conversion of COS and CS2 to H2S and SO2 .The effluent gas from the 1st reactor is routed to 2nd sulphur condenser. The process gas
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flow is next routed to 2nd steam re heater and then to 2nd reactor where equilibrium is established. The sulphur is condensed in the 3rd sulphur condenser. From the 3rd sulphur condenser, the process gas is routed to 3rdsteam re heater, then passed to the 3rd reactor where equilibrium is established. The sulphur is condensed in the 4th sulphur condenser.

5.4 SUPER CLAUS SECTION

The process gas from the 4th sulphur condenser is routed to the fourth steam re heater then passed to the reactor. Before it enters the reactor, a controlled amount of air is added. Proper mixing is obtained in a static mixer. In the reactor sulphur S8 is formed according to the reaction mentioned before. The formed sulphur is condensed in the 5th sulphur condenser. A Sulphur coalescer is installed downstream of the last sulphur condenser to separate entrained sulphur mist. The sulphur condensed and separated in the condensers and coalescer is drained via the sulphur locks and the sulphur cooler into the sulphur pits.

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CHAPTER 6 OTHER UNITS

6.1 HGU (Hydrogen Generation Unit)
INTRODUCTION Hydrogen Generation Unit was commissioned with a capacity of 10,000 metric tonnes per Annum of 99.99% pure hydrogen that subsequently increased to 15,000 MTPY .The hydrogen generation units can be divided into four sections. These are: 1. Pre desulphurization 2. Desulphurization 3. Reforming 4. CO-Conversion The hydrogen generation unit can be fed either by a naptha or natural gas. The naptha feed is pressurized to about 30 kg/cm2g by one of the naptha feed pumps and sent to desulphurization section. The pressurized feed is mixed with recycle hydrogen from the hydrogen header. The liquid naptha is evaporated to one of the naptha feed vaporizers. The hydrocarbon feed is heated to 380o-400oC by heat exchange with superheated steam in the naptha feed pre heater. Hydrogen production has become a priority in current refinery operations and when planning to produce lower sulphur gasoline and diesel fuels. Along with increased H2 consumption for deeper hydro-treating, additional H2 is needed for processing heavier and higher sulphur crude slates.

6.2 OM&S (OIL MOVEMENT & STORAGE UNIT)

This unit is used to a) Preparation and supply of feed to unit. b) Blending of intermediate products c) Receipt, storage and dispatch of finished products. d) Measurement of petroleum products gauging, sampling etc. e) Supply of internal fuel oil to Units TPS.

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GENERAL DISCRIPTION OF THE TANK FARM The tank farm in the receipt and blending section of OM&S consists of different storage tanks for the different intermediate as well as finished products. Some of the important points are: (A) DIP OR PRODUCT IN A STORAGE TANK: It is the height of the oil from the datum plate to the top oil level. (B) DATUM PLATE: Inside the tank there is a small horizontal plate located approximately 5cms above the tank bottom surface. At the time of taking the dip of oil leveling a tank the bob connected with the dip tape first touches the above plate. This plate is called the datum plate. (C) TANK PAD: It is the developed area with brick work, concrete and other which the whole tank shell is resting. material upon

(D)TANK DYKE : It is a bound made up of soil surrounding the tank . The purpose of providing dyke is that oil will not spread out in the event to any leakage from tanks height. (E) SAFE FILLING HEIGHT: It is the height up to which the tank can be filled up safely. (F) REFERENCE HEIGHT: It is the difference in height between the datum plate and the sharp edge in the rectangular groove provided at the top of the dip hatch pipe. (G) DIP HATCH PIPE: It is the cylindrical pipe extending from the bottom of the tank to the top with a cover at the top. Through this pipe only, the dip tape with bob is allowed to enter inside the tank for the purpose of taking dip. (H) CRITICAL ZONE OF FLOATING ROOF TANK: Depending on the height of the leg provided with the pontoon roof of floating roof of the tank starts floating at a certain dip with increase in dip. Between these two dips the pontoon remains slightly in tilting condition. When the dip of any floatation roof tank falls between the above two dips, the dip of the tank is said to be in critical zone. (I) ROOF DRAIN: In floating roof tank, there is a pipe with swivel joint from the center of the pontoon roof. The line extends inside the tank and comes outside the shell from the lower portion of the tank. Rain water gets out through this drain line. (J) SYPHON DRAIN: At the lower portion of the tank shell, one siphon drain nozzle has been provided to get the water drained from the bottom of the tank after being settled. (K) EMERGENCY ROOF DRAIN: In a floating roof tank, If there is any leakage in the roof drain pipe inside the tank, it cannot be operated .In that case the roof drain on the top has to be blinded. An emergency drain has been provided for draining water.

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STORAGE TANKS
There are three types of storage tanks, (A) FIXED ROOF TANKS: Fixed roof tanks are used for storing low volatile products. These are vertical cylindrical vessel. The fixed roof is provided with internal truss support. (B) FLOATING ROOF TANKS: Floating roof tanks are for storing products having high vapor pressure. These tanks have an increased operation at safety brought about by the absence of vapor space above the liquid as the roof rests on the fluid. (C) FLOATING CUM FIXED ROOF TANKS: These tanks have got the advantages of both fixed and floating roof tanks and are particularly suited to volatile products in which entry of rain water is not permissible.

6.3 PIPELINE SYSTEM

There are two pipelines in Mathura refinery used to movement of different products from one place to another place: 1) SMPL (Salaya Mathura pipeline) 2) MJPL (Mathura Jalandhar pipeline)

PURPOSE OF THESE PIPELINES

These pipelines used for direct supply of crude oil from port to mathura refinery and to send refined petroleum products to other terminals for marketing, this decrease the transportation cost of oil. SMPL used to take crude oil from Salaya to Mathura to Jalandhar and MJPL is used to transfer refined oil to Tundla terminal.

6.4 SMPL (CRUDE PIPELINE)

SMPL is used to transfer crude oil from Salaya to Mathura. It is the most important part of Mathura refinery and it cannot be operate without this unit. Due to this route it is known as SALAYA MATHURA PIPELINE. This crude oil fulfills the requirement of three refineries: Panipat Refinery Mathura Refinery Gujrat Refinery
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FIGURE 6.1: SMPL PIPELINE

6.5 MJPL (PRODUCT PIPELINE)

The pipeline starts at Mathura Refinery & follows an upward gradient up to Delhi installation (i.e. 174.889 meters level at Mathura to 229.105 meters level at Delhi). Further follows upward gradient up to Ambala (i.e. 274.4 meters level at Ambala) & follows downward gradient to Jalandhar (i.e. 236.74 meters levels at Jalandhar). This pipeline covers a distance of 526.1 Km from Mathura to Jalandhar, 69.940 km Sonipat T- point Meerut Terminal & 57.435 km from Mathura to Tundla.

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CHAPTER -7 ANALYZERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
An analyzer is an instrument or device which conducts chemical analysis or similar analysis on samples or sample streams to ascertain the constituents of a substance. Such samples consist of some type of matter such as solid, liquid or gas.

NEED OF ANALYZERS
Combustion control Determines the H2S content for total air required to combust H2S Presence of O2 and H2 in N2 used as a carrier Amount of air required for complete coke burning Measurement of Moisture in gas streams in catalytic reforming processes. Monitoring of Sodium salts in hard water. Percentage of H2 for Hydrodesulphurization reaction Quantity of H2S in recycle gas and H2S containing gas High Sulfide content in a raw sewage

There are various types of analyzers used in refinery such as : 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Hydrogen analyzer (H2) Oxygen analyzer (O2) Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) Nitrogen Oxide (NO) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

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7.2 NOX ANALYZER

These are the analyzers used for analyzing the nitrogen oxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen trioxide etc. Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) is the product of endothermic reactions within combustion engines and causes significant environmental pollution. The main source of Nitrogen Oxides is from the engine of automobiles and these pollutants are harmful to humans in their respective forms or in the creation of ozone (O3) or acid rain. Nitrogen Oxides are most prevalent in our societies as a contributor to asthmatic conditions as well as the smog found throughout many industrialized cities.

PRINCIPLE
Many chemical reactions produce both light and heat. A burning candle is such a reaction. When a candle is lit, its flame both glows and becomes hot. It is much less common for a chemical reaction to produce light without heat. The light from such reactions is called cool light, because it is created without heat. Reactions that produce light without heat are called chemiluminescent reactions. Perhaps the most familiar chemiluminescent reactions are those that occur in living organisms. Fireflies produce light without heat by a chemiluminescent reaction. Chemiluminescent reactions that occur in living organisms are called bioluminescent reactions.

MEASUREMENT THEORY
The measurement of the Nitrogen Oxides is performed via the gas phase chemiluminescence method. The Serinus 40 NOx analyzer follows these principles and measurement techniques: Sample air is drawn into the reaction cell via two separate (alternating) channels the NO and NOX. The NOX channel travels through a delay coil enabling the same sample of air to be sampled for NO, NO2 and NOX. The NOX channel passes through an NO2 to NO converter, NO2 is converted to NO. Sample air (NO & NOX channels) enter the measurement cell where NO reacts with Ozone in the following reaction NO + O3 NO2* + O2 This reaction releases energy in the form of chemiluminescence radiation (1100nm), which is filtered by the optical bandpass filter and detected by the photomultiplier tube (PMT). The level of chemiluminescence detected is directly proportionally to the NO in sample. NO2 is calculated by subtracting the NO measurement from NOX measurement. NOX = NO + NO2 or NO2 = NOX NO

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FIGURE 7.1: NO2 ANALYZER

SERINUS 40 NITROGEN OXIDE ANALYZER

The Serinus 40 Nitrogen Oxides analyzer uses gas phase chemiluminescence detection to perform continuous analysis of nitric oxide (NO), total nitrogen oxides (NOX), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The Serinus 40 NOx analyzer measures to a sensitivity of 0.4ppb in the range of 0-20ppm. The measurement of these three gases is performed with the following main sub-components: NO2 to NO converter Delay coil (NOX channel) Ozone source with reaction chamber (NO + O3) Photomultiplier Tube (PMT) Calculation of NO2 from NO/NOX

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FIGURE 7.2: SERINUS 40 ANALYZER

The concentrations are automatically corrected for gas temperature and pressure changes and referenced to 0C, 20C or 25C at 1 atmosphere. This allows the Serinus 40 nitrogen oxide analyzer to sample in the most useful measurement range for NO, NO2 and NOX.

7.3 SO2 ANALYZER

This analyzer is used to detect the presence of sulphur dioxide in the sample or flue gases which are exhausted from different units. As we know that sulphur dioxide is very harmful for environment and for us also. If sulphur dioxide gas is exhausted to environment then it reacts with oxygen present in the atmosphere and form ozone and releases the sulphur. Mathura refinery is the 1st refinery in INDIA which recovers 15000kg of sulphur per day to save our environment.
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SO2 analysis is also very important for various products such as diesel and petrol. According to Govt. AUTO FUEL POLICY the diesel should be of quality EUORO IV and EURO III. Sulfur Dioxide is the product of the combustion of sulfur compounds and causes significant environmental pollution. The main source of Sulfur Dioxide in the environment is from various industrial processes such as the burning of coal in power stations, the extraction of metals from ore and combustion of fuel within automobiles. Sulfur dioxide is a noxious gas that can cause respiratory damage as well as impairing visibility when in high concentrations. Sulfur Dioxide also has the potential to form Acid rain (H2SO4) which causes health, environmental and infrastructural problems to human society.

PRINCIPLE
SO2 analyzer is a photometer which operates using non dispersive ultraviolet light absorption (NDUV - Photometer ) Gas compounds absorb ultraviolet light at specific wavelengths. Through measurement of absorption of a particular wavelength one can determine the concentration of a gas within a specific gas mixture.

The measurement of sulfur dioxide is based on classical fluorescence spectroscopy principles. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) exhibits a strong ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectrum between 200 and 240nm, when Sulfur Dioxide absorbs UV from this, emission of photons occurs (300-400nm). The amount of fluorescence emitted is directly proportional to the Sulfur Dioxide concentration.

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FIGURE 7.3: WORKING OF SO2 ANALYZER Sample air is passed through a hydrocarbon kicker which removes hydrocarbons in high concentration in sample air to low hydrocarbon concentration exhaust air. A zinc discharge lamp and a UV bandpass filter are used to produce radiation at 214nm. The radiation (214nm) is focused into the fluorescence cell where it interacts with Sulfur Dioxide molecules and emits photons uniformly in all directions. A portion of the fluorescence is collected and filtered. Wavelengths at 310-350 nm pass through the filter where they reach the photomultiplier and record a signal. A reference detector monitors the emission from the zinc lamp and is used to correct for fluctuations in lamp intensity. Exhaust air is scrubbed with a charcoal scrubber to eliminate Hydrocarbons and SO2. This air is then ideal for use in the hydrocarbon kicker to remove hydrocarbons from sample air.

SERINUS 50 SO2 ANALYZER

The Serinus 50 Sulfur Dioxide analyzer uses UV fluorescent radiation technology to detect Sulfur Dioxide to a sensitivity of 0.4 ppb in the range of 0-20 ppm. The Serinus 50 measures Sulfur Dioxide with the following instruments/techniques: Hydrocarbon kicker UV lamp Fluorescence cell Optical bandpass filters Photomultiplier tube (PMT)

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FIGURE 7.4: SERINUS 50 ANALYZER The SO2 concentration is automatically corrected for gas temperature and pressure changes and referenced to 0C, 20C or 25C at 1 atmosphere. This allows the Serinus 50 to sample in the most useful range of Sulfur Dioxide ambient measurement (25-500 ppb Sulfur Dioxide in air).

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ADVANTAGES OF ANALYZERS
Increased sensitivity (detection limit)

Improved specificity (accuracy) Rapid response time (control) Linearity over a wide dynamic range (precision) Continuous monitoring (control and reporting) Simplicity of design (maintenance) Analyzers play an important role in determining the content of a particular component in a mixture available. Their main importance lies in process industries where determining the content of a particular component is vital for the efficient and safe functioning of Plant. Their secondary use lies in Pollution Control to measure content of particular harmful component.

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CHAPTER -8 PROCESS MEASUREMENT

8.1 FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENT 8.1.1 VARIABLE AREA FLOW METER
Lake Monitors offers a rugged line of flow rate gauges, alarms/switches, transmitters and hydraulic system analyzers. The basis for our product, the sharp-edged, variable-area, measurement method, provides accurate and repeatable flow rate measurement for both liquid and gases.

FIGURE 8.1 VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETER

Lake Monitors' sharp-edged orifice provides a more reliable and accurate reading inapplications where fluid viscosity varies. The unique design of the monitor allows installation in any piping orientation.

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8.1.2 MAGNETIC ROTAMETER

A rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube. It belongs to a class of meters called meters, which measure flow rate byallowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing somemeasurable effect.A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a 'float', actually shaped weight, inside that is pushed up by the drag force of the flow and pulled down by gravity. Drag force for a given fluid and float cross section is a function of flow speed squared only, see drag equation. A higher volumetric flow rate through a given area results in increase in flow speed and drag force, so the float will be pushed upwards. However, as the inside of the Rota meter is cone shaped (widens), the area around the float through which the medium flows increases, the flow speed and drag force decrease until there is mechanical equilibrium with the float's weight. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and ellipsoids being the most common. The float may be diagonally grooved and partially colour so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This shows if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it isfree. Readings are usually taken at the top of the widest part of the float; the center for anellipsoid, or the top for a cylinder. Some manufacturers use a different standard.

FIGURE 8.2 MAGNETIC ROTAMETER

8.1.3VENTURI METER
The simplest apparatus, is a tubular setup known as a Venturi tube or simply a venturi.Fluid flows through a length of pipe of varying diameter. To avoid undue drag, a Venturi tube typically has an entry cone of 30 degrees and an exit cone of 5 degrees. To account for the assumption of an inviscid fluid a coefficient of discharge is often introduced, which generally has a value of 0.98.A venturi can be used to measure the volumetric flow rate

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FIGURE 8.3 VENTURI METER

8.1.4 CAPILLARY FLOW METER

The capillary flow meter is used to measure the rate of flow of a fluid. Measurement of flow rate forms an integral part in the industries and is of utmost importance. It consists of a set of capillary tubes and a pressure gauge or a manometer to maintain or measure the pressure drop. Alternately, it can also use a combination of mechanisms such as an electrical transducer and a differential pressure gauge sensor that when operated together can produce electrical signals in response to change in pressure

8.1.5 MAGNETIC FLOW METER

A magnetic flow meter (mag flowmeter) is a volumetric flow meter which does not haveany moving parts and is ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which isconductive or water based. Magnetic flowmeters will generally not work withhydrocarbons, distilled water and many non-aqueous solutions). Magnetic flowmeters are also ideal for applications where low pressure drop and low maintenance are required.

8.1.6 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

An ultrasonic flow meter is a type of flow meter that measures the velocity of a liquid or gas (fluid) by using the principle of ultrasound. Using ultrasonic transducers, the flow meter can measure the average velocity along the path of an emitted beam of ultrasound, by averaging the difference in measured transit time between the pulses of ultrasound propagating into and against the direction of the flow. Ultrasonic flow metersare affected by the temperature, density and viscosity of the flowing medium. They are inexpensive to use and maintain because they do not use parts, unlike mechanical flow meter.

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FIGURE 8.4 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

8.2 PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 8.2.1 BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE GAUGE

The main parts of this instruments are as follows:An elastic transducer, that is bourdon tube which is fixed and open at one end to receivethe pressure which is to be measured. The other end of the bourdon tube is free andclosed.The cross-section of the bourdon tube is elliptical. The bourdon tube is in a bent form tolook like a circular arc. To the free end of the bourdon tube is attached an adjustable link,which is in turn connected to a sector and pinion as shown in diagram. To the shaft of thepinion is connected a pointer which sweeps over a pressure calibrated scale.

FIGURE 8.5 BOURDON TUBES

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8.2.2 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURRE GAUGE

This instrument uses two impulse lines coming out of two different places,between which the pressure has to be measured.The differential pressure to be measured is fed on two sides of a diaphragm, whichexpands in the direction of low pressure. The deflection of the central point is measuredusing the change in capacitance due to this movement.

8.3 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 8.3.1 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors or resistive thermal devices (RTDs), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs). They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below600C,due to higher accuracy and repeatability.

FIGURE 8.6 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

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8.3.2THERMOCOUPLE
A thermocouple is a device consisting of two different conductors (usually metal alloys)that produce a voltage proportional to a temperature difference between either ends of the pair of conductors. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert a heat gradient into electricity.They are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and canmeasure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperaturemeasurement, thermocouples are self powered and require no external form of excitation.The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy and system errors of less than onedegreeCelsius(C) can be difficult to achieve.Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature.

FIGURE 8.7 THERMOCOUPLE

8.3.3 THERMISTOR
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting over current protectors, and self-regulating heating elements. Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors(RTD) in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals.

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FIGURE 8.8 DIFFERENT THERMISTOR

8.4 LEVEL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 8.4.1 ULTRASONIC LEVEL SENSOR

Ultrasonic level sensors are used for non-contact level sensing of highly viscous liquids,as well as bulk solids. They are also widely used in water treatment applications for pumpcontrol and open channel flow measurement. The sensors emit high frequency (20 kHz to200 kHz) acoustic waves that are reflected back to and detected by the emittingtransducer.Ultrasonic level sensors are also affected by the changingspeed of sound due to moisture,temperature, and pressures. Correction factors can be applied to the level measurement toimprove the accuracy of measurement.

8.4.2 USING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

Differential pressure level measurement technique makes use of a differential pressure detector which is installed at the bottom of the tank whose level is to be detected. The liquid inside the tank creates pressure which is comparatively higher than the reference atmospheric pressure. This pressure comparison is performed via the differential pressure detector. A standard differential pressure transmitter connected to an open tank.
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CONCLUSION
INDIAN OIL CORPORATION LIMITED is the first Indian company which comes under FORTUNE 500 companies. At present there are 4 Indian companies-IOCL, BP, HP and Reliance. It also finds a place of pride among the world biggest enterprises in Forbes 2000 list. The IOCL unit of Barauni is one of the largest petroleum units in Asia. It refined crude oil coming from Salaya offshore in Gujarat (where crude oil comes from Bombay high and Gulf countries by ships and pipelines) by pipeline. It produces almost all petroleum products like petrol, diesel, high speed diesel, naphtha, kerosene, ATF (Aviation Turbine Fuel), different gases(LPG etc.), glycerin, bitumen, propylene, sulphur etc. Mathura refinery has maximum no. of plants (Crude Distillation Unit, Vis-Breaking Unit, Bitumen Blowing Unit, Diesel Hydro Desulphurization Unit, Once Through Hydro cracking Unit, Vacuum Distillation Unit, Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit, Continuous Catalytic Reforming Unit, Hydrogen Generation Unit, Sulphur Recovery Unit) as compare to other Indian Refineries. SRU unit is the most important profitable unit of Mathura refinery as it recovers 15000kg of sulphur per day which is a very big deal for saving our environment. In my vocational training I learned about the refinery process, various production units and working of gas analyzers to detect gas content. I can conclude that training from IOCL Barauni was an achievable experience.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

www.ecotech.com www.ametekpi.com www.environment_sa.com Manuals of devices www.wikipedia.com www.iocl.com Barauni Refinery

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