A newer wireline tool actually drills a plug out of the borehole wall, thus avoiding crushing of the sample.

Up to 20 samples can be individually cut and are stored inside the tool. 2

An engineer or geologist can interpret the log readings to reach certain conclusions about the formation. For example, a decrease in radioactivity from the gamma ray log could indicate the presence of a sandstone formation. An increase in resistivity may indicate the presence of hydrocarbons. And, an increase in a porosity log might indicate that the formation has porosity and is permeable. 3

Allow direct measurement of reservoir properties Used to correlate indirect measurements, such as wireline/LWD logs Used to test compatibility of injection fluids Used to predict borehole stability Used to estimate probability of formation failure and sand production Cores from the reservoir allow direct measurements of important reservoir properties. It is important to gather cores from a representative part of the reservoir, as reservoir properties vary horizontally and vertically. If a reservoir is known to be highly heterogeneous, many core samples will be required to describe the reservoir accurately. Information from Cores Standard Analysis Porosity Horizontal permeability to air Grain density Special Core Analysis Vertical permeability to air Relative permeability Capillary pressure Cementation exponent (m) and saturation exponent (n)

Mudlogging is one of the first direct evaluation methods available during the drilling of a well. As such, the mudlog remains an important (but often under-used) source of original information. The rate at which the drill bit penetrates the formation gives qualitative information about the lithology being drilled. For example, in a hard shale the rate of penetration will be slower than in a poro us sandstone. The formation cuttings that are chipped off by the bit travel upward with the mud and are caught and analyzed at the surface. This provides information about the lithology and qualitative indications of the porosity. If hydrocarbons are present in the formation that is being drilled, they will show in the cuttings as oil stains, and in the mud as traces of oil or gas. The gas in the mud is continuously monitored by means of a gas detector. This is often a relatively simple device detecting the total combustible gas content. The detector can be supplemented by a gas chromatograph, which analyzes the composition of the gas.

All LWD tools have a power supply and data transmission system. Data transmission may be within the downhole assembly from the sensors to a memory device or from the sensors to the surface. The latter is usually achieved by mud-pulse telemetry, a method by which the data is transmitted from the tool in real time, i.e, as data is being acquired. A pressure pulse in the mud is created by opening and shutting a valve in the drillstring. This is usually accomplished by using a rotating device at a given RPM. In this manner, a binary data string is transmitted to the surface and is received by a transducer. The binary data string is then interpreted by a computer for log readings 6

Well Log Analysis Openhole logs Cased-hole logs

Wireline logs/LWD represent a major source of data for geoscientist and engineers. Logging tools are used to look for reservoir quality rocks, hydrocarbons and source rocks in exploration wells, support volumetric estimates and geological modeling during field appraisal and development, and provide a means of monitoring the distribution of remaining hydrocarbons during the production lifetime. A large investment is made by oil and gas companies in acquiring log data. Logging expenses can easily amount to 5 to 15 % of total well cost. Accordingly, it is important that the cost be justified by the value of the information obtained from drilling.

This figure depicts the basic setup of the logging process. A wireline truck with a spool of logging cable is setup so that the sonde (measuring equipment) can be lowered into the wellbore. The logging tools measure different properties, such as spontaneous potential and formation resistivity, as the sonde is brought to the surface. The information is processed by a computer in the logging vehicle, and is interpreted by an engineer or geologist 8

As mentioned previously, well logs are used to estimate important reservoir properties, such porosity, water saturation, and permeability. The logs can be conveniently grouped into Passive and Active categories. Passive logs simply measure an existing force or electrical current. For example, the SP log measures a natural electrical current produced when a well full of conductive fluids is dril led through a formation. Active logs, on the other hand, must initiate a response from the formation. For example, the neutron tool bombards the formation with neutrons, which produces a response that can be measured. The sonic log produces an audio signal; the travel time of this signal is measured, and reservoir properties can be inferred

The sidewall sampling tool can be used to obtain small plugs from the formation. The tool is run on a wireline after the hole has been drilled. Some 20 to 30 bullets are fired from each gun at different depths. The hollow bullet will penetrate the formation and a rock sample will be trapped inside the steel cylinder. When the tool is pulled upwards, wires connected to the gun pull the bullet and sample from the borehole wall. Sidewall cores are useful for identifying hydrocarbons zones, when viewed under UV light. Qualitative inspection of porosity is possible; however, the cores may have been crushed during the collection process, so quantitative sampling of porosity is questionable 10

Borehole conditions affect log readings and must be taken into account for accurate log interpretation. As a well is drilled through permeable formations, the drilling fluid (or mud) seeps into the formation and alters the rock properties. A flushed zone occurs where water from the drilling fluid completely displaces the native reservoir fluid. There is also a transition zone where the native fluids are partially displaced. Usually, an array of resistivity tools is run, each with a different radius of investigation, to account for this phenomena. Drilling mud is specially designed to form a mudcake on the borehole wall to prevent excessive amounts of the drilling fluid from entering the formation. The resistivity of the mudcake must be accounted for. Wireline logs are calibrated for a specified hole size. Corrections to the readings must be made for smaller or larger hole sizes.

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Unlike a normal drill bit, which crushes the rock into small pieces, a core bit can be visualized as a hollow cylinder with cutters on the outside. The cylinder of rock that is cut by the bit is retained within the core barrel by an arrangement of steel fingers or slips. Core diameters are typically from three to seven inches and are usually about 90 feet long. Once the core is retrieved from t he well, it is common to do a lithologic description at the wellsite. In addition, to keep the core from drying out, it is sometimes sealed in a coating of hot wax and foil. At the laboratory, the core is photographed under normal and ultraviolet light. (UV light will reveal the presence of hydrocarbons.) Routine and special core analysis may then be conducted

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Well log interpretation can be quite simple, as in the case of thick, clean sandstone, or it can be very complicated, as in the case of a formation containing several different lithologies and various minerals, or when the bed boundaries are very close together. Usually, well logs are analyzed by a computer program, which has been designed to correct the raw data for borehole, bed boundary, and fluid effects. Complex well logs require the attention of an expert to be interpreted properly. Often, logs are used in combination to arrive at an interpretation. For example, a density-neutron crossplot will give far more information than can be obtained by either log alone