Employee Fitness Programs: Their Impact on the Employee and the Organization LOREN E.

FALKENBERG
University of Calgary Employers are investing large amounts in employee fitness programs;
unfortunately, the value of physical exercise and lifestyle piograms has yet to be established. This paper provides a critique of the ap-plied and experimental research related to the impact of employee fitness programs on work-related variables and discusses future re-search directions. More and more companies either are plan-ning or have developed physical fitness pro-grams for their employees. In Canada approximately 1, 000 companies are involved in employ-ee fitness, and in the U.S. it is estimated that 50,000 business firms promote physical activity (Cox, 1984; Driver & Ratliff, 1982). The scope of employee fitness programs ranges from company-paid memberships at private fitness clubs to complete on-site facilities; these programs cost from two thousand dollars to millions. Organizations that support these programs con-sider them an inexpensive benefit that produces the following returns: (a) increased ability to at-tract competent employees; (b) improved atti-tudes and loyalty; (c) a reflection of the firm's concern for the nonwork aspects of the employ-ees' lives; and (d) indirectly, increased produc-tivity (Howard & Mikalachki, 1979). Three lines of reasoning underlie these beliefs. First is the assumption that fitness centers are attractive to employees. It is estimated that 20 percent of the North American population exer-cise intensely and regularly enough to produce cardiovascular fitness, while another 40 percent exercise enough to receive at least some benefit (Stephens, Jacobs, & White, 1985). As more indi-viduals recognize the benefits of exercise, the ability to do so during the work day will become more important; thus, employee fitness centers will reflect the concern an organization has for its employees. Employee fitness programs also are viewed as a mechanism for recruiting and retaining employees (Debats, 1981). The major increase in participation in fitness programs has occurred among young, well-educated members of the higher socioeconomic groups (Dishman, Sallis, & Orenstein, 1985; Stephens et al., 1985); thus, fitness programs may be important in hir-ing and retaining those individuals companies find most desirable. A second rationale is that employee fitness pro-grams may reduce the impact of stress. Corpora-tions are becoming more concerned with stress since it has been perceived that high stress lev-els result in poorer work performance, lower productivity, higher turnover, absenteeism, and accidents (Galt, 1985). Employee fitness programs are thought to reduce the impact of stress by improving the health of the employees through higher fitness levels (Driver & Ratliff, 1982), and improved health from fewer stress symptoms has been assumed to reduce absenteeism (Perks, 1985). The third line of reasoning is indirectly related to the first two; that is, increasing the fitness level of employees should improve productivity. The latter is achieved in part through reduced absen-teeism and turnover. Also, it is assumed that the increased capacity for physical work from im- 511

proved fitness levels will transfer to an ability to work harder and longer in the office. This trans-fer from physical to mental capacity is expected to improve an individual's ability to maintain higher levels of concentration and mental effort. Since the value of implementing fitness pro-grams has not yet been established, these large investments are being made on the basis of lim-ited research. The experimental and applied re-search on physical exercise and work-related variables suffers from poor design and methodology; therefore, results are inconclusive (How-ard & Mikalachki, 1979; Hughes, 1984). The re-search used to support the models primarily has been taken from physical fitness research; no attempts have been made to integrate related variables from the stress, cognitive processes, and organizational behavior research domains. This lack of appropriately designed research has limited the development of scientifically based models upon which a focused research pattern can proceed: Without reliable results, many fit-ness programs may be based on erroneous assumptions, leading to poorly designed pro-grams and undesired outcomes. Exercise and the Individual Relationship Between Stress and Exercise Exercise has been viewed as a coping mecha-nism which may be employed prior to or during a stressful situation (Gal & Lazarus, 1975; Mobily, 1982). As a coping mechanism it is theorized to reduce the physiological consequences of stress-ful situations through one of three actions. The first action is that long-term aerobic exercise may decrease the level of physiological arousal that normally occurs during stressful situations. The physiological response to stressful situations in-volves increased muscle tension, increased res-piration rate, sympathetic stimulation of sweat-ing, increased heart rate, dilation of blood ves-sels and coronaries of the heart, and release of glucose by the liver. The physiological changes that develop with long-term aerobic exercise oc-cur in the same systems that are activated dur-ing a physiological/psychological stressful situa-tion. For any given physical workload, more physically fit individuals demonstrate less mus-cular activity, slower respiration, a lower resting heart rate, and less accumulation of the acid by-products of exercise (Ledwidge, 1980). Thus, physical training may help to reduce extreme activation both during physical activity and stressful situations (Michael, 1957; Selye, 1975; Terjung, 1979). Both exercise 'and reactions to physiological/ psychological stressors also involve increased se-cretion of catecholamines. Edington and Edger-ton (1976) hypothesized that extending the capac-ity of the adrenal medulla to generate catechola-mines through exercise may help to reduce the experience of stress. Specifically, it appears that an increased hormonal response capacity is associated with a calmer, more stress tolerant hu-man temperament (Dienstbier et al., 1981). In support of this hypothesis, Frankenhaeuser (1979) found that more emotionally stable and conser-vative school children demonstrated higher lev-els of catecholamines in response to classroom challenges than less emotionally stable class-mates. The second action is that aerobic or anaerobic exercise during a stressful event may reduce the physiological severity of the immediate stress response. Both during or immediately after stress, exercise will metabolize the fatty acids released into the blood stream; in general, it will discharge the physical excitation built up in a reaction to a stressor (Everly & Rosenfield, 1981). Although this potential action has not received as much atten-tion as the first, it may play a more critical role in reducing the negative consequences of stress. The physiological changes that occur during stressful situations bring about a rapid mobiliza-tion of energy, that in previous time periods would have allowed an individual to respond to the threat physically. Today, however, most stressful situations do not involve a physical response; thus, an individual under stress mobi-lizes his/her system for physical effort, but does not expend the built up energy. Physical exer-cise may be a vehicle by which the mobilized energy either can be discharged or, at least, 512

can be more evenly dispersed among body sys-tems (Selye, 1975). The third action is that either after or during a stressful experience, exercise (aerobic or anaer-obic) may bring about a state of relaxation. This hypothesis is based on a study by deVries and Adams (1972) which compared the effects tran-quilizers and exercise had on anxiety. They found that if an individual engaged in 15 minutes of walking, at a heart rate of 100 beats per minute, there was a significant decrease in the electro-myographic activity in the muscles (their mea-sure of anxiety) while tranquilizers did not ap-pear to have an effect on anxiety/tension. Relationship Between Mental Health and Exercise It appears that the effects of physical exercise on mental health are dependent on the duration of participation. Long-term participation has been found to change personality traits, while short-term participation affects mood states (Folk-ins, Lynch, & Gardner, 1972; Lichtman & Poser, 1983; Young & Ismail, 1977). Much of the re-search, though, has been limited by poorly de-signed methodologies. In their review, Folkins and Sime (1981) found that only 15 percent of the studies qualified as true experiments, and most were on clinical populations. The impact that long-term exercise has on personality traits was examined by Young and Ismail, who tested subjects during a four-year period (Ismail & Young, 1973, 1976; Young & Ismail, 1976a, 1976b, 1977). Their subjects were classified according to exercise converts (those who did not exercise prior to the formal program, but continued after the program), and long-term exercisers (those who regularly exercised prior to the formal program). In the initial testing, prior to the formal exercise program, the exercise con-verts demonstrated a more conservative tem-perament than the long-term exercisers; however, this difference ceased after four years, with the exercise converts demonstrating a less extreme score. In addition, those who were more physi-cally fit demonstrated greater emotional stability and security than those who were less physi-cally fit. Also, long-term exercise has been found to be associated with decreases in trait (general dis-position across situations) depression and anxie-ty. Kavanagh and Shephard (1973) found signifi-cant decreases in depression in subjects who continued to exercise four years after complet-ing a formal exercise program. In another study, highly trained (physically fit) individuals had sig-nificantly lower levels of anxiety and depres-sion than nontrained subjects (Tharp & Schlegel-mich, 1977). Testing on a short-term orientation of five or six months, however, did not produce differences in anxiety levels (Morgan & Pollock, 1978; Stern & Cleary, 1982). Studies examining state (situational experi-ences) depression and anxiety levels before and after exercise have produced equivocal results, both within studies as well as across studies. In two of the studies, subjects reported the exercise sessions to be exhilarating; however, the state depression and anxiety measures did not differ prior to or after the exercise sessions (Bahkre & Morgan, 1978; Morgan, Roberts, & Feinerman, 1971). Part of the inconsistency in results between studies may be related to the type of exercise used in the studies. After reviewing a series of studies, Dishman (1982) concluded that reduc-tions in state anxiety are associated most consis-tently with jogging and/or vigorous exercise. When highly trained subjects were tested, lev-els of anxiety and depression were found to be lower after exercise periods (Greenberg, cited in Lichtman & Poser, 1983; Dienstbier et al., 1981). In particular, Dienstbier et al. compared highly trained subjects' reactions to stressors on exer-cise and nonexercise days; they found subjects demonstrated lower anxiety scores on exercise days. These results indicated that even when subjects are highly trained, physiccal exercise can further reduce anxiety levels. It has been noted that the level of fitness, at least in short-term measures of mood, may not 513

be as important as engaging in the physical ac-tivity itself (Dishman, 1982; Heaps, 1978; Killip, 1985). Killip (1985) observed that engaging in physical exercise (aerobic or anaerobic) may be perceived as a fitness endeavor and it may stim-ulate positive feelings about one's self: Move-ment may bring about feelings of muscular en-durance and increased physiological arousal. In support of this premise, Killip found a stronger relationship between physical activity level, rather than cardiovascular fitness, and psycho-logical variables. Lichtman and Poser's (1983) results also support this premise: Subjects who had engaged in physical activity, regardless of their fitness level, felt more exhilarated and re-laxed than subjects who participated in a hobby class. Relationships Among Exercise, Cognitive Functioning. and Performance Generally, it is assumed that productivity will increase when individuals are involved in fit-ness programs, because more physically fit indi-viduals are capable of working harder on cogni-tive tasks. However, the research that has ex-amined the potential improvements of cognitive functioning through exercise has produced mixed results. This inconsistency may be related to at least three factors: (a) many experiments were poorly designed; (b) different definitions of fitness were employed, for example, physiological mea-sures of fitness versus activity inventories; and (c) different dependent variables were used, such as the impact of long-term physical exercise ver-sus activity immediately prior to or during a cog-nitive task. Impact of Fitness on Performance. The ratio-nale for fitness affecting performance stems from the interaction between the state of the physiological system and the specific task requirements. Specifically, the physiological arousal of a more fit individual is substantially less, for a given physical workload, than that of a less fit individ-ual. Transferring this to mental work, the physio-logical arousal of a more fit individual should be substantially less for a given cognitive load. It is generally accepted that complex motor and/or cognitive tasks are best performed under low arousal levels. Thus, a more physically fit per-son should be able to perform better on complex mental tasks, particularly when working under stressful conditions (Weingarten, 1973). This theory has been investigated through two different research designs. One design tested subjects prior to and immediately after physical exercise under the assumption that short-term physical activity should improve an individual's arousal levels in relation to the work being performed. Zuercher (1965) examined perfor-mance on a vigilance task after subjects engaged in either stretching exercises or a conversation, during a five-minute break: He found that either exercise or conversation improved performance. Lichtman and Poser (1983) required subjects to complete a demanding cognitive task prior to and after either vigorous exercise or a hobby class. These researchers found that only exercise produced a significant improvement in the performance on the cognitive task. A variation of the above methodology has been to manipulate both the fitness level of the subject and the activity (rest or varying intensities of exercise) performed prior to the criterion task. The rationale behind this variation is that exer-cise prior to the task acts as a stressor, and the more physically fit individual should be better able to perform a cognitive task after a stressor. Butler (1969) and Gutin (1966) found a positive relationship between the degree of improvement in physical fitness and the degree of improve-ment in ability to perform complex mental tasks. However, neither investigator found a difference in performance between subjects who had rested and those who had engaged in physical exer-cise prior to the mental task. Weingarten (1973), and Gutin and DiGennaro (1968) found that dif-ferences between trained (fit) and untrained groups occurred after vigorous exercise but did not appear under more relaxed conditions. The combined results of these studies suggest that physical fitness becomes a factor only under "more stressful" conditions, with more physically 514

fit individuals performing better after a stressful condition (vigorous exercise). Impact of Fitness on Cognitive Functioning. Studies designed to test the effects of physical fitness on cognitive functioning manipulated fitness levels but not activity prior to the test periods. The rationale for this design is that more physi-cally fit individuals should perform better on de-manding cognitive tasks (Cox, Evans, & Jamie-son, 1979; Hollander & Seraganian, 1984; Keller & Seraganian, 1984; Sinyor, Schwartz, Peronnet, Brisson, & Seraganian, 1983). Although these studies did not find a difference in cognitive per-formance between fit and less fit subjects, they did indicate that the fit subjects recovered faster from cognitive work. Specifically, Keller and Seraganian (1984) found that as fitness level im-proved there was a corresponding faster recov-ery period. One criticism of the reviewed studies is that the experimental conditions involved expending cognitive effort over a short time period, twenty minutes to one hour. Since during a normal work-day individuals may be involved in demanding cognitive tasks for eight to ten hours, these experi-mental situations may not represent the typical cognitive workload. Two studies have examined the cost of doing mental work over a minimum eight-hour period. Frankenhaeuser and Johans-son (1982) found that women who were engaged in attentiondemanding but boring tasks (data entry) demonstrated more signs of psychological stress than women whose jobs required a vari-ety of tasks. Rissler (cited in Frankenhaeuser & Johansson, 1982) found that a group of women who worked overtime for an extended period of time had higher adrenaline levels and heart rates in the evenings and expressed feelings of irrita-bility and fatigue. Thus, there appears to be a gap in the literature, since many jobs require mental effort over eight-hour periods, but no re-search has analyzed the impact of physical exer-cise on cognitive effort extended over this type of time period. Employee Fitness Programs and Work-Related Factors Productivity In all of the studies reviewed, subjects claimed they could work harder mentally and their work performance improved after participating in an employee fitness program (Durbeck et al., 1972; Heinzelman & Bagley, 1970; Rhodes & Dun-woody, 1980; Rossman, 1983; Yarvote, McDon-agh, Goldman, & Zuckerman, 1974). Unfortunate-ly, the majority of these studies used subjective comments, rather than objective measures, to determine improvements in productivity. In a more controlled study, Bernacki and Baun (1984) found a strong association (Z = 2.47, p< .01) be-tween the proportion of individuals with above average performance and adherence to a fit-ness program. Absenteeism The only reviewed study to measure absentee-ism objectively found that high level participants in a fitness program had a significantly lower rate of absenteeism (22 percent less) than either low level participants or nonparticipants (Cox, Shephard, & Corey, 1981; Shephard, Cox, & Corey, 1981). No explanation for the reduced ab-senteeism rate was provided. It generally is assumed that absenteeism rates will drop with increased physical fitness levels because: (a) increased fitness levels lead to im-proved health, and (b) healthier employees are less likely to be absent. This assumption, how-ever, only relates to absences due to medical reasons; yet, employees stay away from work for more reasons than simply health problems. Johns and Nicholson (1982) hypothesized that ab-sence is a dynamic temporal behavior through which organizational members attempt to de-rive the most benefit from their allocation of work and nonwork time. Youngblood (1984) expanded this premise by suggesting that the degree of 515

attachment to work and nonwork will affect the allocation of time to each. Given this hypothesis, employee fitness programs should reduce ab-sences for individuals who: (a) place a higher value on participating in physical exercise (non-work) than work, and (b) highly value both work and exercise. Those employees who place a higher value on physical exercise than on work derive more benefit by going to work because they also can exercise while there. Those em-ployees who hold similar values for work and exercise would have more flexibility in allocat-ing their time between two valued activites, thus deriving a higher benefit by going to work. Another consequence of increased flexibility in scheduling may be a reduction in lateness. Although this potential outcome was not re-viewed in the literature, there is an inherent logic to it. Employees who exercise before work, at lunch, or at sites other than the workplace, need extra travel time which either extends into their exercise time or their work time. By reducing travel time, it is more likely that employees will be punctual for work since they have more time to exercise. This relationship between employee fitness programs and absenteeism is one of the more tenuous hypotheses. An alternative outcome to this relationship is that employees who place a higher value on exercise than work may choose not to come to work because of limited facilities and/or lack of adequate time to get a good workout. The presence of an exercise facility at the workplace may tempt the individual to spend more of the workday in the gym than desired. Commitment and Turnover Very little attention has been given to what impact employee fitness programs have on commitment and turnover. A negative relationship between commitment and turnover (high levels of commitment are associated with lower rates of turnover) has occurred consistently (Clegg, 1983; Michaels & Spector, 1982; Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974; Steers, 1977). One fac-tor which has been identified as influencing com-mitment is the extent to which an organization is seen as dependable in carrying out its commit-ment to employees. It is more likely that an orga-nization will be perceived as concerned about employees' welfare if the organization supports an identifiable activity that is related more di-rectly to employee goals rather than company goals. As noted in the introduction, given the rising participation in physical activity, employee exercise programs address the personal needs of many employees. Thus by supporting an em-ployee fitness program, a company can demon-strate concern for employees' health and non-work needs. Employee fitness programs also may have a direct impact on turnover. Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, and Meglino (1979) suggested that it is not merely the visibility of alternatives that increases the intent to leave, but also it is the attraction of the alternatives. If there are similar opportuni-ties in other companies, the differentiating fac-tors in the decision process will not be the job characteristics, but the attractiveness of the work-ing conditions. Individuals who participate in em-ployee fitness programs may realize there are similar opportunities, but may be motivated to stay with their current company because of the attractiveness of the fitness program/facilities. Only one study analyzed employee turnover (Cox, Shepard, & Corey, 1981). When compari-sons were made between groups, both low and high adherents to fitness had significantly less turnover than nonparticipants; the participant turnover rate was 1. 5 percent while the nonpar-ticipant turnover rate was 15 percent. This find-ing is limited because Cox, Shephard, and Corey did not adequately control for long-term employ-ees versus short-term employees. Limitations of the Studies With the exception of the Cox, Shephard, and Corey (1981) study, the major methodological weakness was the measurement of the psycho-logical/emotional factors. The questionnaires em-ployed did not control for reliability and validity. Single questions, rather than scales, were used 516 in the analysis, preventing reliability analysis. The majority of the conclusions were based on comments by participants with little reference to comments by control subjects. The problems associated with a lack of control for reliability and validity are highlighted in the Cox, Shephard, and Corey (1981) study. Job satisfaction was measured with a previously pub-lished scale (Job Description Index, Smith, Ken-dall, & Hulin, 1969), and it was found that this index did not differ before and after the program. After the program, however, the participants stated that they experienced greater feelings of satisfaction with work. The inconsistency of these results, even with the use of a published scale, demonstrates the problems involved in accu-rately interpreting responses to questionnaire items. Complicating this issue is the probability of a halo effect since the majority of the question-naires were administered either during the pro-gram or immediately after it. Participants may have felt positively about the program and the attention they received from the researchers, and may have transferred these feelings to their comments. Other limitations of these studies were the lack of control groups and the nonrandom assign-ment of subjects to control and experimental groups. Unfortunately, the lack of appropriate control groups, with the exception of the Cox, Shephard, and Corey study (1 981), precludes the use of regression or analysis of variance tech-niques. Correlations and ttests, which do not allow any inferences about cause and effect, were the only statistical techniques employed. Although most of the identified studies were constrained by methodological limitations, they have produced similar results, giving some va-lidity to their findings. It appears that partici-pants of employee fitness

programs felt these pro-grams had a positive impact on their attitudes and work behaviors. Also, the results of the most controlled study indicate that an employee fit-ness program does reduce turnover and absenteeism. A Model On the basis of the reviewed literature, the following model of the relationships among physi-cal fitness, physical activity, and employee fit-ness programs including work and individual variables was developed (see Figure 1). A criti-cal feature of this model is the separate delinea-tion of the benefits of exercise at the individual employee level and the advantages for the orga-nization of supporting employee fitness pro-grams. If an employee exercises on his/her own (outside any organization facility or without financial assistance), both the individual and the organization derive the benefits of the first com-ponent of the model. The benefits delineated in the second part of the model are additional to those that develop from having physically fit employees. That is, an organization supporting employee fitness programs receives the advan-tages of having physically fit employees, as well as the short-term consequences arising from ex-ercise and the long-term benefits arising from greater commitment and increased flexibility in scheduling activities. Thus, to maximize benefits in-house programs should be initiated. The first component of this model outlines the short- and long-term consequences of individu-als engaging in physical activity. The immedi-ate consequences of participation in physical ac-tivity are an improved mobilization of fatty acids generated duringattachment to work and nonwork will affect the allocation of time to each. Given this hypothesis, employee fitness programs should reduce ab-sences for individuals who: (a) place a higher value on participating in physical exercise (non-work) than work, and (b) highly value both work and exercise. Those employees who place a higher value on physical exercise than on work derive more benefit by going to work because they also can exercise while there. Those em-ployees who hold similar values for work and exercise would have more flexibility in allocat-ing their time between two valued activites, thus deriving a higher benefit by going to work. Another consequence of increased flexibility in scheduling may be a reduction in lateness. Although this potential outcome was not re-viewed in the literature, there is an inherent logic to it. Employees who exercise before work, at lunch, or at sites other than the workplace, need extra travel time which either extends into their exercise time or their work time. By reducing travel time, it is more likely that employees will be punctual for work since they have more time to exercise. This relationship between employee fitness programs and absenteeism is one of the more tenuous hypotheses. An alternative outcome to this relationship is that employees who place a higher value on exercise than work may choose not to come to work because of limited facilities and/or lack of adequate time to get a good workout. The presence of an exercise facility at the workplace may tempt the individual to spend more of the workday in the gym than desired. Commitment and Turnover Very little attention has been given to what impact employee fitness programs have on com-mitment and turnover. A negative relationship between commitment and turnover (high levels of commitment are associated with lower rates of turnover) has occurred consistently (Clegg, 1983; Michaels & Spector, 1982; Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974; Steers, 1977). One fac-tor which has been identified as influencing com-mitment is the extent to which an organization is seen as dependable in carrying out its commit-ment to employees. It is more likely that an orga-nization will be perceived as concerned about employees' welfare if the organization supports an identifiable activity that is related more di-rectly to employee goals rather than company goals. As noted in the introduction, given the rising participation in physical activity, employee exercise programs address the personal needs of many employees. Thus by supporting an em-ployee fitness program, a company can demon-strate concern for employees' health and non-work needs. Employee fitness programs also may have a direct impact on turnover. Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, and Meglino (1979) suggested that it is not merely the visibility of alternatives that increases the intent to leave, but also it is the attraction of the alternatives. If there are similar opportuni-ties in other companies, the differentiating fac-tors in the decision process will not be the job characteristics, but the attractiveness of the work-ing conditions. Individuals who participate in em-ployee fitness programs may realize there are similar opportunities, but may be motivated to stay with their current company because of the attractiveness of the fitness program/facilities. Only one study analyzed employee turnover (Cox, Shepard, & Corey, 1981). When compari-sons were made between groups, both low and high adherents to fitness had significantly less turnover than nonparticipants; the participant turnover rate was 1. 5 percent while the nonpar-ticipant turnover rate was 15 percent. This find-ing is limited because Cox, Shephard, and Corey did not adequately control for long-term employ-ees versus short-term employees. Limitations of the Studies With the exception of the Cox, Shephard, and Corey (1981) study, the major methodological weakness was the measurement of the psycho-logical/emotional factors. The questionnaires em-ployed did not control for reliability and validity. Single questions, rather than scales, were used 516

in the analysis, preventing reliability analysis. The majority of the conclusions were based on comments by participants with little reference to comments by control subjects. The problems associated with a lack of control for reliability and validity are highlighted in the Cox, Shephard, and Corey (1981) study. Job sat-isfaction was measured with a previously pub-lished scale (Job Description Index, Smith, Ken-dall, & Hulin, 1969), and it was found that this index did not differ before and after the program. After the program, however, the participants stated that they experienced greater feelings of satisfaction with work. The inconsistency of these results, even with the use of a published scale, demonstrates the problems involved in accu-rately interpreting responses to questionnaire items. Complicating this issue is the probability of a halo effect since the majority of the question-naires were administered either during the pro-gram or immediately after it. Participants may have felt positively about the program and the attention they received from the researchers, and may have transferred these feelings to their comments. Other limitations of these studies were the lack of control groups and the nonrandom assign-ment of subjects to control and experimental groups. Unfortunately, the lack of appropriate control groups, with the exception of the Cox, Shephard, and Corey study (1 981), precludes the use of regression or analysis of variance tech-niques. Correlations and t-tests, which do not allow any inferences about cause and effect, were the only statistical techniques employed. Although most of the identified studies were constrained by methodological limitations, they have produced similar results, giving some va-lidity to their findings. It appears that partici-pants of employee fitness programs felt these pro-grams had a positive impact on their attitudes and work behaviors. Also, the results of the most controlled study indicate that an employee fit-ness program does reduce turnover and absen-teeism. A Model On the basis of the reviewed literature, the following model of the relationships among physi-cal fitness, physical activity, and employee fitness programs including work and individual variables was developed (see Figure 1). A criti-cal feature of this model is the separate delinea-tion of the benefits of exercise at the individual employee level and the advantages for the orga-nization of supporting employee fitness pro-grams. If an employee exercises on his/her own (outside any organization facility or without fi-nancial assistance), both the individual and the organization derive the benefits of the first com-ponent of the model. The benefits delineated in the second part of the model are additional to those that develop from having physically fit employees. That is, an organization supporting employee fitness programs receives the advan-tages of having physically fit employees, as well as the short-term consequences arising from ex-ercise and the long-term benefits arising from greater commitment and increased flexibility in scheduling activities. Thus, to maximize benefits in-house programs should be initiated. The first component of this model outlines the short- and long-term consequences of individu-als engaging in physical activity. The immedi-ate consequences of participation in physical ac-tivity are an improved mobilization of fatty acids generated during demanding cognitive work, en-hanced relaxation, and lower levels of anxiety and depression, which should lead to a reduc-tion in the stress symptoms experienced. Another consequence of engaging in physical activity during a work period is that it may produce more appropriate arousal levels for cognitive work, thus improving short-term productivity. In terms of long-term participation in physical exercise, individuals have demonstrated: (a) greater emotional stability, (b) enhanced feel-ings of security, (c) lower levels of depression, and (d) lower levels of anxiety. These conse-quences lead to conditions of positive mentalhealth. Also, physically fit individuals have dem-onstrated a more rapid dissipation of the physio-logical indices of tension after demanding cogni-tive work, and they may have more appropriate arousal levels (lower than the less fit individual) for complex cognitive tasks. These conditions should lead to increased stress resistance and improved productivity. Within the model, the only intermediary vari-ables which would require long-term aerobic, as opposed to anaerobic exercise, are an in-creased ability to dissipate tension after work and more appropriate arousal levels for demand-ing cognitive work. Both of these changes in-volve a more efficient cardiovascular system which is best developed through aerobic exer-cise. Currently, there is not a sufficient research base to distinguish whether the other intermedi-ary variables would occur with only aerobic or anaerobic exercise. The second component of this model delineates the intermediary consequences and final

out-comes that may occur with employee fitness programs. The availability of fitness facilities at work provides the opportunity for employees to take an exercise break during periods of de-manding cognitive work. This exercise break would produce the short-term effects of physical activity leading to reduced stress symptoms and greater productivity. Employees who want to ex-ercise also will have greater flexibility in sched-uling work and nonwork activities, leading to reduced absenteeism and lateness. In relation to long-term outcomes, employee fitness programs provide an opportunity for or-ganizations to demonstrate concern for employ-ees. If employees perceive the organization is concerned about their welfare, they may develop more loyalty to the company, indirectly leading to reduced turnover. Discussion The model presented here provides a frame-work upon which to generate future research. In particular, more experimental research is needed on the relationship between physical fitness and the ability to maintain high levels of cognitive func-tioning during an eight-hour day. Also, the im-mediate effects of physical exercise on mood, attitudes, and the ability to relax, particularly after cognitive work, should be examined. Applied research should be directed at analyzing differ-ences in stress symptoms, absenteeism, and pro-ductivity between fit and nonfit individuals, and the impact employee fitness programs have on commitment, turnover, and absenteeism should be examined, specifically. It is suggested that future research should inte-grate the following criteria: (a) using standard-ized measures of psychological constructs, or re-porting the reliability analysis of questionnaire data; (b) using a within subject design that tests psychological constructs prior to and after the exercise period to analyze short-term conse-quences; (c) gathering subjective data two to three months after a -fitness program in order to reduce the possibility of a halo effect; and (d) designing studies to test specifically for the short-and/or long-term impact of exercise. Although it is difficult to overcome the nonrandomization of subjects given the limitations associated with human rights and the assumption that employee fitness programs are for all employees, per-haps potential changes may be better measured through a within subject design. Organizations generally are concerned with identifiable returns such as lower absenteeism and turnover when they support employee fit-ness programs. There is relatively little informa-tion available as to whether employee fitness programs produce these returns although more substantial, though not conclusive information, in support of exercise and the returns for individual employees (i.e., better mental health, im-proved stress resistance) is available. It is the author's view that if organizations and research-ers want to improve the quality of work life, these returns should be expected. The returns of in-creased productivity and commitment, and de-creased absenteeism and turnover should be "additional icing on the cake."