Ch t 5 Chapter 5

Angle Modulation Angle Modulation

1 EEEC383(201-2012)
NITIN Sharma
FM Illustration
The frequency of
the carrier is varied
around e
c
in
relation with the
message signal. g g
e
i
(t)= e
c
+ k
f
m(t)
2 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Instantaneous Frequency
C id li d Consider generalized
sinusoidal signal (t)=A
cos(t) where (t) is cos(t) where (t) is
generalized angle
(instantaneous Phase) ( )
For conventional
sinusoidal (t) is
c
t +
0
is a straight line (if
0
is
constant ) with slope
c
d i t t and intercept
o
EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
3
Instantaneous Frequency Instantaneous Frequency
Over a small time interval t0 the signal (t)=A g ( )
cos(t) and the sinusoid A cos (
c
t +
o
) are identical
It is justified to say that over this small interval t, the j y ,
instantaneous frequency of (t) is
c
.
As (
c
t +
o
) is tangential to (t), the instamtaneous
frequency of (t) is the slope of its angle (t) over this
small interval t.
Generalizing above concept at every instant and say that
the instantaneous frequency
i
at any instant t is the
l (t) t t slope(t) at t.
EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
4
Instantaneous Frequency
Thus for (t)=A cos(t) Thus for (t)=A cos(t)
The instantaneous angular frequency (in rad/sec) is the
rate of change of the angle. That is: rate of change of the angle. That is:
e
i
(t) = du (t)/dt .
For cos(e
c
t +|), e
i
(t)= e
c
as expected.

. ) ( ) (
}

=
t
i
d t o o e u

EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
5
Instantaneous Frequency
The argument of a cosine function represents an angle The argument of a cosine function represents an angle.
The angle could be constant [cos(30
0
)], or varying with
time, cos [u(t)] time, cos [u(t)]
The instantaneous angular frequency (in rad/sec) is the
rate of change of the angle. That is:
e
i
(t) = du (t)/dt .
For cos(e
c
t +|), e
i
(t)= e
c
as expected.

. ) ( ) (
}

=
t
i
d t o o e u
6 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Representation of Angle Modulation in Time Domain
F FM i l (t) + k (t) For an FM signal: e
i
(t) = e
c
+ k
f
m(t)
. ) ( ) ( ) (
} }
+ = =
t
f c
t
i FM
d m k t d t o o e o o e u
} }

( ) cos ( )
t
FM c f
g t A t k m d e o o
(
= +
(

}
For Phase Modulation (PM), the phase of the carrier is
f

}
( ), p
varied in relation to the message signal: |(t) = k
p
m(t)
( ) cos ( )
PM c p
g t A t k m t e
(
= +

( ) ( )
PM c p
g

7 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Relation Between FM and PM
( ) ( ),
PM c p
t t k m t u e = + ( ) ( ),
( )
( ) ( ).
PM c p
i c p c p
dm t
t k k m t
dt
e e e = + = +
`
( )
t
do

}
( )
t
m t do

}
FM Modulator
m(t)
g
FM
(t)
PMM d l
m(t)
g (t)
PM Modulator
( )
g
PM
(t)
( ) d
dt

( ) dm t
dt
8 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Which is Which?
9 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
k = 2t10
5
rad/sec/volt =10
5
Hz/Volt = 10
5
V
-1
sec
-1
FM and PM Modulation
k
f
= 2t10
5
rad/sec/volt =10
5
Hz/Volt = 10
5
V
1
sec
1
k
p
= 10t rad/Volt = 5 v
-1
f
c
= 100 MHz
FM:
f
i
= f
c
+ k
f
m(t)
10
8
-10
5
< f
i
< 10
8
+10
5
99.9 < f
i
< 100.1 MHZ
PM:
f
i
= f
c
+ k
p
dm(t)/dt
10
8
-10
5
< f
i
< 10
8
-10
5
99.9 < f
i
< 100.1 MHZ
Power (FM or PM) = A
2
/2 ( )
10 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Frequency Modulation
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.
The equation ( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
t
f
f
+ t V = t v
m
m
c
c c s
sin cos
may be expressed as Bessel
( l f ) series (Bessel functions)
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.
( ) ( ) ( )

= n
m c n c s
t n + J V = t v cos
n
where J
n
(|) are Bessel functions of the first kind. Expanding the
equation for a few terms we have:

_ _ _ _ _
+ + + +
+ + + =

+
t J V t J V
t J V t J V t J V t v
m c m c
c
f f
m c c
f f
m c c
f
c c s
2 2
Amp
1
Amp
1
Amp
0
) 2 ( cos ) ( ) 2 ( cos ) (
) ( cos ) ( ) ( cos ) ( ) ( cos ) ( ) (
e e | e e |
e e | e e | e |
_ _ _ _
+ + + +

+
t J V t J V
m c m c
f f
m c c
f f
m c c
2 Amp
2
2 Amp
2
) 2 ( cos ) ( ) 2 ( cos ) ( e e | e e |
11 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Signal Spectrum.
The amplitudes drawn are completely arbitrary, since we have not found
any value for J (|) this sketch is only to illustrate the spectrum any value for J
n
(|) this sketch is only to illustrate the spectrum.
12 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Spectrum of FM/PM
Unlike Amplitude Modulation it is not straightforward Unlike Amplitude Modulation, it is not straightforward
to relate the spectrum of the FM/PM modulated signal
to that of the modulating signal m(t). We can deal with
i b b i it on a case-by-case basis.
We are, however, particularly interested in finding the
bandwidth occupied by an FM/PMsignal. bandwidth occupied by an FM/PM signal.
For that purpose, we will make some assumptions and
work on simple modulating messages.
Because of the close relation between FM and PM, we
will do the analysis for FM and extend it to PM.
13 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Spectrum Bessel Coefficients.
The FM signal spectrum may be determined from

+ =
m c n c s
t n J V t v ) cos( ) ( ) ( e e |

= n
The values for the Bessel coefficients, J
n
(|) may be
found from graphs or, preferably, tables of Bessel
functions of the first kind.
14 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Spectrum Bessel Coefficients.
|
J
n
(|)
|
In the series for v
s
(t), n = 0 is the carrier component, i.e.
) cos( ) (
0
t J V
c c
e |
hence the n = 0 curve shows how the component at the carrier frequency
| = 2.4 | = 5
hence the n = 0 curve shows how the component at the carrier frequency,
f
c
, varies in amplitude, with modulation index |.
15 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Spectrum Bessel Coefficients.
Hence for a given value of modulation index |, the values of J (|) may be Hence for a given value of modulation index |, the values of J
n
(|) may be
read off the graph and hence the component amplitudes (V
c
J
n
(|)) may be
determined.
A further way to interpret these curves is to imagine them in 3 dimensions
16 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Examples from the graph
| = 0: When | = 0 the carrier is unmodulated and J (0) = 1 all | = 0: When | = 0 the carrier is unmodulated and J
0
(0) = 1, all
other J
n
(0) = 0, i.e.
| = 2.4: From the graph (approximately)
J
0
(2.4) = 0, J
1
(2.4) = 0.5, J
2
(2.4) = 0.45 and J
3
(2.4) = 0.2
17 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Si ifi t Sid b d S t Significant Sidebands Spectrum.
As may be seen from the table of Bessel functions, for values of n above a y ,
certain value, the values of J
n
(|) become progressively smaller. In FM the
sidebands are considered to be significant if J
n
(|) > 0.01 (1%).
Although the bandwidth of an FM signal is infinite, components with g g , p
amplitudes V
c
J
n
(|), for which J
n
(|) < 0.01 are deemed to be insignificant
and may be ignored.
Example: A message signal with a frequency f
m
Hz modulates a carrier f
c
to produce FM with a modulation index | = 1. Sketch the spectrum.
n J
n
(1) Amplitude Frequency
0 0.7652

0.7652V
c
f
c
1 0 4400 0 44V f +f f f 1 0.4400 0.44V
c
f
c
+f
m
f
c
- f
m
2 0.1149 0.1149V
c
f
c
+2f
m
f
c
- 2f
m

3 0.0196 0.0196V
c
f
c
+3f
m
f
c
-3 f
m

4 0.0025 Insignificant
5 0.0002 Insignificant

18
Significant Sidebands Spectrum.
As shown, the bandwidth of the spectrum containing
significant components is 6f for | = 1 significant components is 6f
m
, for | = 1.
19 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Significant Sidebands Spectrum.
The table below shows the number of significant sidebands for various The table below shows the number of significant sidebands for various
modulation indices (|) and the associated spectral bandwidth.
| No of sidebands > 1% of
unmodulated carrier
Bandwidth
0.1 2 2f
m

0.3 4 4f
m

0.5 4 4f
m

1.0 6 6f
m

2.0 8 8f
m
5.0 16 16f
m

10.0 28 28f
m


e.g. for | = 5, g | ,
16 sidebands
(8 pairs).
20 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Carsons Rule for FM Bandwidth.
An approximation for the bandwidth of an FM signal
is given by BW = 2(Maximum frequency deviation +
hi h t d l t d f ) highest modulated frequency)
) ( 2 Bandwidth
m c
f f + A =
Carsons Rule
21 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Narrowband and Wideband FM
Narrowband FM NBFM
From the graph/table of Bessel functions it may be seen that for small |, (|
s 0.3) there is only the carrier and 2 significant sidebands, i.e. BW = 2fm.
Narrowband FM NBFM
FM with | s 0.3 is referred to as narrowband FM (NBFM) (Note, the
bandwidth is the same as DSBAM).
F 0 3 th th 2 i ifi t id b d A i
Wideband FM WBFM
For | > 0.3 there are more than 2 significant sidebands. As | increases
the number of sidebands increases. This is referred to as wideband FM
(WBFM).
22 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
VHF/FM
VHF/FM (Very High Frequency band = 30MHz 300MHz) radio VHF/FM (Very High Frequency band 30MHz 300MHz) radio
transmissions, in the band 88MHz to 108MHz have the following
parameters:
Max frequency input (e.g. music) f
m
15kHz
m c
V f o = A Deviation 75kHz
Modulation Index | 5
c
f
f A
= |
|
m
f
For | = 5 there are 16 sidebands and the FM signal bandwidth is 16fm =
16 x 15kHz= 240kHz. Applying Carsons Rule BW = 2(75+15) = 180kHz.
23 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Comments FM
The FM spectrum contains a carrier component and an infinite number The FM spectrum contains a carrier component and an infinite number
of sidebands at frequencies f
c
nf
m
(n = 0, 1, 2, )
FM signal

+ t n J V t v ) cos( ) ( ) ( e e |
FM signal,

=
+ =
n
m c n c s
t n J V t v ) cos( ) ( ) ( e e |
In FM we refer to sideband pairs not upper and lower sidebands.
C i th t t b d i FM Carrier or other components may not be suppressed in FM.
The relative amplitudes of components in FM depend on the values J
n
(|),
V o
where thus the component at the carrier frequency depends on
m(t), as do all the other components and none may be suppressed
m
m
f
V o
| =
.
28
24 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Comments FM
Components are significant if J (|) > 0 01 For |<<1 (| 0 3 or less) Components are significant if J
n
(|) > 0.01. For |<<1 (| ~ 0.3 or less)
only J
0
(|) and J
1
(|) are significant, i.e. only a carrier and 2 sidebands.
Bandwidth is 2f
m
, similar to DSBAM in terms of bandwidth - called NBFM.
Large modulation index
m
c
f
f A
= |
means that a large bandwidth is required called WBFM means that a large bandwidth is required called WBFM
The FM process is non-linear. The principle of superposition does not
apply. When m(t) is a band of signals, e.g. speech or music the analysis
is very difficult (impossible?) Calculations usually assume a single tone is very difficult (impossible?). Calculations usually assume a single tone
frequency equal to the maximum input frequency. E.g. m(t) band 20Hz
15kHz, fm = 15kHz is used.
29
25 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Power in FM Signals.
From the equation for FM

=
+ =
n
m c n c s
t n J V t v ) cos( ) ( ) ( e e |
we see that the peak value of the components is V
c
J
n
(|) for the n
th
p p
c n
(|)
component.
Then the nth component Single normalised average power is=
2
2
) (
2
RMS
pk
V
V
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
. \
( )
2
) (
2
) (
2
2
| |
n c n c
J V J V
= |
.
|

\
|
Hence, the total power in the infinite spectrum is

J V )) ( (
2
|
Total power

=
=
n
n c
T
J V
P
2
)) ( ( |
26 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Power in FM Signals.
By this method we would need to carry out an infinite number of By this method we would need to carry out an infinite number of
calculations to find P
T
. But, considering the waveform, the peak value is
V
-c
, which is constant.
pk
V
V | |
|
Since we know that the RMS value of a sine wave is
2 2
pk
c
V | |
=
|
\ .
and power = (V
RMS
)
2
then we may deduce that
( )

=
= = |
.
|

\
|
=
n
n c c c
T
J V V V
P
2
) (
2
2
2
2
2
|
. \ n
Hence, if we know V
c
for the FM signal, we can find the total power P
T
for
the infinite spectrum with a simple calculation.
27 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Power in FM Signals.
Now consider if we generate an FM signal, it will contain an infinite
number of sidebands. However, if we wish to transfer this signal, e.g. over a
radio or cable, this implies that we require an infinite bandwidth channel.
Even if there was an infinite channel bandwidth it would not all be
allocated to one user Only a limited bandwidth is available for any allocated to one user. Only a limited bandwidth is available for any
particular signal. Thus we have to make the signal spectrum fit into the
available channel bandwidth. We can think of the signal spectrum as a
train and the channel bandwidth as a tunnel obviously we make the
l h l l d h h l f train slightly less wider than the tunnel if we can.
28 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Power in FM Signals.
However, many signals (e.g. FM, square waves, digital signals) contain an , y g ( g , q , g g )
infinite number of components. If we transfer such a signal via a limited
channel bandwidth, we will lose some of the components and the output
signal will be distorted. If we put an infinitely wide train through a tunnel,
the train would come out distorted the question is how much distortion the train would come out distorted, the question is how much distortion
can be tolerated?
Generally speaking, spectral components decrease in amplitude as we
move away from the spectrum centre. y p
29 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Power in FM Signals.
In general distortion may be defined as
spectrum in total Power
spectrum d Bandlimite in Power - spectrum in total Power
= D
spectrum in total Power
T
BL T
P
P P
D

=
T
P
With reference to FM the minimum channel bandwidth required would be
just wide enough to pass the spectrum of significant components. For a
bandlimited FM spectrum, let a = the number of sideband pairs, e.g. for p , p , g
| = 5, a = 8 pairs (16 components). Hence, power in the bandlimited
spectrum P
BL
is

a
J V )) ( (
2
|

=
=
a n
n c
BL
J V
P
2
)) ( ( |
= carrier power + sideband powers.
30 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Power in FM Signals.
2
Since
2
2
c
T
V
P =

a
c c
J
V V
2
2 2
)) ( ( |

=
=
=

=
a
a n
n
c
a n
n
J
V
J
D
2
2
)) ( ( 1
2
)) ( (
2 2
|
|
Distortion
Also, it is easily seen that the ratio

a
BL
P
2
spectrum d Bandlimite in Power

=
= = =
a n
n
T
BL
J
P
P
D
2
)) ( (
spectrum in total Power
spectrum d Bandlimite in Power
|
= 1 Distortion

a
2
i.e. proportion p
f
power in bandlimited spectrum to total power =

= a n
n
J
2
)) ( ( |
31 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Example
Consider NBFM, with | = 0.2. Let V
c
= 10 volts. The total power in the infinite
2
2
c
V
spectrum
= 50 Watts, i.e.

a
n
J
2
)) ( ( |
= 50 Watts.
2
= a n
From the table the significant components are
n J (0 2) Amp = V J (0 2)
) (
2
A
n J
n
(0.2) Amp = V
c
J
n
(0.2)
Power =
2
) (
2
Amp

0 0.9900 9.90 49.005
1 0.0995 0.995 0.4950125
P
BL
= 49.5 Watts

i e the carrier + 2 sidebands contain 99 0
5 . 49
= or 99% of the total power i.e. the carrier + 2 sidebands contain 99 . 0
50
= or 99% of the total power
36
32 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Example
Distortion =
01 . 0
50
5 . 49 50
=

T
BL T
P
P P
or 1%.
A t ll d t d t k V i lt ti l Actually, we dont need to know V
c
, i.e. alternatively
Distortion =

1
1
2
)) 2 . 0 ( ( 1
n
J
(a = 1)
= 1 n
D = 01 . 0 ) 0995 . 0 ( ) 99 . 0 ( 1
2 2
=
Ratio
99 . 0 1 )) ( (
1
2
= = =

D J
P
P
n
BL
|)) ( (
1

=
P
n
n
T
|
33 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
What is NOT the bandwidth of FM!
O t d t b li th t i th d l t d One may tend to believe that since the modulated
signal instantaneous frequency is varying between by
Af around f
c
, then the bandwidth of the FM signal is f f
c
, g
2Af. False!
In fact, the motivation behind introducing FM was to
reduce the bandwidth compared to that of Amplitude
Modulation, which turns out to be wrong.
Wh t i i f th i t f b d idth? What was missing from the picture of bandwidth?
34 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Visualization
Think of holding the frequency knob of a signal Think of holding the frequency knob of a signal
generator, and wiggling it back and forth to
modulate the carries in response to some modulate the carries in response to some
message.
There are two wiggling parameters: gg g p
How far you deviate from the center frequency (Af)
How fast you wiggle (related to B
m
)
The rate of change of the instantaneous
frequency was missing!
35 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Carsons Rule
B 2(Af+B ) B
FM
2(Af+B
m
)
where Af = frequency deviation = k
f
|m(t)|
max
B b d id h f ( ) B
m
= bandwidth of m(t)
Define the deviation ratio | = Af / B
m
.
(| ) B
FM
2(| +1) B
m
The same rule applies to PM bandwidth,
B
PM
2(Af+B
m
) = 2(| +1) B
m
where (Af )
PM
= k
p
|dm(t)/dt|
max
36 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Narrow Band and Wide Band FM
Wh Af << B ( | <<1) th h i When Af << B
m
(or | <<1), the scheme is
called Narrow Band (NBFM, NBPM).
B 2B ( f NBPM) B
NBFM
2B
m
(same for NBPM)
Therefore, no matter how small we make the
d i i d f h b d id h f h deviation around f
c
, the bandwidth of the
modulated signal does not get smaller than 2B
m
.
37 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Estimate B
FM
and B
PM
k = 2t10
5
rad/sec/volt =10
5
k
f
2t10 rad/sec/volt 10
Hz/Volt = 10
5
V
-1
sec
-1
k
p
= 5t rad/Volt = 2.5 v
-1
f = 1000 MHz f
c
1000 MHz
First estimate the B
m
.
C
n
= 8/t
2
n
2
for n odd, 0 n even
The 5
th
harmonic onward can
be neglected.
B
m
= 15 kHz
For FM:
Af = 100 kHz; B =230 KHz Af = 100 kHz; B
FM
=230 KHz
For PM:
Af = 50 kHz; B
PM
=130 KHz
38 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Repeat if m(t) is Doubled
k = 2t10
5
rad/sec/volt =10
5
k
f
= 2t10
5
rad/sec/volt =10
5
Hz/Volt = 10
5
V
-1
sec
-1
k
p
= 5t rad/Volt = 2.5 v
-1
f 1000 MH
2
-2
40,000
-40,000
f
c
= 1000 MHz
For FM:
Af = 200 kHz; B
FM
= 430 KHz
2
,
For PM:
Af = 100 kHz; B
FM
= 230 KHz
Doubling the signal peak has
significant effect on both FM
and PM bandwidth
39 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Repeat if the period of m(t) is Doubled
k = 2t10
5
rad/sec/volt =10
5
4x10
-4
k
f
= 2t10
5
rad/sec/volt =10
5
Hz/Volt = 10
5
V
-1
sec
-1
k
p
= 5t rad/Volt = 2.5 v
-1
f 1000 MH
4x10
4
10,000
-10,000
f
c
= 1000 MHz
B
m
= 7.5 kHz
For FM:
,
Af = 100 kHz; B
FM
= 215 KHz
For PM:
Af = 25 kHz; B
FM
= 65 KHz
Expanding the signal varies its
spectrum. This has significant
effect on PM.
40 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Question
Measurements on an FM signal indicate a maximum Measurements on an FM signal indicate a maximum
period of 1.001x10
-8
s and a minimum period of
0.999x10
-8
s. The modulating signal is a 20 KHz pure g g p
tone.
Determine the value of the carrier frequency, Determine the value of the carrier frequency,
Find the value of the frequency deviation and
modulation index modulation index.
(1) Th i f i h i f (1) The maximum frequency is the inverse of
the minimum period which is MHz
max
8
1
100.1
0.999 10
f = =

and the minimum frequency is the inverse of the

maximum period which is MHz.
0.999 0
min
8
1
99.9
1 001 10
f

= =

p
The carrier is the average of these two
frequencies which gives MHz
1.001 10
100 f =
frequencies which gives MHz.
(2) The frequency deviation is MHz,
hi h
100
c
f =
max min
0.1
c c
f f f f = =
which means .
EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
42
5 | =
Spectrum of NBFM (1/2)
( ) ( )
t
a t m d o o
}
| |
( ) cos ( ) g t A t k a t e = +
h ( ) ( ) a t m d o o

=
}
| |
( ) cos ( )
FM c f
g t A t k a t e = +
{ }
| | | |
( )

( ) cos ( ) sin ( )
c f
j t k a t
FM c f c f
g t A e A t k a t jA t k a t
e
e e
+
= = + + +
where
2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) 1 ( )
2! 3! 4!
f f f
c
j t
FM f
j k a t j k a t j k a t
g t A e jk a t
e
(
= + + + + +
(
(

.
2 2 3 3 4 4
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2! 3! 4!
f f f
c c c c c
j t j t j t j t j t
f
k a t jk a t k a t
A e jk a t e e e e
e e e e e
(
= + + +
(
(

.
{ }
2 2 3 3 4 4

( ) Re ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
cos( ) ( ) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos( )
2! 3! 4!
f f f
FM FM
c f c c c c
g t g t
k a t k a t k a t
A t k a t t t t t e e e e e
=
(
= + + +
(
(

.
2! 3! 4!
(

43 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Spectrum of NBFM (2/2)
For NBFM |k a(t)|<< 1 For NBFM, |k
f
a(t)|<< 1
| |
( )
( ) cos( ) ( ) sin( )
FM Narrowband c f c
g t A t k a t t e e ~
Bandwidth of a(t) is equal to the bandwidth of m(t), B
m
.
B 2 B (as expected) B
NBFM
2 B
m
(as expected).
Similarly for PM (|k
p
m(t)|<< 1 ):
(
B
NBPM
2 B
m
( )
( ) cos( ) ( ) sin( )
PM Narrowband c p c
g t A t k m t t e e
(
~

B
NBPM
2 B
m
44 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
NBFM Modulator
| | | |
( )
( ) cos( ) ( ) sin( )
FM Narrowband c f c
g t A t k a t t e e ~
( )
t
do

}
45 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
NBPM Modulator
(
( )
( ) cos( ) ( ) sin( )
PM Narrowband c p c
g t A t k m t t e e
(
~

46 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Immunity of FM to Non-linearities
2

(
| | | |
1 2
3
3
( ) cos ( ) cos ( )
cos ( )
c f c f
c f
q t a A t k m d a A t k m d
a A t k m d
e o o e o o
e o o

(
| | | |
= + + +
( | |
(
\ . \ .

(
| |
+ +
( |
(
\ .

} }
}
2
1
cos ( ) 1 cos 2 2 ( )
2
c f c f
a A
a A t k m d t k m d e o o e o o

(
\ .

(
| | | |
= + + + +
( | |
(
\ . \ .

}
} }

(
| | | |
3
1 cos 2 2 (
2
c f
a A
t k m e + + +
3 2 2
1
) cos ( )
3
cos ( ) cos 2 2 ( )
2 4 2
c f
c f c f
d t k m d
a A a A a A
a A t k m d t k m d
o o e o o
e o o e o o



(
| | | |
+
( | |
(
\ . \ .

| | | |
(
= + + + + +
| |
(

\ . \ .
} }
} }

Around with Around 2 with 2

2 4 2
c f f c f f
DC
k k k k e e

' ' = =
(

\ . \ .
} }
_ _
3
cos 3 3 ( )
4
c f
a A
t k m d e o o

| |
+ +
|
\ .
}

Around 3 with 3
c f f
k k e ' =
\ .
_
47 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Frequency Multipliers
( )
FM
g t =
| |
( ) contains the following q t
cos ( )
c f
A t k m d e o o

| |
+
|
\ .
}
( ) g
cos ( )
c f
q
t k m d e o o

| |
+
|
\ .
| |
}
}
| | | |
( )
( )
cos ( )
FM output
c f
g t
B P t Pk m d e o o

=
| |
+
|
\ .
}
cos 2 2 ( )
c f
t k m d e o o

| |
+
|
\ .
| |
}
}
.
\ .
cos ( )
c f
P t Pk m d e o o

| |
+
|
\ .
}
48 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Generation of WBFM: Indirect Method
Usually, we are Usually, we are
interested in generating
an FM signal of certain
bandwidth (or Af or |)
and certain f . and certain f
c
.
In the indirect method,
we generate a NBFM
with small | then use a
frequency multiplier to frequency multiplier to
scale | to the required
value.
This way, f
c
will also
b l d b th be scaled by the same
factor. We may need a
frequency mixer to
adjust f
c.
49 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Example: From NBFM to WBFM
A NBFM d l t i d l ti i l A NBFM modulator is modulating a message signal
m(t) with bandwidth 5 kHz and is producing an FM
signal with the following specifications g g p
f
c1
= 300 kHz, Af
1
= 35 Hz.
We would like to use this signal to generate a WBFM g g
signal with the following specifications
f
c2
= 135 MHz, Af
2
= 77 kHz.
3
2
1
77*10
2200
35
f
f
A
= =
A
6
2
3
1
135*10
450
300*10
c
c
f
f
= =
50 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
From NBFM to WBFM: System 1
51 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
From NBFM to WBFM: System 2
52 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Question Question
Th f ll i bl k di i f A The following block diagram is for an Armstrong
indirect FM transmitter. Find the missing five values
(n f f n f ) Show your steps (n
1
, f
c2
, f, n
2
, f
c
) . Show your steps.
Generation of WBFM: Direct Method
H f bili R i Has poor frequency stability. Requires
feedback to stabilize it.
54 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Modulator andDemodulator Circuit Modulator and Demodulator Circuit
In AM the info signal is used to vary the amplitude of the carrier wave In AM, the info signal is used to vary the amplitude of the carrier wave
and then, at the receiver, these variations in the amplitude were
detected and the info recovered.
In FM, the info signal is used to control the freq of the carrier wave.
The freq of the carrier is made to increase as the voltage in the info
signal increase and to decrease in freq as it reduces. The larger the
amplitude of the info signal, the further the freq of the carrier signal is
shifted from its starting point shifted from its starting point.
55
FM Transmitter FM Transmitter
These 2 blocks are often
56
These 2 blocks are often
combined in 1 circuit
Figure: FM Transmitter
FM Transmitter FM Transmitter
V i il h AM i Very similar to the AM transmitter.
The audio oscillator supplies the information signal (eg
microphone and AF amplifier to provide speech and music
i d f h i i l i ANACOM 2) instead of the sinewave signals in ANACOM 2).
The only difference between AM and FM transmitters are the
modulators.
Two types of FM Modulator function in much the same way.
Varactor Modulator
Reactance Modulator
57
HowDoTheseModulatorsWorks? How Do These Modulators Works?
They both include an RF oscillator to generate the carrier and They both include an RF oscillator to generate the carrier and
these oscillators employ a parallel tuned circuit to determine
the frequency of operation.
Adding an additional
The frequency of
g
capacitor in parallel will
cause the total capacitance
to increase and this will
result in a decrease in the
q y
resonance
depends on value
of L and C
resonance freq.
Recall,
Hz
LC
f
o
t 2
1
=
LC t 2
Figure: Parallel Tuned Circuit
58
Figure: Parallel Tuned Circuit
HowDoTheseModulatorsWorks? How Do These Modulators Works?
The tuned circuit is part of the oscillator used to generate the e tu ed c cu t s pa t o t e osc llato used to ge e ate t e
carrier freq so, if the capacitance changes, then so will the carrier
freq. This is demonstrated in Figure below.
To produce a freq
modulated carrier it is modulated carrier, it is
needed to find a way of
making the info signal
increase and decrease the increase and decrease the
size of the capacitance and
hence control the carrier
freq. q
How to achieve? using a
device called Varactor Diode
and then by using a
59
g
transistor.
Figure: Frequency Modulated
Carrier
Varactor Diode Varactor Diode
Varactor diode is a semiconductor diode that is designed to Varactor diode is a semiconductor diode that is designed to
behave as a voltage controlled capacitor.
When a semiconductor diode is reverse biased, no current flows
and it consists of two conducting region separated by a non- and it consists of two conducting region separated by a non
conducting region.
This is very similar to the construction of the capacitor.
Recall the reverse biased diode has a capacitance of
A
C
d
c
=
Recall, the reverse biased diode has a capacitance of
d
C
d
60
Varactor Diode
A
C
d
c
=
Varactor Diode
d
d
more - more
capacitance.
- less capacitance
By increasing the reverse biased voltage, the width of the
insulating region can be increased and hence the capacitance
less capacitance.
g g p
value decreased (more frequecy).
Thus, if the info signal is applied to the varactor diode, the
capacitance will therefore be increased and decreased in
61
p
accordance with the incoming signal.
The Varactor Modulator Circuit
c
b
Figure: The
Varactor
e
Note that tuned circuit sets the operating freq of the oscillator and the
Varactor
Modulator Circuit
varactor, which is effectively in parallel with the tuned circuit.
C1 is a DC blocking capacitor to provide DC isolation between the
oscillator and the collector of the transistor.
62
L1 is an RF choke which allows the info signal through to the varactor but
blocks the RF signals.
The Varactor Modulator Circuit
Th O ti f th V t M d l t The Operation of the Varactor Modulator
The info signal is applied to the base of the input transistor and appears amplified
and inverted at the collector.
This low freq signal passes through the RF choke (L1) and is applied across the
varactor diode. varactor diode.
Varactor diode behaves as a voltage controlled capacitor.
When low reverse biased voltage is applied, more capacitance is generated
and thus decrease the frequency.
When high reverse biased voltage is applied, less capacitance is generated
and thus increase the frequency.
The varactor diode changes its capacitance in accordance with the info
signal and therefore changes the total value of the capacitance in the signal and therefore changes the total value of the capacitance in the
tuned circuit.
The changing value of capacitance causes the oscillator freq to increase and
decrease under the control of the information signal.
63
The output is therefore an FM signal.
The Reactance Modulator Circuit
Behave like a
variable
capacitor capacitor
Task how to make transistor appear to be a capacitor?
Figure: The Reactance Modulator
Circuit
Task how to make transistor appear to be a capacitor?
Solution making it generate a current that is leading an applied
voltage by connecting C and R in series with the collector and the
input of the transistor
64
input of the transistor.
FM Demodulator
F i th d Four primary methods
Differentiator with envelope detector/Slope detector
FMto AMconversion FM to AM conversion
Phase-shift discriminator/Ratio detector
Approximates the differentiator Approximates the differentiator
Zero-crossing detector
Frequency feedback Frequency feedback
Phase lock loops (PLL)
65 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Demodulation: Signal Differentiation
| |
( ) cos ( )
FM c f
g t A t k m d e o o

| |
= +
|
\ .
}
( ) dg t

| |
| |
( )
( ) sin ( )
FM
c f c f
dg t
A k m t t k m d
dt
e e o o

| |
= + +
|
\ .
}
66 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Demodulation: Signal Differentiation
( ) d
| |
( ) sin ( )
c f c f
A k m t t k m d e e o o

| |
+ +
|
\ .
}
dt
\ .
( ) d
( )
( )
sin ( )
c f c p
dm t
A k t k m t
d
e e
(
+ +
(

t
}
( ) dm t
dt
( ) d
dt

( )
( )
c f c p
dt
(

( )do

}
dt
67 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Frequency Discriminators
A t ith Any system with a
transfer function of the
form |H(e)| = ae + b | ( )|
over the band of the FM
signal can be used for
FMd d l ti FM demodulation
The differentiator is just
one example one example.
68 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Slope Detectors (Demodulators)

| |
| |
( ) cos ( )
c f c f
A Ck m t t k m d e e o o

| |
+ +
|
\ .
}
69 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Slope Demodulator
Principle: use slope detector (slope circuit) as Principle: use slope detector (slope circuit) as
frequency discriminator, which implements frequency
to voltage conversion (FVC)
Slope circuit: output voltage is proportional to the input Slope circuit: output voltage is proportional to the input
frequency. Example: filters, differentiator
d
s(t) x(t) |H(f)|
X(f)
d
dt
s(t) x(t)
H(f)=j2 f
S(f)
X(f)
output
voltage
range
|H(f)|
Input frequency
range
f
freqency in s(t) voltage in x(t)
10 20
20 40
Hz j
Hz j
t
t
Input frequency
range in S(f)
. .
70 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Slope Demodulator cont.
Block diagram of direct method (slope detector = slope g ( p p
circuit + envelope detector)
slope
circuit detector
envelope
s(t)
s
1
(t)
s
o
(t)
(AM demodulator)
circuit detector
(FM AM)
(FVC)
0
( ) cos 2 2 ( ) , where ( ) ( )
t
c c f i c f
s t A f t k m d f t f k m t t t t t
(
= + = +
(

}
Let the slope circuit be simply differentiator:
1
0
( ) 2 2 ( ) sin 2 2 ( )
( ) 2 2 ( )
t
c c f c f
s t A f k m t f t k m d
A f k
t t t t t t
(
( = + +

(

(
}
( ) 2 2 ( )
o c c f
s t A f k m t t t ( ~ +

s
o
(t) linear with m(t)
71 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Slope Detector
Magnitude frequency
response of
transformer BPF transformer BPF.
72 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Limiter
Diff ti t k tl l if th Differentiator works correctly only if there are no
amplitude variations in s(t) i.e. Ac =constant.
if A A( ) ( i i ) h l f if Ac = A(t) (time-varying), then envelope of
ds/dt will include term A(t). To remove amplitude
i i h d li i d b f h variations use hard limiter and BPF before the
differentiator
EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
73
Limiter
A device that imposes hard limiting on a signal and contains a A device that imposes hard limiting on a signal and contains a
filter that suppresses the unwanted products (harmonics) of the
limiting process.
Input Signal
O f h d li i
) ) ( cos( ) ( ) ( cos ) ( ) (
}

+ = =
t
f c i
da a m k t w t A t t A t v u
Output of hard limiter
|
.
|

\
|
+ = ) ( 5 cos
5
1
) ( 3 cos
3
1
) ( cos
4
) ( t t t t v
o
u u u
t
Bandpass filter
) ) ( cos(
4
) (
}

+ =
t
f c o
da a m k t w t e
t
Remove the amplitude variations
74 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Ratio Detector
Foster-Seeley/phase shift discriminator Foster Seeley/phase shift discriminator
uses a double-tuned transformer to convert the instantaneous frequency
variations of the FM input signal to instantaneous amplitude variations.
These amplitude variations are rectified to provide a DC output voltage
hi h i i lit d d l it ith th i t i l f which varies in amplitude and polarity with the input signal frequency.
75 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Zero Crossing Detector
76 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
TheQuadratureDetector The Quadrature Detector
Th i i i l i d h h h hif i i i
Figure: Block Diagram of Quadrature Detector
The incoming signal is passed through a phase-shifting circuit.
The degree of phase shift that occurs is determined by the exact
freq of the signal at any particular instant.
The rules are:
If the carrier is unmodulated, the phase shift is 90.
If the carrier freq increase, the phase shift is GREATER than 90.
77
q , p
If the carrier freq decreases, the phase shift is LESS than 90.
TheQuadratureDetector The Quadrature Detector
Phase comparator circuit is use to detect the changes in the phase
of the signal by comparing the phase of the original input signal with
the output of the phase shifting circuit.
It then produces a DC voltage level which depends on the result of
the comparison according to the following rules:
Phase shift = 90, no change in DC voltage level.
Phase shift > 90, result in increased DC voltage level.
Phase shift < 90, result in decreased DC voltage level.
As the phase change, the DC voltage level moves up and down and
re-creates the audio signal. re creates the audio signal.
A low pass filter is included to reduce the amplitude of any high-freq
ripple and also blocks the DC offset. Consequently the signal at the
output closely resembles the original input signal.
78`
output closely ese bles t e o g al put s g al.
ThePhase-LockedLoop(PLL) Detector The PhaseLocked Loop (PLL) Detector
E Error
Voltage
(Reference)
Tuned Voltage
used to control
the VCO the VCO
Figure: Block Diagram of PLL Detector
PLL is a closed loop feedback control system in which either the
f th h f th f db k i l i th t f
79
frequency or the phase of the feedback signal is the parameter of
interest.
ThePhase-LockedLoop(PLL) Detector The PhaseLocked Loop (PLL) Detector
When there is no external input signal (FM signal, f
i
), the VCO operates at p g ( g ,
i
), p
the preset frequency (natural/free-running frequency, f
n
)
The VCOs natural freq is determined by external component. It is normally
set (locked) to IF center freq.
Wh FM i l i li d h PLL h h h f When FM signal is applied to the PLL, the phase comparator compares the f
i
with the VCO output freq.
Phase comparator produced error voltage that is proportional to the freq
difference (f
d
= f
0
-f
i
) difference (f
d
f
0
f
i
)
After several cycles around the loop, the VCOs freq will be equal to FM
signal freq. And the loop is said to have acquired freq locked.
Once the loop is freq locked, the freq difference between the external p q q
input and the VCOs output is converted to a dc bias voltage.
The error voltage is filtered, amplified and applied back to the input of the
VCO.
Th f th lt g i l ti l t th f d i ti
80
Therefore, the error voltage is also proportional to the freq deviation
demodulated info signal
The Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Detector
A PLL operate in three different modes: p
Free running
Capture
Tracking
In the free running mode the input frequency is not close enough to the In the free running mode, the input frequency is not close enough to the
VCO frequency and the PLL runs at the free running frequency determined
by the tuning circuits of the VCO. The error voltage is outside the range of
the VCO.
As the input frequency gets closer to the VCO frequency, the error voltage
reaches a value at which it can begin to change the VCO frequency. This is
the capture mode. The error voltage will continue to decrease as the VCO
frequency gets closer to the input frequency frequency gets closer to the input frequency.
Finally, when the VCO is operating at the same frequency as the input, the
PLL is in the tracking mode. The VCO will track changes in the input
frequency as long as the input frequency remains in a range of frequencies
k th h ld i
81
known as the hold-in range.
Advantageof AngleModulationover AM Advantage of Angle Modulation over AM
1. Noise Immunity 1. Noise Immunity
Most noise results in unwanted amplitude variation. FM/PM receiver
use amplitude limiter to remove the amplitude variation.
Figure: The Amplitude Limiter
AGC is not necessary in an FM receiver, because the limiter circuit
provides AGC action provides AGC action.
The limiter clips all noise peaks from the IF signal and the output of the
limter has constant amplitude.
A limiter cannot be used for this purpose in an AM receiver, because
82
A limiter cannot be used for this purpose in an AM receiver, because
amplitude variations in the signal contain information as well as noise.
Advantageof AngleModulationover AM Advantage of Angle Modulation over AM
2 Noise performance and SNR improvement 2. Noise performance and SNR improvement
In FM/PM, limiters reduce noise thus improve SNR ratio during demodulation.
In AM, once signal is contaminated with noise, it cannot be remove.
3. Capture Effect
FM/PM receiver can differentiate between 2 signals received with the same
frequency. The receiver will capture (locked on) the stronger signal and q y p ( ) g g
eliminates the weaker signal.
In AM, if signals are received at the same freq, all of them will be
demodulated and heard.
4. Power Utilization and efficiency
In FM/PM, total power remains constant regardless of modulation index
In AM total power is the constant carrier power plus SBs powers
83
In AM, total power is the constant carrier power plus SBs powers.
Disadvantage of Angle Modulation g g
1 Wide bandwidth of the transmission 1. Wide bandwidth of the transmission
High quality angle modulation produces many side freq, thus it
require wider BW than AM.
Eg Commercial AM radio band => 10kHz of BW Eg. Commercial AM radio band => 10kHz of BW
Commercial FM radio band => 200kHz of BW
2 Circuit complexity and cost 2. Circuit complexity and cost
Modulation and demodulation ckt required for FM/PM are complex
than those for AM i.e expensive.
But now it is almost comparable due to advent of IC technology But now, it is almost comparable due to advent of IC technology.
84
Phased-Locked Loop (PLL)
Th lti li f ll d The multiplier followed
by the filter estimates
the error bewteen the
angle of g
FM
(t) and
g
VCO
(t).
The error is fed to VCO
Loop
Filter
The error is fed to VCO
to adjust the angle.
When the angles are
VCO
locked, the output of the
PLL would be following
m(t) pattern. m(t) patte .
85 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Demodulator PLL
Phase-locked loop (PLL) Phase locked loop (PLL)
A closed-loop feedback control circuit, make a signal in fixed phase
(and frequency) relation to a reference signal
Track frequency (or phase) variation of inputs Track frequency (or phase) variation of inputs
Or, change frequency (or phase) according to inputs
PLL can be used for both FMmodulator and demodulator
Just as Balanced Modulator IC can be used for most amplitude Just as Balanced Modulator IC can be used for most amplitude
modulations and demodulations
86 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
PLL FM
Remember the following relations Remember the following relations
Si=Acos(wct+|1(t)), Sv=Avcos(wct+|c(t))
Sp=0.5AAv[sin(2wct+|1+|c)+sin(|1-|c)]
S 0 5AA i (| | ) AA (| | ) So=0.5AAvsin(|1-|c)=AAv(|1-|c)
Section 2.14
s(t)
VCO
m(t)
+
+ VCO
m(t)

+
freqency
devided
by N
LP
r(t)
Filter
Loop
s(t) e(t)
v(t)
by N
Reference
Carrier
r(t)
VCO
87 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Superheterodyne Receiver
Radio receivers main function Radio receiver s main function
Demodulation get message signal
Carrier frequency tuning select station
Filt i i /i t f Filtering remove noise/interference
Amplification combat transmission power loss
Superheterodyne receiver p y
Heterodyne: mixing two signals for new frequency
Superheterodyne receiver: heterodyne RF signals with local
tuner, convert to common IF tuner, convert to common IF
Invented by E. Armstrong in 1918.
AM: RF 0.535MHz-1.605 MHz, Midband 0.455MHz
FM: RF 88M 108MHz Midband 10 7MHz FM: RF 88M-108MHz, Midband 10.7MHz
88 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
Advantage of superheterodyne receiver
A signal block (of circuit) can hardly achieve all: selectivity signal A signal block (of circuit) can hardly achieve all: selectivity, signal
quality, and power amplification
Superheterodyne receiver deals them with different blocks
RF bl k l ti it l RF blocks: selectivity only
IF blocks: filter for high signal quality, and amplification, use circuits
that work in only a constant IF, not a large band
89 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Broadcasting
The frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an q y y
exact multiple of 100 kHz from 87.5 to 108.5 MHz . In
most of the Americas and Caribbean only odd
multiples are used.
fm=15KHz, Af=75KHz, |=5, B=2(fm+Af)=180kHz
Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
Random noise has a 'triangular' spectral distribution in an
FM system with the effect that noise occurs predominantly FM system, with the effect that noise occurs predominantly
at the highest frequencies within the baseband. This can be
offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies
before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding
amount in the receiver.
90 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
FM Stereo Multiplexing FM Stereo Multiplexing
Fc=19KHz.
(a) Multiplexer in transmitter
of FM stereo.
(b) Demultiplexer in receiver
f of FM stereo.
Backward compatible Backward compatible
For non-stereo receiver
91 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
TV FM broadcasting
fm=15KHz, Af=25KHz, |=5/3, B=2(fm+Af)=80kHz
Center fc+4.5MHz
92 EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
EXTRA SLI DES EXTRA SLI DES
EEEC383(201-2012) NITIN
Sharma
93
The Reactance Modulator Circuit
The Operation of the Reactance Modulator
The oscillator and tuned ckt provides the unmodulated The oscillator and tuned ckt provides the unmodulated
carrier freq, and this freq is present on the collector of
the transistor.
C d R id h hift b t th ll t C and R provide phase shift between the collector
voltage and current this makes the ckt appear as a
capacitance. p
The changing info signal being applied to the base has
the same effect as changing the bias voltage applied to
the capacitor i e capacitance value will increase / the capacitor i.e capacitance value will increase /
decrease.
As the capacitance is effectively in parallel with the
94
p y p
tuned ckt, the variations in value will cause the freq of
resonance to change and hence the carrier freq will be
varied in accordance with the info signal input
FM Receiver
Similar to AM superhet Rx. The most
significant different is that the FM
d d l t t t t th i f demodulator must now extract the info
signal from a freq modulated wave.
The basic requirement of any FM
demodulator is therefore to convert freq demodulator is therefore to convert freq
changes into changes in voltage, with the
minimum amount of distortion.
95
minimum amount of distortion.
FM Receiver
96 Figure: FM Receiver
TheQuadratureDetector The Quadrature Detector
Th i i i l i d h h h hif i i i
Figure: Block Diagram of Quadrature Detector
The incoming signal is passed through a phase-shifting circuit.
The degree of phase shift that occurs is determined by the exact
freq of the signal at any particular instant.
The rules are:
If the carrier is unmodulated, the phase shift is 90.
If the carrier freq increase, the phase shift is GREATER than 90.
97
q , p
If the carrier freq decreases, the phase shift is LESS than 90.
TheQuadratureDetector The Quadrature Detector
Phase comparator circuit is use to detect the changes in the phase
of the signal by comparing the phase of the original input signal with
the output of the phase shifting circuit.
It then produces a DC voltage level which depends on the result of
the comparison according to the following rules:
Phase shift = 90, no change in DC voltage level.
Phase shift > 90, result in increased DC voltage level.
Phase shift < 90, result in decreased DC voltage level.
As the phase change, the DC voltage level moves up and down and
re-creates the audio signal. re creates the audio signal.
A low pass filter is included to reduce the amplitude of any high-freq
ripple and also blocks the DC offset. Consequently the signal at the
output closely resembles the original input signal.
98`
output closely ese bles t e o g al put s g al.
ThePhase-LockedLoop(PLL) Detector The PhaseLocked Loop (PLL) Detector
E Error
Voltage
(Reference)
Tuned Voltage
used to control
the VCO the VCO
Figure: Block Diagram of PLL Detector
PLL is a closed loop feedback control system in which either the
f th h f th f db k i l i th t f
99
frequency or the phase of the feedback signal is the parameter of
interest.
ThePhase-LockedLoop(PLL) Detector The PhaseLocked Loop (PLL) Detector
When there is no external input signal (FM signal, f
i
), the VCO operates at p g ( g ,
i
), p
the preset frequency (natural/free-running frequency, f
n
)
The VCOs natural freq is determined by external component. It is normally
set (locked) to IF center freq.
Wh FM i l i li d h PLL h h h f When FM signal is applied to the PLL, the phase comparator compares the f
i
with the VCO output freq.
Phase comparator produced error voltage that is proportional to the freq
difference (f
d
= f
0
-f
i
) difference (f
d
f
0
f
i
)
After several cycles around the loop, the VCOs freq will be equal to FM
signal freq. And the loop is said to have acquired freq locked.
Once the loop is freq locked, the freq difference between the external p q q
input and the VCOs output is converted to a dc bias voltage.
The error voltage is filtered, amplified and applied back to the input of the
VCO.
Th f th lt g i l ti l t th f d i ti
100
Therefore, the error voltage is also proportional to the freq deviation
demodulated info signal
The Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Detector
A PLL operate in three different modes: p
Free running
Capture
Tracking
In the free running mode the input frequency is not close enough to the In the free running mode, the input frequency is not close enough to the
VCO frequency and the PLL runs at the free running frequency determined
by the tuning circuits of the VCO. The error voltage is outside the range of
the VCO.
As the input frequency gets closer to the VCO frequency, the error voltage
reaches a value at which it can begin to change the VCO frequency. This is
the capture mode. The error voltage will continue to decrease as the VCO
frequency gets closer to the input frequency frequency gets closer to the input frequency.
Finally, when the VCO is operating at the same frequency as the input, the
PLL is in the tracking mode. The VCO will track changes in the input
frequency as long as the input frequency remains in a range of frequencies
k th h ld i
101
known as the hold-in range.
Advantageof AngleModulationover AM Advantage of Angle Modulation over AM
1. Noise Immunity 1. Noise Immunity
Most noise results in unwanted amplitude variation. FM/PM receiver
use amplitude limiter to remove the amplitude variation.
Figure: The Amplitude Limiter
AGC is not necessary in an FM receiver, because the limiter circuit
provides AGC action provides AGC action.
The limiter clips all noise peaks from the IF signal and the output of the
limter has constant amplitude.
A limiter cannot be used for this purpose in an AM receiver, because
102
A limiter cannot be used for this purpose in an AM receiver, because
amplitude variations in the signal contain information as well as noise.
Advantageof AngleModulationover AM Advantage of Angle Modulation over AM
2 Noise performance and SNR improvement 2. Noise performance and SNR improvement
In FM/PM, limiters reduce noise thus improve SNR ratio during demodulation.
In AM, once signal is contaminated with noise, it cannot be remove.
3. Capture Effect
FM/PM receiver can differentiate between 2 signals received with the same
frequency. The receiver will capture (locked on) the stronger signal and q y p ( ) g g
eliminates the weaker signal.
In AM, if signals are received at the same freq, all of them will be
demodulated and heard.
4. Power Utilization and efficiency
In FM/PM, total power remains constant regardless of modulation index
In AM total power is the constant carrier power plus SBs powers
103
In AM, total power is the constant carrier power plus SBs powers.
Disadvantage of Angle Modulation g g
1 Wide bandwidth of the transmission 1. Wide bandwidth of the transmission
High quality angle modulation produces many side freq, thus it
require wider BW than AM.
Eg Commercial AM radio band => 10kHz of BW Eg. Commercial AM radio band => 10kHz of BW
Commercial FM radio band => 200kHz of BW
2 Circuit complexity and cost 2. Circuit complexity and cost
Modulation and demodulation ckt required for FM/PM are complex
than those for AM i.e expensive.
But now it is almost comparable due to advent of IC technology But now, it is almost comparable due to advent of IC technology.
104
Summary of FM spectrum:
Frequency spectrum consists of carrier component at f
c
and also sideband at f
c
nf
m
where n is an integer (n =
1,2,3,)
The number of sideband depends on index modulation
value, m. ,
Magnitude of carrier signal decreases as m increases.
Amplitude of the frequency spectrum depends on value of Amplitude of the frequency spectrum depends on value of
J
n
(m).
The bandwidth of modulated signal increases when index
modulation, mincreases. BW > 2f
m
is expected.
Revision
After modulation using an FM modulator, the modulated wave is passed
through an ideal bandpass filter having a center frequency of 500Hz
and a bandwidth of 200Hz.
Antenna
Message
Signal
Carrier
Antenna
FMModulator Bandpass
Filter
Transmitted
Signal
Signal
The unmodulated carrier signal is given by 10 cos(1000t) V and the
message signal is 8 cos(96t) V. The frequency deviation sensitivity is
12Hz/V.
Assuming all devices have resistance of 10, calculate:
a) Peak frequency deviation in Hertz
b) Peak phase deviation in radians b) Peak phase deviation in radians
c) Carrier swing
d) Modulation index
e) Power at the bandpass filter input
f) D th f t f th i l t th filt i t d
106
f) Draw the frequency spectrum of the signal at the filter input and
output Label the amplitude and frequency of each spectral
component
g) Power at the bandpass filter output
2. An angle modulated wave has the equation ,
)] 10 2 sin 2 ( ) 10 100 2 cos[( 500 ) (
3 6
t t t V + = t t
is applied to the antenna with a load resistance of 50.
a) Given that when a modulating signal amplitude E = 50V it will produce
)] 10 2 sin 2 ( ) 10 100 2 cos[( 500 ) ( t t t V
FM
+ = t t
a) Given that when a modulating signal amplitude E
m
= 50V
rms
, it will produce
a frequency deviation of 2 kHz. Determine:
i. The instantaneous frequency, fi(t)
ii. The actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel Function table [1
marks]
iii. The approximate minimum bandwidth using Carsons rule [1 marks]
iv. The modulating signal, V
m
(t) equation [2 marks]
b) If the maximum frequency deviation has been increased until the
amplitude of the second sideband pairs are 50% of the unmodulated
carrier amplitude, determine:
Th d l t d i [4 k ] v. The new modulated carrier power [4 marks]
vi. If the signal from part (iv) is passes through the bandpass filter with a
center frequency of 100 MHz and a bandwidth of 6 kHz, draw the
frequency spectrum of the signal at filter output. Label the amplitude
107
q y p g p p
and frequency of each spectral component. [3 marks]
vii. The total modulated wave power after the bandpass filter in part (v).[1
marks]