Science Project

Submitted to: Ms. Gertrudes P. Soliven Submitted by: Lemuel B. Concepcion

I.

Instruments used to gather information about the outer space

There are many commonly available instruments that are designed and modified to work in micro-gravity and at extreme temperatures. Here are four common instruments you'll be familiar with. Mans quest to unravel the mysteries surrounding space has led to the unprecedented growth in space science in the last century. There are a number of instruments used in outer space exploration for the detailed study of different cosmological objects. These four tools you will be familiar with, as they are also used on Earth. However, any instrument used in space is specially designed to endure harsh conditions. 1. Telescopes: The oldest instrument used in space exploration may be the telescope; the most relied upon instrument of astronomers since the invention of the refracting telescope. It was Galileo who revolutionized space science with his insightful observations which he made using his modified refracting telescope. The increasing difficulty in handling the refracting telescope forced scientists to look for alternative instruments, and Sir Isaac Newton brought a radical change in telescopes by replacing the primary lens in the refracting telescope with a mirror and thus the era of reflecting telescopes began. In the following centuries different scientists made valuable contributions in modifying the reflecting telescope. The invention of radio telescopes made it possible to study radio waves from distant objects in space. Advances in optical astronomy included the development of multi-mirror telescopes. Even though these were all used to explore space, they were all based on the Earth. By the mid 20th century, space scientists were able to place the first space telescopes in orbits above the Earth, thereby drastically changing our perception of the space. In 1989, Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) was launched, followed by historic reflector telescope the Hubble Telescope in 1990, the Compton Observatory in 1991, Chandra Observatory in 1999 and Spitzer Telescope in 2003. The James Webb Space Telescope which will be launched in 2013 is expected to produce better views of the deep space. Solar telescopes, another type of telescope, are used extensively in the study of the Sun

. Refracting Telescope

Hubble Space Telescope

James Webb Space Telescope

2.

Cameras: Another invaluable instrument in space exploration is cameras. They are used to take high resolution images of the surface and surroundings of cosmic bodies. Navigation cameras and hazard cameras help control stations on Earth guide robots across the surface of the planets. Microscopic imagers are specifically designed to take pictures of soil and rocks with very high precision to advance the study of planetary geology.

3.

Spectroscope: Spectrometers are another scientific instrument which astronomers depend on greatly to learn more about the characteristics and composition of different cosmic bodies. Every space probe is fitted with spectrometers of different capabilities. For instance Mars exploration rovers, Spirit and Opportunity are equipped with a Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, Mssbauer spectrometer and Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer, each with different purposes. The cameras and spectrometers of different capabilities are used in all missions.

4.

Robots: One of the greatest challenges of space exploration is the highly hostile environmental conditions, which make human exploration practically impossible in most cosmic environments. Scientists overcome this obstacle by developing different types of space robots. There are different types of space robots like flybys, rovers, robotic arms, humanoids and orbiters.

Flyby

humanoid

Orbiter

rover

II.

Characteristics of Stars
1. Age 2. Chemical composition 3. Diameter 4. Kinematics 5. Magnetic field 6. Mass 7. Rotation 8. Temperature

1. Age Most stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. Some stars may even be close to 13.7 billion years oldthe observed age of the universe. The oldest star yet discovered, HE 1523-0901, is an estimated 13.2 billion years old. The more massive the star, the shorter its lifespan, primarily because massive stars have greater pressure on their cores, causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly. The most massive stars last an average of a few million years, while stars of minimum mass (red dwarfs) burn their fuel very slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of years. 2. Chemical composition When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71% hydrogen and 27% helium, as measured by mass, with a small fraction of heavier elements. Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere, as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure. Because the molecular clouds where stars form are steadily enriched by heavier elements from supernovae explosions, a measurement of the chemical composition of a star can be used to infer its age. The portion of heavier elements may also be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system. The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327-2326, with only 1/200,000th the iron content of the Sun. By contrast, the super-metal-rich star Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun, while the planet-bearing star 14 Herculis has nearly triple the iron. There also exist chemically peculiar stars that show unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrum; especially chromium and rare earth elements.

3. Diameter Stars vary widely in size. Due to their great distance from the Earth, all stars except the Sun appear to the human eye as shining points in the night sky that twinkle because of the effect of the Earth's atmosphere. The Sun is also a star, but it is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead, and to provide daylight. Other than the Sun, the star with the largest apparent size is R Doradus, with an angular diameter of only 0.057 arcseconds. Stars range in size from neutron stars, which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km (25 mi) in diameter, to supergiants like Betelgeuse in the Orion constellation, which has a diameter approximately 650 times larger than the Sunabout 900,000,000 km (560,000,000 mi). However, Betelgeuse has a much lower density than the Sun.

4. Kinematics The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the origin and age of a star, as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy. The components of motion of a star consist of the radial velocity toward or away from the Sun, and the traverse angular movement, which is called its proper motion. Radial velocity is measured by the doppler shift of the star's spectral lines, and is given in units of km/s. The proper motion of a star is determined by precise astrometric measurements in units of milli-arc seconds (mas) per year. By determining the parallax of a star, the proper motion can then be converted into units of velocity. Stars with high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun, making them good candidates for parallax measurements. Once both rates of movement are known, the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the galaxy can be computed. Among nearby stars, it has been found that population I stars have generally lower velocities than older, population II stars. The latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy. Comparison of the kinematics of nearby stars has also led to the identification of stellar associations. These are most likely groups of stars that share a common point of origin in giant molecular clouds. 5. Magnetic field The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the interior where convective circulation occurs. This movement of conductive plasma functions like a dynamo, generating magnetic fields that extend throughout the star. The strength of the magnetic field varies with the mass and composition of the star, and the amount of magnetic surface activity depends upon the star's rate of rotation. This surface activity

produces star spots, which are regions of strong magnetic fields and lower than normal surface temperatures. Coronal loops are arching magnetic fields that reach out into the corona from active regions. Stellar flares are bursts of high-energy particles that are emitted due to the same magnetic activity. Young, rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity because of their magnetic field. The magnetic field can act upon a star's stellar wind, however, functioning as a brake to gradually slow the rate of rotation as the star grows older. Thus, older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation and a lower level of surface activity. The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical manner and can shut down altogether for periods. During the Maunder minimum, for example, the Sun underwent a 70-year period with almost no sunspot activity.

6. Mass The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines the surface gravity. Giant stars have a much lower surface gravity than main sequence stars, while the opposite is the case for degenerate, compact stars such as white dwarfs. The surface gravity can influence the appearance of a star's spectrum, with higher gravity causing a broadening of the absorption lines. Stars are sometimes grouped by mass based upon their evolutionary behavior as they approach the end of their nuclear fusion lifetimes. Very low mass stars with masses below 0.5 solar masses do not enter the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) but evolve directly into white dwarfs. Low mass stars with a mass below about 1.82.2 solar masses (depending on composition) do enter the AGB, where they develop a degenerate helium core. Intermediate-mass stars undergo helium fusion and develop a degenerate carbonoxygen core. Massive stars have a minimum mass of 710 solar masses, but this may be as low as 56 solar masses. These stars undergo carbon fusion, with their lives ending in a core-collapse supernova explosion.

7. Rotation The rotation rate of stars can be approximated through spectroscopic measurement, or more exactly determined by tracking the rotation rate of star spots. Young stars can have a rapid rate of rotation greater than 100 km/s at the equator. The Bclass star Achernar, for example, has an equatorial rotation velocity of about 225 km/s or greater, giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than 50% larger than the distance between the poles. This rate of rotation is just below the critical velocity of 300 km/s where the star would break apart. By contrast, the Sun only rotates once every 25 35

days, with an equatorial velocity of 1.994 km/s. The star's magnetic field and the stellar wind serve to slow down a main sequence star's rate of rotation by a significant amount as it evolves on the main sequence.

8. Temperature The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production at the core and the radius of the star and is often estimated from the star's color index. It is normally given as the effective temperature, which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star. Note that the effective temperature is only a representative value, however, as stars actually have a temperature gradient that decreases with increasing distance from the core. The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins. The stellar temperature will determine the rate of energization or ionization of different elements, resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum. The surface temperature of a star, along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption features, is used to classify a star.

III.

Constellations
Ever since people first wandered the Earth, great significance has been given to the celestial objects seen in the sky. Throughout human history and across many different cultures, names and mythical stories have been attributed to the star patterns in the night sky, thus giving birth to what we know as constellations. When were the first constellations recorded? Archaeological studies have identified possible astronomical markings painted on the walls in the cave system at Lascaux in southern France. Our ancestors may have recorded their view of the night sky on the walls of their cave some 17 300 years ago. It is thought that the Pleiades star cluster is represented alongside the nearby cluster of the Hyades. Was the first ever depiction of a star pattern made over seventeen millennia ago? (Rappenglck 1996) The ancient Greeks were the first to describe over half of the 88 constellations recognised by the IAU today. Forty eight of the constellations we know were recorded in the seventh and eighth books of Claudius Ptolemys Almagest, although the exact origin of these constellations still remains uncertain. Ptolemys descriptions are probably strongly influenced by the work of Eudoxus of Knidos in around 350 BC. Between the 16th and 17th century AD, European astronomers and celestial cartographers added new

constellations to the 48 previously described by Ptolemy; these new constellations were mainly new discoveries made by the Europeans who first explored the southern hemisphere. Andromeda Aquarius Aries Caelum Canes Venatici Capricornus Centaurus Chamaeleon Coma Berenices Corvus Cygnus Draco Fornax Hercules Hydrus Leo Libra Lyra Monoceros Octans Pavo Antlia Aquila Auriga Camelopardalis Canis Major Carina Cepheus Circinus Corona Austrina Crater Delphinus Equuleus Gemini Horologium Indus Leo Minor Lupus Mensa Musca Ophiuchus Pegasus Apus Ara Botes Cancer Canis Minor Cassiopeia Cetus Columba Corona Borealis Crux Dorado Eridanus Grus Hydra Lacerta Lepus Lynx Microscopium Norma Orion Perseus

Phoenix Piscis Austrinus Reticulum Scorpius Serpens Telescopium Tucana Vela Vulpecula

Pictor Puppis Sagitta Sculptor Sextans Triangulum Ursa Major Virgo

Pisces Pyxis Sagittarius Scutum Taurus Triangulum Australe Ursa Minor Volans

IV. Galaxies
Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is typical: it has hundreds of billions of stars, enough gas and dust to make billions more stars, and at least ten times as much dark matter as all the stars and gas put together. And its all held together by gravity. Like more than two-thirds of the known galaxies, the Milky Way has a spiral shape. At the center of the spiral, a lot of energy and, occasionally, vivid flares. are being generated. Based on the immense gravity that would be required explain the movement of stars and the energy expelled, the astronomers conclude that the center of the Milky Way is a supermassive black hole. Other galaxies have elliptical shapes, and a few have unusual shapes like toothpicks or rings. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF) shows this diversity. Hubble observed a tiny patch of sky (one-tenth the diameter of the moon) for one million seconds (11.6 days) and found approximately 10,000 galaxies, of all sizes, shapes, and colors. From the ground, we see very little in this spot, which is in the constellation Fornax.

Galaxy

Constellation

Origin of name

Notes

Milky Way Galaxy

This is the galaxy that contains Earth, it is named after the nebulosity in the night sky that marks the densest concentration of stars of our Sagittarius(centre) galaxy in the sky, which appears to blur together into a faint glow, called the Milky Way.

Andromeda

Andromeda

Commonly just Andromeda, this, called the Andromeda Galaxy, Andromeda Nebula,Great Andromeda Nebula, Andromeda Spiral Nebula, and such, has been traditionally called Andromeda, after the constellation in which it lies.

Bode's Galaxy

Ursa Major

Named for Johann Elert Bode who discovered this galaxy in 1774.

Cartwheel Galaxy

Sculptor

Its visual appearance is similar to that of a spoked cartwheel.

Cigar Galaxy

Ursa Major

Appears similar in shape to a cigar.

Comet Galaxy

Sculptor

This galaxy is named after its unusual appearance, looking like a comet.

The comet effect is caused by tidal stripping by its galaxy cluster, Abell 2667.

Hoag's Object

Serpens Caput

It is of the subtype Hoag-type galaxy, and may in fact be This is named after Art Hoag, who discovered a polar-ring galaxywith the ring in this ring galaxy. the plane of rotation of the central object.

Large Magellanic Cloud

Dorado/Mensa

Named after Ferdinand Magellan

This is the fourth largest galaxy in the Local Group, and forms a pair with theSMC, and from recent research, may not be part of the Milky Way system of satellites at all.

Small Magellanic Cloud

Tucana

Named after Ferdinand Magellan

This forms a pair with the LMC, and from recent research, may not be part of the Milky Way system of satellites at all.

Mayall's Object

Ursa Major

This is named after Nicholas U. Mayall, of the Lick Observatory, who discovered it.[6][7][8]

Also called VV 32 and Arp 148, this is a very peculiar looking object, and is likely to be not one galaxy, but two galaxies undergoing a collision. Event in images is a spindle shape and a ring shape.

Pinwheel Galaxy

Ursa Major

Similar in appearance to a pinwheel (toy).

Sombrero Galaxy

Virgo

Similar in appearance to a sombrero.

Sunflower Galaxy

Canes Venatici

Tadpole Galaxy

Draco

The name comes from the resemblance of the galaxy to a tadpole.

This shape resulted from tidal interaction that drew out a long tidal tail.

Whirlpool Galaxy

Canes Venatici

From the whirlpool appearance this gravitationally disturbed galaxy exhibits.

V. The Universe
The universe is a huge wide-open space that holds everything from the smallest particle to the biggest galaxy. No one knows just how big the Universe is. Astronomers try to measure it all the time. They use a special instrument called a spectroscope to tell whether an object is moving away from Earth or toward Earth. Based on the information from this instrument, scientists have learned that the universe is still growing outward in every direction. Scientists believe that about 13.7 billion years ago, a powerful explosion called the Big Bang happened. This powerful explosion set the universe into motion and this motion continues today. Scientists are not yet sure if the motion will stop, change direction, or keep going forever.

VI. Space probes and their missions

Suisei
Designed to study Comet P/Halley, Suisei was part of an internatinal fleet of six Halley's comet explorers called the Halley Armada. Suisei received its name (meaning Comet in Japanese) after launch. It was the second of two Japanese probes launched toward Halley during the 1986 encounter. On March 8, 1986, at 13:06 UT, SUISEI approached 151,000 km in the side of the Sun away from halley's Comet, returning ultraviolet images of the 20-million-kilometer hydrogen gas coma.

Giotto
Designed to study Comet P/Halley, Giotto was the first deep space probe launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). Originally put forward as part of a joint NASA/ESA comet mission, the United States eventually pulled out. There was little leeway for delays if the ESA planned to continue alone. If the opportunity was missed, the next chance at Halley's Comet would be 75 years later.

Vega 2
Vega 2 - The Vega project was an ambitious deep space Soviet mission with three major goals: to place advanced lander modules on the surface of Venus, to deploy balloons (two each) in the Venusian atmosphere, and, by using Venusian gravity, to fly the remaining buses past the Comet Halley. Vega 2 was the second of a set of twin missions. Discover Vega 2 mission to Venus.

Vega 1
The Vega project was an ambitious deep space Soviet mission with three major goals: to place advanced lander modules on the surface of Venus, to deploy balloons (two each) in the Venusian atmosphere, and, by using Venusian gravity, to fly the remaining buses past the Comet Halley. It was a cooperative effort among the Soviet Union and Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany.

Redstone Rockets
The Redstone rocket was developed by Dr. Werhner von Braun and a group of US rocketry specialists. On January 31, 1958, a modified four-stage Redstone rocket, known as Jupiter-C, lifted the first American satellite, Explorer I, into orbit. A Redstone rocket also launched the Mercury capsules on their sub-orbital flights in 1961, inaugurating America's human spaceflight program.

Beagle 2
Beagle 2's main mission was to search for signs of life - past or present - in the Martian soil. It was also equipped to look for signs of water and study Mars' geology and atmosphere. Beagle 2 was equipped with a robot sampling arm and a small "mole" (Planetary Undersurface Tool, or PLUTO) which can be deployed by the arm and was capable of moving across the surface at a rate of about 1 cm every 5 seconds using a compressed spring mechanism.

Deep Space 2
The Deep Space 2 (DS2) project was a New Millenium mission consisting of two probes which were to penetrate the surface of Mars near the south polar layered terrain and send back data on the sub-surface properties.

Fobos 1
Fobos 1, and its companion spacecraft Fobos 2, were the next-generation in the Venera-type planetary missions, succeeding those last used during the Vega 1 and 2 missions to comet P/Halley. Each spacecraft, with a newly designed bus, carried twenty-four experiments provided by thirteen countries and the European Space Agency.

International Sun-Earth Explorer 3

The International Sun-Earth Explorer 3's was the 3rd of a trio of spacecraft sent into space to study interplanetary space. Among its accomplishments was being the first spacecraft orbit at a libration point as well as the first to detect the solar wind approaching Earth. Later, it was renamed International Cometary Explorer and sent to study comet Giacbini-Zinner and comet Halley. It was the first spacecraft to fly past a comet, flying through the tail of comet Giacobini-Zinner.

Mars Astrobiology Field Lab Rover (AFL) Mission Information

The Mars Astrobiology Field Laboratory (AFL) will provide a major advance in astrobiology. The mission will perform mutually confirming tests and measurements of biosignatures for past and present habitation.

Mars Climate Orbiter

Mars Climate Orbiter was the second probe in NASA's Mars Surveyor program and was designed to function as an interplanetary weather satellite and a communications relay for Mars Polar Lander. The orbiter carried two science instruments: a copy of an atmospheric sounder on the Mars Observer spacecraft lost in 1993, and a new, lightweight color imager combining wide- and medium-angle cameras.

Mars Global Surveyor

Mars Global Surveyor was the first successful mission to the Red Planet in two decades. The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) was designed to orbit Mars over a two year period and collect data on the surface morphology, topography, composition, gravity, atmospheric dynamics, and magnetic field. This data will be used to investigate the surface processes, geology, distribution of material, internal properties, evolution of the magnetic field, and the weather and climate of Mars.

Mars Observer
Seventeen years after the successful Viking 1 and Viking 2 missions, Mars Observer, the first of the Observer series of planetary missions, was designed to study the geoscience and climate of Mars. It was designed to carry out a high-resolution photography mission of the Red Planet over the course of a Martian year (687 days) from a 378 x 350-kilometer polar orbit.

Mars Odyssey
The 2001 Mars Odyssey is the remaining part of the Mars Surveyor 2001 Project, which originally consisted of two separately launched missions, The Mars Surveyor 2001 Orbiter and the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander. The lander spacecraft was cancelled as part of the reorganization of the Mars Exploration Program at NASA. The orbiter, renamed the 2001 Mars Odyssey, will nominally orbit Mars for three years.

Mars Pathfinder Mission Information

The rover was named in honor of Sojourner Truth, a 19th century abolitionist and champion of women's rights. The name was suggested by Valerie Ambroise, 12, of Bridgeport, CT. Other suggestions included Sacagawea, Athena and Thumbelina. Sojourner rover operated for 84 days - 12 times longer than its designed lifetime of seven days. The Mars Pathfinder was the second of NASA's low-cost planetary Discovery missions to be launched.

Mars Polar Lander Mission Information

The Mars Surveyor '98 program is comprised of two spacecraft launched separately, the Mars Climate Orbiter and the Mars Polar Lander. The two missions were designed to study the Martian weather, climate, and water and carbon dioxide budget, in order to understand the reservoirs, behavior, and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes. The last telemetry from Mars Polar Lander was sent just prior to atmospheric entry on 3 December 1999.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Mission Information

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is designed to orbit Mars over a full martian year and gather data with six scientific instruments, including a high-resolution imager. The science objectives of the mission are to: characterize the present climate of Mars and its physical mechanisms of seasonal and interannual climate change; determine the nature of complex layered terrain on Mars and identify water-related landforms.

Mars Sample Return Lander Mission Information

In the second decade of the century, NASA plans additional science orbiters, rovers and landers, and the first mission to return samples of Martian rock and soil to Earth. Current plans call for the first sample return mission to be launched in 2014, and a second in 2016. Options that would significantly increase the rate of mission launch and/or accelerate the schedule of exploration are under study, including launching the first sample return mission as early as 2011.

Mars Science Laboratory Mission Information

Mars Science Laboratory will be a long-range, long-duration mobile lab. Its mission will be to continue the study of Martian geology from the surface and pave the way for a possible future sample return. The lab will be delivered to Mars on the first of a new generation of smart landers.

Mars Scout 2 Mission Information

This next generation Mars Scout could take one of many forms - an airplane, balloon or small lander. Scout missions are designed by the science community and will be shaped by discoveries of the current fleet of Mars spacecraft. The first Mars Scout is Phoenix, which is scheduled to launch for Mars in 2007.

Mars Scout 3 Mission Information

This next generation Mars Scout could take one of many forms - an airplane, balloon or small lander. Scout missions are designed by the science community and will be shaped by discoveries of the current fleet of Mars spacecraft. The first Mars Scout is Phoenix, which is scheduled to launch for Mars in 2007.

Nozomi Mission Information

Nozomi was Japan's first mission to another planet. Nozomi means hope in Japanese. Before launch, it was known as Planet-B. The orbiter weighed 541 kg (1,193 pounds), including fuel. Intended to be Japan's first Mars orbiter, Nozomi was Japan's fourth "deep space" probe. Nozomi was to be inserted into a highly eccentric Mars orbit with a periapsis 300 km above the surface, an apoapsis of 15 Mars radii, and an inclination of 170 degrees with respect to the ecliptic plane.

Opportunity Mars Rover Mission Information

Opportunity traveled roughly 491 million km (305 million miles) on its journey to Mars. On the surface, the rover moves at a top speed of 5 cm (2 inches) per second. Opportunity's panoramic camera will reveal Mars at about the same height as an adult person. Both rovers carry a unique camera calibration target in the shape of a sundail. Opportunity found the strongest evidence yet that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars. It is one of the two rovers launched to Mars in mid-2003.

VII. Achievements in space explorations

Date 07/05/1687 Achievement Publication of Principia Details
The English astronomer Sir Isaac newton publishes the Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This three-volume work outlines Newton's three laws of motion as well The British mathematician William Moore publishes Treatise on the Motion of Rockets. This work features the first exposition of rocket mechanics based on Newton's third law of motion.

December 17, 1904

First Exposition of Rocket Mechanics

March 17, 1905

Publication of Principia

Russian rocket scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky publishes The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices. This is the first serious work to be published that shows space exploration to be theoretically possible.

March 28, 1905

Goddard's Rocket Patents

U.S. rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard receives two landmark patents for rockets. The first described a multistage rocket and the second described a rocket fueled with gasoline and liquid nitrous oxide. These two patents would become major milestones in the history of rocketry.

April 2, 1905

Goddard's Famous Publication

Robert Goddard publishes A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. The book describes Goddard's mathematical theories of rocket flight and his research into solid-fuel and liquid-fuel rockets. It is regarded by many as one of the most important works in the science of rocketry and is believed to have influenced the work of German rocket pioneers Hermann Oberth and Wernher von Braun.

April 7, 1905

Soviet Rocket Society Established

The Soviet Union establishes the Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel. This group would soon be renamed the Society for the Study of Interplanetary Communications and would become the first Soviet rocket society. U.S. rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard launches the first liquid fueled rocket from his Aunt Effie's farm in Auburn, Massachusetts. The 4-foot high rocket dubbed "Nell" reaches an altitude of 41 feet and a speed of about 60 miles per hour. The flight lasts only 2 1/2 seconds, but paves the way for the U.S. rocket program.

March 16, 1926

First Liquid Fueled Rocket Launched

April 10, 1905

Rocket Club

The Verein fr Raumschiffahrt (Society for Space Travel) is formed as an association of amateur rocket enthusiasts in Germany. This group brings together many of the engineers who would eventually make important contributions to space flight.

April 16, 1905

Aggregate Rocket Series

Work begins in Germany on the Aggregate series of rockets. Under the direction of German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, this program eventually leads to development of the V-2 rocket, one of Nazi Germany's most powerful weapons of destruction.

April 25, 1905

First Suborbital Flight

After two previous failures, Germany successfully launches their V-2 rocket. It is the first man-made object to achieve sub-orbital spaceflight, reaching an altitude of 100 km (62 miles). The V-2 is the progenitor of all modern rockets including the U.S. Apollo program's Saturn V moon rocket.

May 10, 1946

First U.S. High Altitude Flight

The U.S. military achieves its first high-altitude space flight using a rebuilt German V-2 rocket. Launched from the White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico, the flight reaches an altitude of 70 miles. The United States launches its first American-designed rocket. Known as the Wac Corporal, the rocket reaches the edge of space at an altitude of 50 miles after being launched from the White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico. Fruit flies become the first animals in space as a V-2 rocket is launched from the White Sands Proving Ground. Inside are several vials containing fruit flies, rye seeds, and cotton seeds. The flight reaches an altitude of 60 miles, and the payload is later retrieved intact.

May 22, 1946

First American-Designed Rocket Reaches Space

February 20, 1947

First Animals in Space

August 21, 1957

First Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

The Soviet Union launches the first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Known as the R-7 Semyorka, it travels a total distance of 6000 km (3728 miles). A modified version of this missile would be used later to launch the world's first artificial satellite,

October 4, 1957

First Artificial Satellite

The USSR beat the United States into space by launching Sputnik 1. At 184 pounds, it was the world's first artificial satellite. Sputnik transmitted radio signals back to Earth for only a short time, but it was a major accomplishment.

November 3, 1957

First Live Animal in Space

Following the success of Sputnik 1, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957. The spacecraft contained a pressurized container that housed a dog named Laika. The capsule contained a controlled atmosphere, food supply, waste collection system and biological sensors. Laika lived 8 days until the food supply ran out, and proved that animals could survive in space.

January 31, 1958

First American Satellite

America launched its first satellite. Weighing only 30 pounds, Explorer 1 was launched into orbit by the Army on a Jupiter-C rocket. The satellite contained several scientific instruments. This mission discovered the radiation belts surrounding the Earth.

October 1, 1958

NASA is Born

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is founded, taking over the responsibilities of the existing National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics. The Russian satellite Luna 1 is launched in an attempt to hit the Moon. The spacecraft misses the Moon and is flung out into space by the Moon's gravity. It becomes the first manmade object to achieve an orbit around the Sun.

January 2, 1959

First Spacecraft to Achieve Solar Orbit

September 12, 1959

First Spacecraft to Impact on the Moon

The Russian satellite Luna 2 is launched. On September 13, it becomes the first man-made object to hit the Moon. The spacecraft was sterilized to avoid contaminating the Moon with terrestrial bacteria. The Russian satellite Luna 3 is launched, orbiting the Moon and photographing 70 percent of the Moon's far side.

October 4, 1959

First View of Moon's Far Side

April 1, 1960

First Weather Satellite

Tiros 1, the first successful weather satellite, is launched by the United States. Two television cameras in the satellite returned views of clouds above the Earth. Tiros 1 was only operational for 78 days, but proved that satellites could be useful tools for surveying weather conditions from space.

April 12, 1961

First Man in Space

Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin became the first human to venture into space. The Vostok 1 spacecraft made one complete orbit around Earth in 108 minutes, and reached altitudes of 112 to 203 miles. The flight lasted only one hour and 48 minutes.

May 5, 1961

First American in Space

On May 5, 1961, Astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American to be launched into space. Shepard's suborbital flight lasted only15-minutes, during which time he experienced about 5 minutes of "weightlessness" and tested the maneuvering capability of his Mercury capsule.

May 25, 1961

President Kennedy's Historic Speech

Just 20 days after Shepard's flight, President John F. Kennedy made his historic speech to Congress. He challenged the nation to land "a man on the Moon and return him safely to Earth" before the end of the decade.

February 20, 1962

First American in Orbit

Astronaut John H. Glenn was launched into orbit aboard an Atlas D rocket, where he became the first American to orbit the Earth. Glenn made a total of 3 complete orbits, and the flight time was 4 hours and 56 minutes.

March 18, 1965

First Space Walk

Commander Pavel I. Belyayeu and Pilot Alexei A. Leonov into Earths orbit were launched into orbit aboard Voskhod 2. Alexei Leonov performed the first, tethered space walk outside of his spacecraft while in Earths orbit. This historic venture into space lasted a mere 12 minutes.

July 14, 1965

First Close-up Images of Mars

Mariner 4 arrived at Mars and gave scientists their first views of the planet at close range. The resulting photos showed no sign of the famous "canals" and no evidence of life.

February 3, 1966

first Spacecraft to land on the Moon

June 2, 1966

First American Spacecraft on the Moon

January 27, 1967

First U.S. Space Tragedy

The Russian spacecraft Luna 9 completed a 250,000-mile trip and successfully became the first spacecraft to soft-land on the Moon. Luna 9 transmitted pictures of the Moon's surface back to Earth. The mission demonstrated that the Moon's surface was strong enough to support the weight of a large spacecraft. Surveyor 1 became the first American spacecraft to soft-land on the Moon. After a journey of 63 hours and 36 minutes, Surveyor 1 successfully landed only 9 miles off its target in the Oceanus Procellarum. The spacecraft transmitted more than 11,000 high-resolution photographs before its energy sources were depleted. During a routine test on the launch pad, a spark caused a fire to start in the crew compartment of the command module. Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, were killed in this tragic incident. It was later determined that faulty wiring caused the spark, and the pure oxygen environment in the capsule was to blame for the rapid spreading of the blaze. Soviet Soyuz 1 is launched, carrying Vladimir M. Komarov. On April 24 it crashed, killing Komarov, the first spaceflight fatality.

April 23, 1967

First Spaceflight Casualty

October 18, 1967

First Venus Probe

The Soviet probe Venera 4 sends a descent capsule into the Venusian atmosphere, returning data about its composition.

September 15, 1968

First Moon Orbit

The Soviet Zond 5 is launched. It becomes the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon and return.

October 11, 1968

First Manned Apollo Mission

Apollo 7 is the first manned Apollo mission with Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Donn F. Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. It orbited the Earth once. Apollo 8 is launched with Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr. and William A. Anders, the first Apollo to use the Saturn V rocket, and the first manned spacecraft to orbit the Moon, making 10 orbits on its 6-day mission. Apollo 11 makes the first successful soft landing on the Moon. Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr. become the first human beings to set foot on another world. Apollo 13 is launched, suffering an explosion in its SM oxygen tanks. Its Moon landing is aborted, and the crew, James A. Lovell, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr. and Fred W. Haise, Jr., returns safely after several harrowing days in space. The Soviet Luna 16 is launched, conducting the first successful return of lunar soil samples by an automatic spacecraft. Luna 17 lands on the Moon, with the first automatic robot, Lunokhod 1. Driven by a five-man team on Earth, the craft travels over the lunar surface for 11 lunar days (322 Earth days). During this time, it returns 20,000 TV images and 206 high-resolution panoramas in addition to performing a host of experiments including soil analysis.

December 21, 1968

First Manned Moon Orbit

July 20, 1969

First Manned Moon Landing

April 11, 1970

Apollo 13 Launch

September 12, 1970

First Automated Return of Lunar Soil

November 17, 1970

First Robotic Lunar Mission

December 15, 1970

First Landing on Venus

The Soviet Venera 7 is the first probe to soft-land on Venus, transmitting for 23 minutes. The spacecraft send back a few images of the planet's surface before succumbing to the extreme heat and pressure of Venusian atmosphere. The Salyut 1 space station is launched by the U.S.S.R. It remains in orbit until May 28, 1973. Soyuz 11 carried Cosmonauts G.T. Dobrovolsky, V.N. Volkov, and V.I. Patsayev to Salyut 1, the first manned occupancy of an orbital station. Tragically, on June 29, the Cosmonauts died upon Soyuz 11's reentry. Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin drive the first moon rover while exploring the Moon's surface. The next year, Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt drives a similar rover. American space probe Mariner 9 (launched May 30, 1971) is the first spacecraft to orbit another planet, Mars. Over the next year, it maps 100 percent of the Martian surface. Astronomers designate Cignus X-1 as the first probable black hole This binary star system emits strong bursts as X-rays as matter is crushed out of existence by the black hole. The United States launches Skylab, the first U.S. space station. It will be occupied by three crews and be an important arena for a number of scientific experiments. The United States launches Skylab 2, carrying the first crew to visit Skylab. The crew repairs damage sustained by Skylab station during its launch. American Apollo (18) and Soviet Soyuz 19 dock in what is the first international spacecraft rendezvous. Known as the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, this important mission proved that U.S. and Russian crews could work together successfully in space. Soviet Venera 9 and 10 send the first pictures of the Venusian surface to Earth.

April 19, 1971

First Space Station

June 6, 1971

First Occupation of Space Station

July 30, 1971

First Lunar Rover Mission

November 13, 1971

First Spacecraft to Orbit Another Planet

December, 1972

First Black Hole Candidate

May 14, 1973

First U.S. Space Station

May 25, 1973

First Skylab Crew

July 17, 1975

First International Space Rendezvous

October, 1975

First Surface Images of Venus

July 20, 1976

First Surface Images of Mars

The first pictures of the surface of Mars are sent back to Earth by Viking 1, the first U.S. spacecraft to successfully land a on another planet. Viking 2 lands on Mars on the Plain of Utopia, where it discovers water frost and sends back stunning images of the Martian surface.

September, 1976

Discovery of Water Frost on Mars Launch of Historic Voyager Missions

August-September, 1977

The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft leave Earth to meet with Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980.

December, 1978

U.S. Probes Arrive at Venus

Two U.S. Pioneer spacecraft reach Venus. One drops four probes into the atmosphere, while the other maps the surface. The U.S. Voyager 1 spacecraft, launched in 1977, arrives at Jupiter and begins sending back amazing images of the giant planet and its moons. The U.S. Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in 1977, arrives at Jupiter and begins sending back images of Jupiter and its moons. The U.S. space probe Pioneer 11 reaches Saturn, flying within 13,000 miles and taking the first close-up photographs of the planet. The Voyager 1 spacecraft arrives at Saturn and begins sending back extraordinary images of the ringed planet and its moons. The first manned mission of the Space Transportation System (STS-1), Columbia, is launched. This mission, as well as the next three, will be a test flight to try out the spacecraft's systems. The Voyager 2 spacecraft arrives at Saturn and begins sending back images of the planet and its moons.

March 5, 1979

Voyager 1 Arrives at Jupiter

July 9, 1979

Voyager 2 Arrives at Jupiter

September 1, 1979

First Images of Saturn

July 9, 1979

Voyager 1 Arrives at Saturn

April 12, 1981

First Space Shuttle Launch

August 25, 1981

Voyager 2 Arrives at Saturn

March 1, 1982

First Venus Soil Samples

The Soviet Venera 13 lands on Venus and provides the first Venusian soil analysis. Soviet cosmonauts Anatoli N. Berezovoi and Valentin V. Lebedev are launched in Soyuz T-5 to rendezvous with Salyut 7 and become the first team to inhabit the space station. They return to Earth in Soyuz T-7, setting a new duration record of 211 days. The Space Shuttle Columbia begins its fifth mission, the first operational Space Shuttle mission. Two satellites are deployed. America's second Space Shuttle, Challenger, embarks on its first mission into space. The mission includes America's first space walk in nine years.

May 13, 1982

New Space Endurance Record

November 11, 1982

First Operational Space Shuttle Mission

April 4, 1983

Maiden Voyage of Challenger

June 19, 1983

First American Woman in Space

Sally K. Ride becomes the first American woman to travel in space on Challenger mission STS-7.

February 3, 1984

First Untethered Spacewalk

Astronaut Bruce McCandless takes the first untethered space walk using the new Manned maneuvering Unit (MMU).

August 30, 1984

Maiden Voyage of Discovery

The third orbiter of the American Space Shuttle fleet, Discovery, lifts off for its maiden voyage into space.

October 3, 1985

Maiden Voyage of Atlantis

Atlantis, the forth orbiter in America's Space Shuttle fleet, begins its first mission in space.

January 24, 1986

Voyager 2 Encounters Uranus

The Voyager 2 spacecraft arrives at Uranus, giving us our first close-up views of the blue planet and its moons.

January 28, 1986

Challenger Tragedy

The space shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after liftoff of mission STS-51L, resulting in the loss of the spacecraft and her crew.

February 20, 1986

Mir Station Launched

The first phase of the Mir space station is successfully launched and placed into Earth orbit.

December, 1987

New Space Endurance Record

Cosmonaut Yuri V. Romanenko returns from space station Mir after setting a new space endurance record of 326 days.

August 25, 1989

Voyager 2 Arrives at Neptune

The Voyager 2 spacecraft arrives at Neptune, giving us our first close-up views of the blue planet and its moons. Space Shuttle Discovery lifts off for mission STS-31, carrying the Edwin P. Hubble Space Telescope (HST). The telescope is successfully deployed, but is found to contain a seriously flawed primary mirror resulting in fuzzy images. U.S. spacecraft Magellan arrives at Venus where is begins mapping the planet's cloud-covered surface using radar.

April 24, 1990

Launch of Hubble Space Telescope

August 10, 1990

Magellan Arrives at Venus

May 2, 1992

Maiden Voyage of Endeavour

The Space Shuttle Endeavour lifts off on its maiden voyage, bringing the number of orbiters in America's Space Shuttle fleet once again to four. The Space Shuttle Endeavour is launched on the first on-orbit service of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Special corrective lenses are attached to the telescope's instruments, correcting the original problem with the primary mirror. Sergei Krikalev becomes the first Russian Cosmonaut to fly on aboard a U.S. Space Shuttle during Discovery mission STS-60. Eileen M. Collins becomes the first woman to fly a Space Shuttle on mission STS-63. During the mission, Space Shuttle Discovery maneuvers to within 37 feet of Russian space station Mir, in preparation for a future shuttle-Mir docking. Cosmonaut Valeriy Polyakov returns to Earth after a 438-day mission aboard Russian space station Mir, setting a new space endurance record.

December 2, 1993

First HST Servicing Mission

February 3, 1994

First Russian Cosmonaut Aboard Shuttle

February 6, 1995

First Female Shuttle Pilot

March 22, 1995

New Space Endurance Record

June 25, 1995

First Shuttle Docks with Mir

Space Shuttle Atlantis rendezvous with Russian space station Mir during a ten-day mission on STS-71. Cosmonauts are transferred to and from Atlantis. Astronaut Norman Thagard is returned from Mir after setting a new American space endurance record of 115 days. The Galileo spacecraft arrives at Jupiter and a probe is dropped into the planet's atmosphere. The orbiter will spend the next two years orbiting and studying the planet and its moons. Underneath the famous arch in St. Louis, Missouri, the creation of the X PRIZE competition is officially announced to the world. Featuring a large number of high-profile sponsors and supporters, the X PRIZE offers 10 million dollars to the first person or team to safely launch and land a spacecraft capable of carrying three people to a suborbital altitude of 100 kilometers (62.5 miles) and repeat the trip again within two weeks. It is hoped that the X PRIZE will help to jump start civilian and commercial space programs. Space Shuttle Atlantis touches down bringing home U.S. astronaut Shannon Lucid. Lucid set a new U.S. space endurance record after spending 188 days aboard the space station Mir. The Mars Pathfinder probe lands on the surface of Mars. A small robotic rover examines the nearby terrain, sending back amazing images of the planet's surface. A Russian Proton rocket is launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on the steppes of the Asian nation of Kazakstan. This rocket carries the Russian0built Zarya Control Module, the first component of the new International Space Station (ISS). Space Shuttle Discovery begins mission STS-95, carrying veteran astronaut John H. Glenn. Glenn was the first U.S. astronaut to orbit the Earth during the Mercury program. This mission marks his return to space after 33 years. The Space Shuttle Endeavour lifts off for space carrying the Unity module for the International Space Station (ISS). The unity module is attached to the Russian Zarya module, which was launched in November. The U.S. Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft arrives at the asteroid Eros. It begins a yearlong mission to study the gravity and composition of Eros in addition to sending back detailed images of the asteroid's surface. Eros is an S-class asteroid approximately 20 miles (33 km) and 8 miles (13 km) wide. The Valentine's Day arrival date is most appropriate for an asteroid named after the Greek god of love. The Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft is successfully landed on the surface of the asteroid Eros. NEAR sends back unprecedented images of the asteroid's surface during its hour-long descent. NEAR had been in orbit around Eros since February 14, 2000. It was never designed to land on the asteroid. The landing is a last minute idea to get some additional data as the spacecraft as it runs out of fuel and nears the end of its mission. U.S. astronauts Thomas Jones and Robert Curbeam Jr. make history as they perform the 100th space walk in the United States space program. The space walk is part of the installation procedure for the new Destiny module of the International Space Station.

December 7, 1995

Galileo Arrives at Jupiter

May 18, 1996

X PRIZE Competition Announced

September 26, 1996

Shannon Lucid Returns from Mir Mars Pathfinder Lands on Mars

July 4, 1997

November 20, 1998

ISS First Module Launched

October 29, 1998

John Glenn Returns to Space

December 4, 1998

First American ISS Module

February 14, 2000

First Detailed Study of an Asteroid

February 12, 2001

First Landing on an Asteroid

February 14, 2001

100th U.S. Space Walk

March 11, 2001

New Space Walk Record

U.S. Shuttle astronauts Susan Helms and Jim Voss set a new endurance record as they install the Leonardo module aboard the International Space Station. The total time spent in space is 8 hours 56 minutes. American businessman Dennis Tito becomes the first tourist to fly into space. His 20 million dollar offer is rejected by the United States, but is later welcomed by the Russian space program. A Soyuz space capsule delivers the space tourist and the Russian crew to the International Space Station, where Tito is given limited access to the station. The space shuttle Columbia breaks up in the atmosphere over Texas while returning to the Kennedy space center. The entire seven-member crew is killed in the accident. Columbia was the first space shuttle to fly and this was her 28th mission. Investigations conclude that a piece of foam from the fuel tank broke off during launch and punctured the orbiter's left wing. This hole in the wing allowed hot gases to enter during reentry, causing the orbiter lose control and break up while traveling over 13,000 miles per hour. NASA grounds the entire space shuttle fleet until safety updates can be made. After parachuting through the atmosphere and then bouncing to a stop using giant air bags, the Mars rover Spirit lands on the red planet in a location known as Gusev crater. Designed to last only three months, the rovers prove to be tough and the mission is continued for several years. The sister rover to Spirit, Opportunity lands on the opposite side of the planet Mars in a location known as Meridiani Planum. After a mission extension of several years, Opportunity and its companion, Spirit, send back extraordinary images of the Martian surface and perform chemical experiments on rock samples. Many new discoveries include layered rock formations that could have been formed in water and tornado-like dust devils moving across the surface. A privately financed and built spacecraft known as SpaceshipOne makes history as the first non-government spacecraft to be flown into space. Pilot Mike Melvill fly the craft to an altitude of 62 miles (100 kilometers). The team hopes to win the Ansari X PRIZE by making two space flights within two weeks of each other. SpaceShipOne was built by famed aerospace designer Burt Rutan of Mojave-based Scaled Composites, with financial backing from Microsoft Corporation co-founder Paul Allen. After a journey of nearly seven years, the Cassini probe arrives at the planet Saturn, where it will spend four years photographing the ringed planet and its many moons for. Cassini carries with it another small probe called Huygens that will later be sent to land on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. Huygens will attempt to send back to Earth the first images of the surface of Titan. The privately developed spacecraft, SpaceshipOne, makes its first attempt to claim the X PRIZE as Mike Melvill pilots the craft to an altitude of 337,500 feet (63.9 miles or 102.9 kilometers). The team hopes to win the Ansari X PRIZE by making another trip into space within two weeks. Spaceship 1 claims the $10 million X PRIZE e by making its second trip into space within two weeks. On this flight, civilian astronaut Brian Binnie pilots the craft to an altitude of 367,442 feet (112 kilometers), far surpassing the 100kilometer (62.5-miles) altitude required to win the X PRIZE. The flight also brakes the altitude record for an airplane, set by X-15 pilot Joseph Walker in 1963. The SpaceshipOne team hopes to license their technology for use in future commercial space flights.

April 28, 2001

First Tourist in Space

February 1, 2003

Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster

January 3, 2004

Spirit Rover Lands on Mars

January 25, 2004

Opportunity Rover Lands on Mars

June 21, 2004

First Manned Private Space Flight

July 1, 2004

Cassini Probe Arrives at Saturn

September 29, 2004

First X PRIZE Attempt

October 5, 2004

X PRIZE Awarded

October 7, 2004

America's Space Prize Offered

January 14, 2005

First Landing on an Alien Moon

July 4, 2005

First Impact With a Comet

July 26, 2005

Space Shuttle Returns to Flight

January 15, 2006

First Comet Samples Returned to Earth

March 6, 2009

The Hunt for Extrasolar Planets

December 8, 2010

First Commercial Orbit and Return

March 18, 2011

First Spacecraft to Orbit Mercury

Following the recent X PRIZE win by SpaceshipOne, Hotel magnate Robert Bigelow has offers $50 million to the first private spacecraft to achieve orbit. The winner of this prize will also be offered contracts to ferry passengers to the first private space stations to be built by Bigelow's company, Bigelow Aerospace. A spacecraft will have to travel six times faster and four times higher than SpaceshipOne, which recently claimed the Ansari X PRIZE by becoming the first private spacecraft to fly into space. After descending by parachute for 2 hours and 28 minutes, the Huygens probe lands on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. Even though a technical glitch limits the probe's imaging capabilities, Huygens is successful in sending a series of images back to Earth. For the first time, scientists get a look at the surface of a moon other than our own. The images show a surface that is flat and littered with small rocks. Dark areas on some images could indicate the presence of liquid methane. After a journey of 174 days, the Deep Impact space probe fulfills its mission by slamming into a comet known as Tempel 1. The probe impacts the comet at a speed of 10.3 kilometers (6.3 miles) per second. The probe's mothership photographed the impact and analyzed the resulting debris. Among the many discoveries was water ice within the comet. The space shuttle Discovery launches from the Kennedy space center, marking the shuttle's return to flight two and a half years after the Columbia disaster. The flight is not entirely successful, however. Cameras on the orbiter record a piece of foam breaking off from the fuel tank during launch, sparking fears of another Columbia-style accident. NASA again grounds the shuttle fleet until the liquid fuel tank can be redesigned. After a journey of nearly seven years and 2.9 billion miles (4.6 billion kilometers), NASA's Stardust mission successfully came to a conclusion in the desert salt flats of the Utah Test and Training Range. The capsule safely parachuted to the ground after collecting dust and particle samples from comet Wild 2. The samples were collected by the probe in the comet's coma within 147 miles (236 kilometers) of the comets nucleus. Scientists believe that comets may be composed of the same primitive material that initially formed the Solar System. Analysis of the samples may help to reveal some of the secrets behind solar system formation. The Kepler spacecraft launches on a mission to search for planets outside our solar system. This first-of-its-kind spacecraft uses a technique known as the "transit" method to search for planets orbiting distant stars. As a planet moves in front of the star's disk, the light from the star dims ever so slightly and in a regular cycle. Kepler can detect these cycles to detect a planet and also to approximate its size and orbit. A company called SpaceX becomes the first private company to launch a spacecraft to orbit and return it safely to the Earth. This landmark event had only been accomplished by governments before this day. The unmanned capsule, known as Dragon, is launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on December 8 atop a Falcon 9 rocket. After completing two orbits around the Earth, the Dragon spacecraft successfully splashes down in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Mexico. NASA's Messenger spacecraft becomes the first man made craft to orbit the closest planet to the Sun. The MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging (MESSENGER) spacecraft begins its mission to map and photograph the planet's surface in high resolution. It will also study the planet's thin atmosphere and search for signs of water that could lie frozen beneath the surface.

July 8, 2011

Final Flight of the Space Shuttle Program

July 16, 2011

First Spacecraft to Orbit an Asteroid

The space shuttle Atlantis becomes the last American space shuttle to be launched into space. Mission STS-135 and its 4member crew bring much-needed supplies and equipment to the International Space Station (ISS). This is the 135th flight of the space shuttle and the 33rd flight for atlantis. On July 21, at 5:57 AM eastern daylight time, Atlantis lands at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida and officially ends the 30yearspace shuttle program. Atlantis will be cleaned up and placed on display at the Kennedy Space center starting in 2013. NASA will now look to private companies to provide transportation to low Earth orbit for the ISS and future projects. NASA's Dawn spacecraft becomes the first man made craft to orbit an asteroid. Launched in 2007, Dawn enters orbit around the asteroid Vesta on July 16, 2011. Vesta is one of the largest asteroids in the Solar System with a diameter of 300 miles (530 kilometers). It is roughly the size of the state of Arizona and is located in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Dawn will remain in orbit around Vesta for about a year, studying and photographing its rocky surface. Dawn will then continue on to study another asteroid called Ceres.

VIII. Problems in space exploration

Space exploration to the other planets is mostly done with robots and computers that are controlled by humans from the Earth. There are so many problems with sending humans into space on interplanetary voyages that it will be many years before people set foot on another planet. 1. Water. Humans require a lot of water and water is very heavy, making it expensive to transport. 2. Boredom. The voyage between planets will take years to complete. In that time, the astronauts will be trapped within the small living space of their ship. 3. Sanitation. These explorers will not be able to shower or bathe, creating an unpleasant environment for everyone. 4. Gravity. Living in zero gravity has many bad health effects such as weakening bones. 5. There will be no help available when something goes wrong. If someone is sick or injured, they will be unable to get to a hospital. If the ship breaks down, it will be impossible to rescue the astronauts. In short, space exploration by humans is more expensive, inconvenient, and dangerous