1: Facilities Management and Sustainability

Learning objectives for Unit 1

By the end of this unit you should understand: The nature and requirements of sustainability The environmental assessment method, Life Cycle Assessment its definition, processes and requirements Environmental Management Systems and the corporate response to growing concern about the state of the environment (ISO14000) The framework for the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM)

Recommended Reading
1. Core Text: Sustainable Practices for the Facilities Manager, Chapter 1 pp1-37. 2. Sustainable Practices in the Built Environment, Parts 1 and 2 (chapters 1-6) pp 1-60. 3. Facilities Management: Theory and Practice, Ed Keith Alexander, Chapter 9, E & FN Spon, London, ISBN 0-419-20580-2, (1996). 4. Wyatt, D.P., Sobotka, A and Rogalska, M., Towards a sustainable practice, Facilities, Vol. 18, No. 1/2 pp 76-82, (2000). 5. The Johannesburg Declaration of Sustainable Development (2002). 6. Sustainable Development: Opportunities for Change, Consultation paper on a revised UK strategy

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Unit 1 : Study Task

(adapted from www.4seasons.org.uk)

Try answering the following multiple-choice questions to test your existing knowledge of sustainability issues. After making your choices, check your answers against the information contained in Appendix 1a. This is not intended to be taken too seriously, but should open your eyes to the wider implications of sustainability. 1. What is Agenda 21 ? A list of 21 actions which people can take to save the planet A challenge to the Government and local communities to prepare for the 21st century. The 21st of 27 Agendas produced at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 2. Which is the cheapest way of saving energy in your organisation? Buying a feather duster to clean the light covers Buying a thermometer to check that the heating thermostat is not set too high Switching the lights off every time everyone leaves the room 3. What is meant by the term "greenhouse gases"? Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane which trap heat within the earth's atmosphere and lead to global warming Gases used to kill pests such as whitefly in greenhouses Gases such as sulphur dioxide which cause acid rain 4. Which group of people can expect to live the shortest time? Men who work in manual jobs Women working in partly skilled jobs Men who work in professional jobs 5. What is meant by "the employment rate"? How fast people work How quickly a job centre can find people jobs The percentage of the working population who are in work 6. In terms of sustainability what does "LETS" stand for? Local Exchange Trading System
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Local Economic Transfer of Subsidies Lots of Extremely Tough Solutions 7. What is meant by "Biodiversity"? Breakdown of materials by micro-organisms The range of plants and animals and the habitats in which they live The study of energy in living things 8. What is the main cause of air pollution in towns and cities in Britain? Smoke from factory chimneys Particles from cars, lorries buses and industry Nitrogen oxides from vehicles and industry 9. Which method of passenger transport has doubled in the last 30 years? Railways Buses Cars 10. What percentage of household waste is currently recycled in Britain? 7 percent 25 percent 75 percent

1.1 What is Sustainability?

An approach to progress which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. [WCED, 1987] In terms of the built environment, this means designing, constructing and managing buildings and resources in such a way that building occupants needs are met without the profligate use of energy and resources, such that sufficient provision is left for future generations to provide for themselves.
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Planet Earth is in the midst of an ecological crisis. Advances in medicine, agriculture, technology and transportation have produced the means to enable people to live longer and enjoy an unprecedented high standard of living, ultimately as the result of our exploitation of cheap fossil fuel energy. In 1800 as the industrial revolution, powered by coal, boomed the global population was 1 billion people. By 1930 at the start oil age that doubled to 2 billion and era of cheap oil and gas saw that rise to 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion 1973, 5 billion 1987 and 6 billion in 2003. At these rates we would be 10 billion by 2030 and 20 billion by 2070 [UN, 2007]. Another major trend has been the shift by this century of more than 50% of humanity to live in cities. The resulting over-exploitation of resources is leading increasingly to global shortages of once common materials and the pollution and waste produced by our industrial societies are threatening the quality of our water, land and air [UNEP, 2007]. But the greatest of all the threats we face is that of Climate Change resulting from the year on year increases in greenhouse gas emissions [GHG], fuelled by our need to burn fossil fuels to produce and maintain our extraordinarily high quality of life [IPCC, 2007]. Growing public awareness of environmental problems has led to an increase in conservation research and concern for the environment in recent years. The World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987 proposed a reduction by 50% of the per capita energy consumption [WCED, 1987]. The latest commitment in the UK is to reduce CO2 emissions by 20% of 1990 levels, by 2020, the so-called 20:20:20 commitment. Industry, business and the professions must respond to this demand, with engineers, facilities managers and other professionals taking the lead in developing a safe and clean environment for future generations to enjoy without compromise. Considering some regional and global statistics, this presents a significant challenge: A million billion kilojoules of energy in the form of fuel is combusted daily, equivalent to eight billion tonnes of oil annually. Almost 90% of our energy comes from burning fossil fuels, which will eventually be exhausted [Emsley, 1994)]. In the UK and Western Europe buildings account for 50% of primary energy use (and the corresponding CO2 production). This outweighs both transportation and industry. World-wide, buildings account for 40% of energy use, 40% materials use, 25% timber use and 16% fresh water consumption. Reliable assessment methods, measurement tools and improvement regimes provide the foundation to meeting this challenge. Analytical measurements are the basis for many important business and management decisions. If these are wrong then decisions that are based on poor quality measurements will cost organisations money. Greek [1996] suggests six basic steps to prevent analysisbased problems:
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1. Understanding the nature of a particular problem and applying the appropriate method to prevent it 2. Validating the analytical method used 3. Ensuring the competence of personnel involved 4. Assessing independent bodies 5. Being able to trace all results 6. Implementing formal quality systems With regard to assessment of building construction, and in response to these expressed needs, the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) has developed a policy statement on environmental matters which aims to contribute towards a sustainable environment [BSJ, 1996]. The policy focuses on: provision of better information for decision making improved environmental awareness and education influence upon the location and physical characteristics of buildings to minimise impact minimising environmental consequences of the building construction process encouraging programmes to conserve resources evaluation of performance-in-use of new and refurbished buildings An evaluation method that allows the performance of new and existing facilities to be assessed, and which provides an ongoing procedure, by which environmental impacts can be identified, measured and reduced, is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). In Text Question: 1.1 Sustainability focuses on the requirements of society now, and the needs of society in the future. Make a list of contemporary and future needs for each of the following: The facilities/ building manager The building occupier You should consider energy issues, resource and material requirements, the indoor environment, the global environment .

1.2 Life Cycle Assessment

LCA is a systematic approach to assessment of environmental impacts associated with a product, process or activity, adopting a holistic, or whole life approach to design methods. To perform a successful LCA on any building component requires that the demands of modern day living, and the comfort
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conditions expected, be incorporated into design criteria, whilst ensuring that the needs of future generations are not compromised by todays activities. Switching our activities towards redressing the harm that our past and present activities impose upon the global environment, provides a strong way to revitalise the economy. The first objective for building in the 21st Century is to significantly reduce annual energy needs, driven by a whole-life or cradle-tograve analysis. Figure 1.1 illustrates the holistic approach of a Life Cycle Assessment study [Weir, 1998].

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BY-PRODUCTS TRANSPORT RAW MATERIALS

RECYCLING

MANUFACTURE

DISPOSAL FRESH WATER

USE

ENERGY AIR EMISSIONS & WATER EFFLUENT

MATERIALS Figure 1.1 Life Cycle Assessment [Weir, 1998]

There are four main stages to an LCA: 1.2.1 Goal definition and scoping The main purpose of the planning phase is to clearly define the investigation objectives, discuss product alternatives, realise system limitations, plan data collection strategies, and define environmental parameters and evaluation methods. LCA may be used for many different purposes, including the comparison of two products, identification of harmful stages in a product life cycle, new product development, allocation of process resources (both raw material and energy), categorising of research and development needs, or aggregation of total product environmental burdens. It is important to bare the purpose in mind while defining all other system parameters. 1.2.2 Inventory Analysis The inventory analysis is a methodical quantification of inputs and outputs. This is a measure of all matter that crosses the boundary defined in the planning phase, and shown in Figure 1.1. Energy, raw materials, air emissions, waterborne effluent and solid waste are both qualified and quantified at this stage. This may employ several different data acquisition methods, from direct measurements to database searches, surveys, questionnaires, analysis of historical data, theoretical calculations and individual interviews. 1.2.3 Impact Assessment Impact assessment focuses on how the product affects the environment, and facilitates the interpretation and aggregation of data collected during the inventory analysis, presenting it in a more meaningful format for decision making. This requires a comprehensive approach to analysing how raw material use, energy generation, water production, effluent output, air emissions and solid waste affect the environment. The burden to the environment from any single process may be measured in terms of human health, animal habitat disturbances, noise pollution, changes in water quality or aesthetic changes to the environment. The effects analysed are assessed according to their direct impact in the present, and their possible future burden upon the environment. e.g. Raw material and fossil fuel consumption in the present can have effects on human health and animal habitats due to their extraction, transportation and burning, while their consumption influences the availability of these resources for the future. 1.2.4 Improvement Analysis Improvement analysis involves decision making to reduce environmental burdens. This requires taking an objective view of the entire life cycle and assessing the environmental impacts that would result from changes made to the system. Product design changes, raw material substitutions, manufacturing process changes, improved waste management facilities, or suggested
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consumer use changes may result. There are many benefits associated with the incorporation of LCA into an organised environmental management system. These include the reduction of uncertainty with regard to environmental impact and the meeting of consumer requirements due to market demands for increased environmental awareness. A further benefit of establishing such a system, whereby waste and energy consumption are minimised, results in improved profitability [UETP-EEE, 1993]. In Text Question: 1.2 Consider the factors that could be designed into an asset, component or building in order to make it more sustainable.

1.3 Environmental Management Systems

Environmental management is the corporate response to the growing concern about the state of the environment and the environmental effects caused by corporate activities. An Environmental Management System (EMS) is the overall framework for the actions that an enterprise takes to manage its environmental effects [UETP-EEE, 1993]. Stricter government legislation means that environmental management will become a prominent issue for organisational management in the future, much in the same way that quality management has come to the fore of attention [Griffith, 1995]. Environmental management takes into account the policies, strategies, procedures and practices that form the response of an organisation to its surrounding environment. Environmental management systems exist to ensure legislative compliance with both present constraints and anticipated future constraints. Management systems and legislation were developed to minimise the risk and liability from environmental effects on human health of employees, surrounding inhabitants and animal habitats. To this end the reduction in use of raw materials and primary energy will bring about increased productivity and higher resource efficiency. Decisions to improve waste handling facilities will influence the quantity of waste produced and the associated handling costs. With higher efficiency, improved productivity and greater environmental awareness, organisations can boost their company image and attract higher quality workers. 1.3.1 The environmental management standard, ISO 14000 The British Standards Institute produced the first environmental management standard in 1992, identifying requirements for initiating, implementing and maintaining an environmental management system. According to BS7750, now ISO14000, the environmental policy of an organisation should:
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Incorporate a commitment to continual improvement in environmental performance Be available for public consultation Be understood at all employee levels within the organisation. The policy commits the organisation to reducing resource consumption and environmental effects of material and energy sourcing. In addition to this a commitment to reducing waste and pollution is required, whilst minimising the risk and health impairments to employees and surrounding inhabitants. A holistic approach should be adopted with regard to product design, encompassing the entire life cycle to ensure that minimal environmental burdens result from new product development. The benefits of establishing an environmental management system are listed as follows: Reduced risk to the environment and the health and safety of human and animal life. Meeting current environmental legislation and anticipating future legislative constraints. Minimising the risk of prosecution due to non-compliance, involving costly fines. Personnel and resources are set in place to manage emergency situations, and to accommodate policy changes and additions. Uncertainties in decision making and environmental impacts are reduced as personnel gain skills, and environmental assessment progress. Public image is improved, asset value is increased and customer requirements are more easily met with a proactive response to environmental management. Investors will gain increased confidence in corporate activities. Profitability is increased when waste output, energy input and resource consumption is minimised.

1.4 Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM)

In recognition of the fact that construction, use and demolition of buildings account for a large share of environmental impacts arising from economic activity, BREEAM was launched in 1990 and has been widely adopted. It offers a scheme for environmental labelling of buildings, an accreditation scheme in many respects. In 1997, 25% of all new office developments applied
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to have a BREEAM assessment performed. BREEAM sets targets for achievement in relation to a number of Key Performance Indicators, and provides documentary recognition when targets have been met. It is a voluntary and self-funding exercise with a number of objectives: To encourage designers and specifiers to become more environmentally sensitive To enable developers, designers and users to respond to a demand for buildings which are friendlier to the environment, and then to stimulate such a market To raise awareness of the large impact that buildings have on the potential for global warming, acid rain and the depletion of the ozone layer To set targets and standards which are independently assessed and so help to minimise false claims or distortions To reduce the long-term impact buildings have on the environment To reduce the use of increasingly scarce resources such as water and fossil fuels To improve the quality of the indoor environment of buildings and hence the health and well-being of their occupants The assessment method is grouped under three headings: 1.4.1 Global issues and use of resources Greenhouse Gases The greenhouse effect is caused by CO2, methane (CH4), CFCs and nitrous oxides. They absorb and re-emit a proportion of the infrared radiation emitted by the earths surface, so leading to a warming of the lower atmosphere. It is important when focussing on the environment to concentrate on the reduction of CO2 production, rather than the consumption of delivered energy. CO2 production is dependent on the fuel combusted to generate energy. The Ozone Building services can have a profound effect on the amount of damage done to the Ozone layer from CFCs, HCFCs and halons. Optimally, buildings would be designed not to need air conditioning. Consideration should also be given to the elimination of substances that deplete the Ozone when manufacturing thermal insulation. Natural Resources To minimise consumption of non-renewable resources and to promote renewable materials, BREEAM awards credits for the specification of timber from sustainably managed sources, and the use of demolition materials to be used as fill and hardcore. Credit is also given for suitable storage space given over to recyclable materials.

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Longevity Design for durability and easy maintenance is also credited. 1.4.2 Local issues Water Economy Increasing financial and environmental costs associated with the provision of fresh water has led BREEAM to award credits for the specification of equipment which minimises water consumption e.g. WCs, urinals, wash hand basins. Effects on Microclimate Large buildings can affect wind patterns around them and can overshadow neighbouring properties in terms of sunlight and diffuse light. These effects should be minimised. Derelict/Contaminated land BREEAM rewards the reclamation of contaminated land from industrial processes and landfill. Current best practices should be adopted in the clean-up. Noise Noise from fans, plant and traffic should be minimised to prevent localised noise pollution. This should be done in accordance with BS4142, (1990). Transport and Cyclists Facilities To encourage the reduction of pollution generated from cars and other vehicles, BREEAM awards credits for the provision of efficient public transport and cyclists facilities, including secure storage, drying facilities, showers, changing facilities. In an industrial context, the provision of facilities for goods vehicles should be designed to minimise manoeuvring and shunting, which increase both pollution and noise. 1.4.3 Indoor issues Ventilation Energy efficiency is sought whilst maintaining an approved level of air quality. Lighting Buildings which maximise the use of natural daylight are awarded extra credits. The benefits are twofold it creates a better working environment, and lowers electricity consumption. Thermal Comfort and overheating Credits are given where it can be demonstrated that the building design has
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been subject to an assessment consistent with good practice guidance on thermal comfort. Use of night-time ventilation and high building thermal mass offer natural solutions to overheating problems. Overheating can also cause a loss in worker productivity. In Text Question: 1.3 Make a list of the tangible and intangible benefits that could result from running an office with an excellent BREEAM rating. What possible barriers might the facilities manager face in his/her attempt to achieve an office with excellent BREAAM ratings? Do you consider the factors included within the BREEAM assessment to be sufficient in assessing the sustainability of a built asset? Justify your answer.

1.5 Time line of UK sustainable development milestones.

1994: The UK became one of the first countries to produce a sustainable development strategy in response to the call made at Rio, Sustainable Development: The UK Strategy. 1997: The Labour Party won the General Election and announced its intention to prepare a new strategy for sustainable development. The Rio + 5 meeting in 1997 called for all countries to have a sustainable development strategy by 2002. The UK had already met this target. This repeated the call for all countries to have sustainable development strategies in place - by the time of the next review of Agenda 21 in 2002 (Rio+10). 1998: In the UK, a consultation document, Opportunities for Change was published. In addition, the Government consulted on a set of headline indicators of sustainable development, Sustainability Counts. These indicators broadly included: Economic growth Social investment Employment Health Education and training Housing quality Climate change Air pollution Transport
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Water quality Wildlife Land use Waste 1999: In May 1999, the Government published a sustainable development strategy for the UK A Better Quality of Life - which set out four objectives: Social progress which recognises the needs of everyone Effective protection of the environment Prudent use of natural resources Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment and ten guiding principles: Putting people at the centre Taking a long term perspective Taking account of costs and benefits Creating an open and supportive economic system Combating poverty and social exclusion Respecting environmental limits The precautionary principle Using scientific knowledge Transparency, information, participation and access to justice Making the polluter pay The strategy also included a core set of around 150 indicators of sustainable development with a sub-set of 15 headline indicators, and a commitment to reporting against them on an annual basis. 2000: In October 2000 the Government established the Sustainable Development Commission, chaired by Jonathan Porritt, to advocate sustainable development across all sectors in the UK, review progress towards it and build agreement on achieving further progress. The Commission's challenge is to move the sustainable development agenda away from analysis towards implementation. At local level, well over 90% of local authorities had met the Prime Minister's challenge to have a Local Agenda 21 strategy in place by the end of 2000. 2001: In January 2001, the Government published its first annual report reviewing progress towards sustainable development Achieving a Better Quality of Life -. At the same time, the Government Sustainable Development
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website - http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk - was launched to ensure that monitoring and reporting of progress is continuous. Finally, in April 2001, the Government launched a new Sustainable Development Research (SDR) Network (http://www.sd-research.org.uk) to strengthen the delivery of high quality cross-cutting research relevant to those in the UK who make decisions in the context of sustainable development. 2002: 'Achieving A Better Quality of Life' The Government second annual report, reviewing progress towards sustainable development in 2001, was published on 13 March 2002. All of the above documents are available to review and download via the government sustainable development website, http://www.sustainabledevelopment.gov.uk.

1.6 Updates since 2002 1.6.1 The certainty grows

In 2007 the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was award a Nobel Peace prize for its work in Climate Change. The language used in the four successive reports of the IPCC tell of the alarming rate in the increase of this
change. The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) published in 2007 leaves little room for doubt about its mechanisms and causes. IPCCs first volume of the AR4 report, released in February 2007 in Paris, confirms that global warming was happening while the second, issued in April 2007 in Brussels, focused on the impact of the phenomenon on the world's populations and species. The third AR4 report, dated May 2007, reports on the means of mitigating the worse impacts of global warming and focuses on the economic implications and technological options for tackling global warming. It states that emissions must start declining by 2015 to prevent the world's temperature from rising more than two degrees Celsius over pre-industrialised temperatures. The report also states that the low costs of buying insurance against these changes that would mean climate catastrophe in the coming decades, through the use of technologies currently available, is less than 0.1 per cent of world GDP per annum. Website: http://www.ipcc.ch/

1ST REPORT - 1990 : We are now aware that the general amplitude of the increase in the warming of the planet conforms to the predictions of the climate models, but that this amplitude is comparable to that which occurs with the natural variability of the climate 2ND REPORT - 1995 : In the corpus of the observations lead us to believe that there is a human influence on the climate of the planet
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3RD REPORT - 2001 : The recent observations provide convincing indications that the heating of the planet over that last five years is attributable to the activities of humans 4TH REPORT - 2007 : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal. Most of (>50% of) the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely (confidence level >90%) due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (human) greenhouse gas concentrations

1.6.2 Observed Changes and Impacts

It has been reported that: 11 of 12 warmest years on record were in 1995 2006 (2007 now joins them) Over the last 100 years the global temperature has risen by 0.740C with wide variations in regional trends. The North Pole, for instance, has warmed at over twice the average global rate and land regions warming faster than the oceans. Global sea level rises since 1961 were 1.8mm/yr, rising dramatically from 1993 to 3.1mm/yr. Since 1975 extreme high sea level events have increased. Satellite data since 1978 shows that Artic sea ice has shrunk in summer by an average of 7.4% per decade and some predict it will go by 2030. Mountain snow cover and glaciers have declined significantly in both hemispheres. Since 1950 cold days and nights and frost have become less frequent and hot days and nights more frequent over most land areas, with heat waves and extreme floods becoming more frequent over most areas. There is growing concern about the future stability of the climate, the unprecedented temperature extremes predicted for this century and the potential impacts of the growing numbers and intensity of extreme weather events on human health and settlements and on resource, water and food supplies in the near term. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm.pdf

1.6.3 Impacts and Insurance

Over recent decades, there has been a marked increase in the incidence and severity of extreme weather events in scale and impacts around the world. The
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last few years have seen an unprecedented catalogue of extreme recordbreaking weather conditions: the UK experienced rainfall and flooding on an unprecedented scale; hurricanes in the US; torrential rain and flooding in Latin America; heat waves in Europe; intense tropical storms across the Asian coastline; and meting of ice caps. One of the most reliable indicators of these events is the escalating sum paid out by insurance companies. The 2003 European heat wave caused 30,000 deaths and cost 13.5bn; the European floods of 2002 caused 37 deaths and cost 16bn, while insurance payout from the UK 2002 floods was 1bn. In fact, claims for storms and flood damages in the UK have doubled to over 6 billion over the period 1998-2003, compared to the previous five years, with a prospect of a further tripling by 2050. In 2007 Britain witnessed the warmest April and the wettest June on record for which the current cost is already above 3.5 billion. International insurance statistics show that the financial cost of such events is linked to the very different value put on lives in different regions of the world.

1.6.4 The Atmosphere

The Troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer rising to around 17km above the earths surface and it contains most of the planets air. Wind, storms, most clouds and other weather features all take place in the troposphere. A thickening layer of GHGs in the upper troposphere trap increasing amounts of re-radiated solar energy in this lower atmosphere causing a build up of temperature in the earths atmosphere.

1.6.5 Greenhouse Gases

GHG emissions have grown since pre-industrial times with an alarming increase of over 80% between 1970 and 2007 alone despite and the international attempts to stabilise and reduce CO2 emissions. The long term trend of declining global CO2 emissions per unit of energy supplied, the units of CO2 it takes to generate a unit of wealth for instance, reversed after 2000 so rather than our global emissions declining they are rising increasingly rapidly as more and more people get wealthier. Carbon dioxide has been chosen as the key indicator GHG to describe trends in the rate of GHG emissions that cause global warming because we generate much more of it than any other GHG and it stays in the atmosphere for a very long time. Today CO2 concentrations stand at 385 + parts per million (ppm), compared to a pre-industrial level of 278 ppm, and a range over the previous 650,000 years of between 180 and 300 ppm. Climate scientists now adhere to a figure of 450ppm as being possibly a level after which climate instability may occur. IPCC reports predict that by the end of the 21st century CO2 levels will rise to above 700ppm unless we make dramatic cuts in our emissions before around 2015.

1.6.6 Global Emissions of CO2

Global CO2 emissions have accelerated sharply and they were rising by less than 1% annually up to the year 2000, they are now rising at 2.5% per year. In 2006 7.9 billion tonnes (gigatonnes, Gt) of carbon passed into the atmosphere
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last year. In 2000, the figure was 6.8Gt. From 2000 to 2005, the growth rate of carbon dioxide emissions was more than 2.5% per year, whereas in the 1990s it was less than 1% per year. As oil prices rise there is a strong current trend to shift back to the use of coal in many nations including China, The US and the UK. Total CO2 emissions and CO2 emissions per capita vary considerably between countries. Historic data on emissions can be shown in such graphs but when deciding how to design today how to design for the future people use climate scenarios or climate change scenarios. The former describe possible future climates rather than changes in climate. Climate scenarios usually combine observations about present day climate with estimates of the change in climates, typically using the results from global or regional climate model experiments. Many of the future changes that will happen over the next 3040 years have already been determined by historic emissions and because of the inertia in the climate system. Scientists therefore have to adapt to some degree of climate change however much future emissions are reduced.

1.6.7 UK Emissions of CO2

Latest estimates show that total UK greenhouse gas emissions in 2006 had fallen 15% below 1990 levels, while provisional estimates indicate that carbon dioxide emissions were 5% below 1990 levels in 2006. Estimates do vary between sources but the 2007 Energy White Paper from the UK Department for Environment and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) show the UK is now going in the wrong direction to meet the UK domestic target of 10% CO2 reductions by 2010. (Source: DEFRA; Energy White Paper 2007, p.308) The UKs energy consumption by sector and the main sources of CO2 emissions show that the domestic sector was responsible for over 29% of total UK energy use accounting for 24% of total CO2 emissions in 2005.

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1.6.8 The Stern Report

Sir Nicholas Sterns Review on the Economics of Climate Change was the first comprehensive UK review of the economic impacts of climate change and clearly demonstrated that all countries will be affected by climate change, but the poorest countries will suffer earliest and most. Its major conclusions were that average temperatures could rise by 50C from pre-industrial levels if climate change goes unchecked. His fairly dire conclusions are summarised below. He recommended three elements of policy for an effective response: carbon pricing; technology policy and energy efficiency. Carbon pricing, through taxation, emissions trading or regulation, will show people the full social costs of their actions. Technology policy should drive the large-scale development and use of a range of low-carbon and high-efficiency products. Climate change should be fully integrated into development policy, and rich countries should honour pledges to increase support through overseas development assistance. In December 2007 the UK Government pledged to put a carbon cost to every project it develops across government departments. The Stern Review (Stern, 2006) concluded that business as usual would cause a further 5.80C rise in mean temperature, which would incur costs in excess of 20% of global gross domestic product (GDP), while the cost of emission reduction measures to stabilize the temperature would be only 1% of GDP. The Stern Review, in conjunction with the IPCC AR4 marked a turning point in the global debate on climate change. It is impossible to say the extent to which Stern has caught the mood of the time, or created it, but either way there seems to have been a pronounced shift away from the debate over the science and towards the economics of mitigation versus adaptation. See Appendix 2 for further recent climate change updates.

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 In Text Question: 1.4 In light of the above publications and government initiatives, what could your company do to improve its sustainable practices? What should the government do now to ensure that initiatives are implemented. Should organisations be forced by policy and the threat of fines/prison sentences to comply? How could the government encourage organisations to become more sustainable without using legal threats?

Unit 1 : Consolidation Exercise

Discuss how the sustainable use of resources throughout a buildings lifecycle, and the responsible management of built assets during its operation, can benefit both global and local environments. Although not assessed, it is sufficient to construct a reasoned bullet point list, rather than a full essay response.

References
1. BSJ (1996), CIBSE policy on the environment: engineering the built environment for this and future generations Building Services Journal, p55, May. 2. Emsley, J. (1994), Energy and fuels, New Scientist, Inside Science, 68 January. 3. Greek, D. (1996), It pays to get your sums right, Professional Engineer, April 24. 4. Griffith, A. (1995), Environmental Management Systems: an outline guide for construction industry organisations, Dept, Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic University. 5. UETP-EEE (1995), The Finnish Association of Graduate Engineers, Environmental assessment of products: a course on life cycle assessment, Ed B. Pedersen. 6. WCED (1987), World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, Oxford Press, Suffolk. 7. Weir, G. (1998), Life Cycle Assessment of multi-glazed windows, Ph.D. thesis, Napier University. 8. http://www.un.org/popin/
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9. http://www.unep.org/tools/ 10. http://www.ipcc.ch/

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Appendix 1a : Study Task Points

1. Sustainable development means action not only by national governments but also by local communities. In 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. It became known as "the Rio Earth Summit". At this meeting, world leaders, including the British Prime Minister, signed a global action plan, Agenda 21, which sets out how countries can protect and enhance the quality of life for future generations. Agenda 21 is an Agenda for action for the 21st. Century. It is important that not just governments but all groups get involved. Local councils and community groups are developing their own local Agenda 21 plans. 2. Sustainable development means using energy more wisely. Most of the energy we use in our homes and schools comes from fossil fuels. These include oil, coal, gas and of course electricity which in UK is largely generated by burning fossil fuels. There are many ways of avoiding the waste of energy. The simplest is to turn off the lights when leaving a room. Amazing fact. Cleaning dirty light fittings such as lamp shades allows more light to pass out. This means lower wattage light bulbs or tubes can be used, saving up to 10% of the energy used for lighting your home or office. Frightening fact Households in the UK are responsible for about 25% of carbon dioxide emissions through their use of electricity and direct consumption of fossil fuels. 3. Sustainable development means reducing greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide.

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Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide are causing global warming. This is scary because it is one of the greatest environmental threats facing the planet. Prehistoric plants accumulated carbon dioxide as a result of photosynthesis over millions of years. We are releasing this carbon dioxide by burning coal, oil and gas, - fossil fuels formed from the fossilised remains of these plants, in a very short space of time. Carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane trap heat inside the earths atmosphere. This global warming is leading to climate change which will have serious effects on the natural world and for humans. Scary fact If no action is taken to limit greenhouse gases, temperatures could rise by 3C by the year 2100ad. This may not sound much but will cause major problems including extreme floods and droughts. 4. Sustainable development means trying to achieve a better quality of life for everyone. For most people this would include living a long and healthy life. Women tend to live 5 years longer than men. Men in manual work can expect, on average, to live 5 years less than men in professional jobs. This may seem erroneous as those getting more exercise through manual jobs would be expected to be fitter than people working at desks, who would be more susceptible to heart attacks. The heart of the problem lies in. unemployment, poor housing conditions low incomes all lead to lower life expectancies. However, good diet, not smoking and regular exercise all improve your chances of living to old age, and more importantly, enjoying good health as you get older. Fascinating fact Average life expectancy in Britain is now 74 years for men and 79 years for women. 5. Sustainable development means giving people the opportunities for work.

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People should be able to get paid work to help them improve the living standards of themselves and their families. But it is not just about money. People who are unemployed often feel that their skills and talents are wasted. They might not feel able to play a full part in society. Everyone needs to feel that they are wanted, and that they can contribute something. There are jobs that people do which is important and which is not paid for e.g. parents looking after their children. Everyone should be able to get some paid work but it may not be easy. Single parents find it hard to take on full time jobs. People with disabilities have a particularly tough time finding work. The longer people are unemployed, the harder they find it to get work. It is easier to find jobs when the economy is doing well. Sustainability means not just finding work for more people, it can also mean sharing the work out more fairly. The more people who are out of work, the harder those who are employed seem to have to work. Is there a fairer way to share out work? Sad fact In 1997 one in six households in Britain had no-one in employment. 40% of all lone parent households were workless. 6. Sustainable development means meeting local needs locally and enabling skills, knowledge and resources to be shared more easily. A LETS scheme involves people joining and listing what they can offer in a directory. For example, baby-sitting, going shopping for the elderly, food grown on an allotment, repairing cars or bikes, painting and wall-papering, lessons in Spanish, or helping you get your new computer set up and working. Its like someone doing you a favour, but in return, you do someone else a favour. To keep track and make sure that some people are not doing all the work, "payment" is made in tokens or units. What this might mean is that elderly Mrs. Adams who cannot dig her garden, gets Mr. Brown from up the road to do it. She cannot afford to pay him money but gives him 3 tokens. Mrs. Adams makes wonderful apple pies, which are no good to Mr. Brown because he is on a diet. However several people in the village get their apple pies from Mrs. Adams and pay her in tokens. One of those people is Mrs. Carter who hates baking but earns tokens for baby-sitting. Mr. and Mrs. Day often get Mrs. Carter to baby-sit for them. They earn LETS tokens by Mrs. Day running a gymnastics class in the village hall (the rent for which she pays in tokens). Mr. Day earns his living as a brick-layer and is quite happy to be paid in LETS tokens
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for some jobs especially as the local farmer will exchange potatoes and eggs for LETS tokens and the local garage will repair his car in exchange for tokens. Mr. East, the farmer uses LETS tokens to send his two daughters to the Gymnastics class, and of course he is very fond of Mrs. Adams apple pies. Meanwhile, Mr. Brown finds that he has a leaky tap, so he calls in Mr. Francis the plumber, and of course he can pay him in......... LETS Schemes allow a fair exchange of goods and services and enable you to get the help you need from other people who have joined in the scheme, even if you dont know them. It means that even people who havent much money can join in and get the help they need. For example, someone who has no job can still use his/her time and skills to earn tokens and can spend them on things they need and might not be able to afford. And you dont have to pay tax on your LETS tokens!........But, is it legal? Yes! The Government think its a great idea, and some local councils will even let people pay their Council tax in LETS vouchers. 7. Sustainable development means valuing and protecting the diversity of nature. We are not just talking about saving the rain-forests and coral reefs. Of course they are important but then so is the wildlife in our own country. How can we ask other people in other countries not to cut down their forests if we are not caring for our own woodlands? How can we expect others to put aside their own well being to save tigers when we allow our own farmers to use pesticides which damage wild bird populations so that we can enjoy cheap unblemished food? We know that in the British countryside, ponds are being lost and as a result numbers of frogs, toads and newts are falling. The otter population has declined, largely as a result of water pollution and disturbance though happily it seems to be making something of a comeback. It is not easy to count species of most plants or animals or to assess regularly how much habitat has been lost. The Government in Britain have decided to use population estimates of common species of birds which breed in Britain as an "indicator" of how wildlife is faring in this country. Birds are thought to be a good indicator not only of other wildlife but also of the health of the wider environment. Their numbers are affected by the state of habitats and by pollution levels. Worrying fact
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Populations of water birds have increased over the last 30 years. The populations of many woodland and farmland birds has fallen since 1970. 8. Sustainable development means controlling air pollution to reduce harm to human health and the natural environment. At present in Britain the greatest cause of air pollution in urban areas is fine particles largely from burning fossil fuels. A quarter of these particles are produced by road transport. The rest comes from power stations and domestic coal fires. Other particles are produced by quarrying, mining and construction work. In rural areas ozone pollution is probably the greatest source of air pollution. It is produced by sunlight acting on nitrogen oxides and other chemicals produced by vehicles and industry. You may even notice the effects of air pollution yourself. Some people are particularly sensitive to air pollution and will start to cough and feel their eyes getting irritated at even quite low levels of air pollution. Bad air days In urban areas in 1997 there were 40 days when air pollution was recorded as moderate or worse. In 1993 there were 62 bad air days so things seem to be improving. 9. Sustainable development means reducing road traffic in Britain. Easy access to transport improves our lives in many ways. However, road transport adds to air pollution and noise pollution. Congested roads lead to demands for more road building which in turn leads to the loss of more countryside. Scary fact Since 1970 the amount of car travel per person in Britain has nearly doubled. By 1997 people travelled on average, over 6,500 miles per year by car. Although engines are becoming more efficient and produce less pollution than ten years ago, pollution is likely to increase as the amount of traffic increases. If no action is taken, traffic could increase by more than a third over the next twenty years. This will mean more traffic jams, longer rush-hours, more damage to the environment and to human health.

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10. Sustainable development means reducing the waste which we produce. Producing waste is a symptom of inefficient use of resources. It is estimated that each year 145 million tonnes of waste are produced each year in the UK from households, commerce and industry. About 20% of this waste comes from households and only about 7% of household waste is recycled. The amount of household waste which can be recycled could be increased. However the real answer is to use resources far more efficiently and minimise waste in the first place. 63% of all waste from households, industry and commerce goes to land-fill. 84% of household waste goes to land-fill . Yet up to 25% of household waste (garden waste, food waste etc.) is biodegradable organic material. This causes many problems in land-fill sites, including the production of methane which is a green-house gas. Much of this organic waste could be composted and hence recycled.

(adapted from www.4seasons.org.uk)

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Appendix 1b : Readers

1. The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development 4 September 2002 2. Sustainable development: Opportunities for Change: Consultation paper on a revised UK strategy 3. Wyatt, D.P., Sobotka, A and Rogalska, M., Towards a sustainable practice, Facilities, Vol. 18, No. 1/2 pp 76-82, (2000).

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Appendix 2: 2007-08 Updates in Climate Change

In 1988 the World Meteorological Office (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to tackle the very complex challenge of understanding and dealing with climate change. Policymakers needed an objective source of information about its causes, its potential environmental and socio-economic impacts and available adaptation and mitigation options. The IPCC is a scientific body that provides information, based on the latest international scientific evidence. It consolidates and reflects existing viewpoints within the scientific community to provide scientific, technical and socio-economic information in a policy-relevant, but policy neutral, way to decision makers. When governments accept and approve the regular 4-5 yearly IPCC Reports and Summaries for Policymakers, they acknowledge the legitimacy of their science. The first IPCC Report in 1990 set out the framework for the reporting on climate science, the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 provided key input for the negotiations of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Third Assessment Report of 2001, Special and Methodology Reports provided further information relevant for the development and implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. The IPCC Fourth Report (AR4) in 2007 informed negotiations at Bali which in turn are setting the agenda for the Post-Kyoto framework treaty. At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro the IPCC was asked to report in future on: assessment of national net greenhouse gas emissions, resulting in the national greenhouse gas inventories programme predictions of regional distributions of climate change and associated impact studies energy and industry related issues agriculture and forestry related issues vulnerability to sea level rise and emissions scenarios, resulting in six IS92 scenarios The findings of the First IPCC Assessment Report of 1990 played a decisive role in leading to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
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Change (UNFCCC) which was adopted at the Rio in 1992 and opened for signature. The Convention entered into force on 21st March 1994 and under it the industrialised countries agreed to aim to return their emissions to 1990 levels by 2010. The relationship between the IPCC and the UNFCCC is worth clarifying. Under the UNFCCC a Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) was established. At the first of the annual Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP-1) in Berlin (Feb 1995) the functions of the SBSTA were clarified and it was requested SBSTA to: Summarize and interpret the latest international scientific research for the politicians (COP) and support of the review of the adequacy of commitments (targets) Assess the implications of research and advise on the development and improvement of comparable methodologies for: National inventories of emissions and removals of greenhouse gases Projecting national emissions and removals of greenhouse gases and comparison of respective contributions of different gases to climate change Evaluating the individual and aggregated effects of measures undertaken pursuant to the provisions of the Convention Conducting impact/sensitivity analyses Assessing adaptation responses

The Conference of Parties

Since their instigation in 1995 those parties to the UNFCC have held annual COP meetings (Conference of Parties) to re-negotiate the Agreements on emissions and impacts, their measurement, management, programmes and tools. The programme of meetings associated with the UNFCC are as follows: 1988 IPCC Established by UNEP and WMO 1990 IPCC First Report 1992 UNFCC Rio Conference, Brasil, IPCC report on radiative forcing, AGENDA 21 Adopted, Clean development Mechanism Fund established 1995 COP-1 Berlin, Germany Mandate signed 1995 Second IPCC Report 1996 COP-2 Geneva, Switzerland, Endorsed the 2nd IPCC Report (SRES) 1997 COP-3 Kyoto, Japan, Kyoto Protocol adopted 1998 COP-4 New Dehli, India questioned the need for tougher targets
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1999 2000 2001 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2007 2008 2009

COP-5 COP-6 TAR COP-7 COP-8 COP-9 COP-10 COP-11 COP-12 AR4 COP-13 COP-14 COP-15

Bonn The Hague Third IPCC Assessment Report (TAR) Marakesh, Endorsed TAR New Dehli Milan, Carbon sinks and emissions trading Buenos Aires, Adaptation and Mitigation Montreal, Nairobi, Confirming the Science Fourth Assessment Report Bali, Indonesia. Fourth IPCC Report (AR4) Poznan, Poland Copenhagen, Denmark

The Kyoto Agreement

On 11 December 1997, at the conclusion of COP-3 in Kyoto, Japan, more than 150 nations adopted the Kyoto Protocol, committing industrialized nations to make legally binding reductions of six GHGs. The called-for reductions varied from country to country, but would cut emissions by an average of around 5% below 1990 levels by the period 200812. The United States agreed to reductions of 7%, Japan to reductions of 6% and the European members to joint reductions of 8%. Key to the US agreement to such a relatively ambitious target was the establishment of a system of emissions trading among industrialized countries, by which nations with binding limits could buy and sell, among themselves, the right to release greenhouse gases. By the end of 2003 113 Parties had ratified, or acceded to, the Kyoto Protocol but only when Russia ratified in August 2004 was the Treaty able to become legally binding, as it was from the 16th February 2005. On the 3rd December 2007 Australia, represented by its 26th Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, also signed the Treaty leaving the United States of America as the only developed country not to have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, despite being the largest global emitter of greenhouse gasses, with its 4% of the global population responsible for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. One of the key aims of the Kyoto Protocol is to set the preconditions for setting stabilisation targets and ensuring they are achievable by providing an international policy framework that can deliver such targets through the provision of emissions trading and other Kyoto mechanisms.

Bali
On the 15th December 2007, in a last minute agreement at the COP-13 in Bali, all countries that are party to the Kyoto Agreement, and the United States of America (reluctantly), agreed up a Bali Action Plan and Roadmap that outlined
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a broad range of actions relating to the mitigation and adaptation for climate change committing to: Achieving deep cuts in global emissions Targets in accordance with the UNCCC Reaffirming as priorities economic and social development & poverty eradication Responding to AR4 findings that global warming is unequivocal and action urgent Recognizing that (really) deep cuts in global emissions will be required to achieve the ultimate objective of the Convention (avoiding climate chaos). The sense of urgency at Bali was palpable and four main areas were dealt with in detail: New framework for emissions inventories and reporting mechanisms for deforestation and landuse Adaptation fund and programme to enhance the ability of nations to adapt in time Technology transfer mechanisms and financing reinforced and developed Ad Hoc Working Group on Long Term Cooperative Action under the Convention set up to produce an action plan for presentation to COP 15 in Copenhagen in 2009 on which will be based the proposals for the post-Kyoto treaty A further function of the COP meetings is to report back on progress against targets and to this end in the Clean Development Mechanism arena, relating to projects where by emissions reductions in one country can be claimed as carbon reductions by a funding country, for the year 2006-2007 825 projects were reported achieving 84,049,697 million certified emissions reductions and the development of 32 new agreed baseline and monitoring methodologies. AR4 of the IPCC had firmly established the link between anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gasses and climate change and reported step changes in the severity of their impacts. Many countries that were holding out for real targets for medium term emissions reductions were thwarted but it is felt that the COP 15 at Copenhagen will produce real targets for the post-Kyoto Treaty, driven on by a much anticipated change of US Government. http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_13/items/4049.php

Carbon Trading
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
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the Kyoto Protocol and greenhouse gas emissions trading schemes are based on calculations of tonnages of each greenhouse gas (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6). National greenhouse gas inventories of emissions are calculated and reported for UNFCCC compliance. The inventories are reported both in the tonnages of the actual gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6) and also aggregated as a total CO2 equivalent number. Each metric tonne of non-CO2 gas is converted to CO2 equivalents using a global warming potential number. Greenhouse gas quantities, in National inventories, are normally expressed in CO2 equivalent units (CO2e). Because each gas has a different impact on global warming, each non CO2 gas is multiplied by a Global Warming Potential (GWP) which reflects its impact relative to CO2 (See page 5). The input data to this calculation are the tonnages emitted of each greenhouse gas, but the totals are reported in tonnes of CO2 equivalent. For example each tonne of CH4 is equivalent to 21 times a tonne of CO2 because that is the standard metric used to approximate the effect of a tonne of CH4 in the atmosphere compared to a tonne of CO2 over a 100 year timeframe. Emissions trading schemes for greenhouse gases use this same calculation methodology. For the UK emissions trading scheme, all greenhouse gases are potentially included, with some companies bringing N2O and HFCs into the scheme as well as CO2. The non-CO2 units are translated into CO2 equivalents for reporting and compliance purposes. For the EU emissions trading scheme, only CO2 emissions were included in the first phase (200508) so the only relevant unit is metric tonnes of CO2.

UK 2010 target
In 2000, bolstered by the large emissions reductions that had been achieved through the Dash to Gas (using more efficient gas turbines to generate electricity over the older coal powered stations), the UK government believed that its climate change strategies would be sufficient to deliver the legally binding Kyoto Target of 12.5% emission reduction by 2010. However, UNEP, then suggested that the UK is unlikely to meet its Kyoto commitments. It projected UK greenhouse gas emissions as 6.6-7.3% above its commitment level, equating at best to 5.2-5.8% reduction in emissions by 2010 rather than the 12.5% drop which the UK is pledged to achieve. Tony Blair, fired to inspire, claimed that Britain, far from achieving only 12.5% reductions was aiming for 20% to show global leadership. In 2006, the UK Government reported that it was not on course to meet its target of a 20% reduction in 1990 levels of CO2 emissions by 2010, and would probably reduce them by only 1518%, still however meeting its Kyoto target. Transport is the only sector of the UK economy in which carbon emissions have increased dramatically since 1990, rising by 10% between 1990 and 2004.

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60% REDUCTION BY 2050 (Now 80% reduction by 2050, December 2008)

The Kyoto Protocol and subsequent targets of the UK government were an important start, but they have been seen as short-term commitments, which still fall a long way short of what is likely to be required to stabilise atmospheric CO2 concentrations. In recent years, a number of reports have been produced proposing tougher targets. In June 2000, the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP) published the important report, Energy: the changing climate, on the long-term challenges to the UKs energy and environmental policy posed by climate change and citing a figure of some 60% in reductions required from 1997 levels
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by about 2050, and increasing to 80% by 2100. Such figures at that time appeared to be incredible and unachievable however they are now in the ball park of the reduction requirements being talked about in the Bali process for global reduction limits. The RCEP figures were taken up by the governments Interdepartmental Analysts Group (IAG) who concluded that a 60% reduction in emissions was technically feasible but extremely challenging. Apart from reductions in the transport sector, a combination of substantial (non-transport) energy efficiency improvement and a move to carbon-free electricity generation would help to deliver a significant proportion of the emission reductions required. IAG estimated in 2002 the overall abatement cost to have an impact of between 0.01 and 0.02 percentage points on a long-term GDP growth rate of 2.25%. Similarly, the UK Performance and Innovation Unit (PIU), in its report The energy review, reconfirms the possibility of delivering the 60% reduction in emissions - provided sufficient energy efficiency measures are adopted, the electricity system produces very low carbon emissions through the expansion of renewable energy, and major progress is made towards a low carbon transport system. The Carbon Trust too has taken the RCEPs 60% reduction target as its starting point. The Trust believes it is technically possible for the UK to meet this target with a combination of energy efficiency measures and new low carbon technologies, plus significant societal and infrastructure changes (Fawcett et al., 2002, p. 45; CarbonTrust, 2001). The 60% reduction target has also been endorsed by the governments 2003 Energy White Paper, which sets out the goal of cutting 60% of UK CO2 emissions from 1990 levels by 2050, with real progress by 2020. However, the government has shied away from turning this goal into a legally binding target, regarding it merely as an aspiration, attracting criticism that the White Paper was long on rhetoric but short on delivery mechanisms.

CO2 emissions from Aviation

Aviation is the fastest-growing source of greenhouse-gas emissions, already accounting for 7 per cent of the UK total. By 2050, aviation could contribute 15% of the worlds greenhouse gases. Further, the burning of aircraft fuel has a radiative forcing ratio of around 2.7. What this means is that the total warming effect of aircraft emissions is 2.7 times as great as the effect of the carbon dioxide alone. Away from Britain, aviation is growing at spectacular rates, with India recently seeing a 45% increase in passenger numbers within a single year. The UK government raised air passenger duty in February 2007, and the European Union is set to include aviation in its Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS), which could increase costs further. However there is an inherent contradiction within a government that wants to reduce greenhouse gas
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emissions while expanding airport capacity. Expansion plans are lodged for many airports including Heathrow, Stansted, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Liverpool and East Midlands. The more you build them, the more people will use them. Flying may also be hurting the national economy, with Britons choosing to spend money holidaying overseas rather than in the UK. Studies have shown that the UK government could not achieve its long-term goal of a 60% cut in national greenhouse gas emissions without curbing the aviation sector. Figure 2.12.

Contraction and Convergence

First proposed in 1990 by Aubrey Meyer of the Global Commons Institute C & C is increasingly assumed as the foundation for internationally acceptable negotiations on emissions reductions. The C & C approach promotes justice and fairness in a century where many believe that equity is survival. C & C proposes a GHG emission reduction protocol that aims to be achievable and acceptable to as many interested parties as possible. It is based on two principals: Contraction: On the basis of precaution, and guided by the scientific advice of the IPCC, all governments or regional groupings of governments would agree
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to, and agree to respond to, a single atmospheric target for GHG emissions reductions, be it 450, 500 or 550 ppm CO2 for instance. With this agreed target it is possible then to calculate the total diminishing amount of greenhouse gases that the world can emit for each year in the coming century. Whatever the rate, this is called Contraction. Convergence: On the basis of equity, convergence means that each years ration of this global emissions budget can be shared so that each country, or group of countries, progressively converges to equal per capita global shares by an agreed year. This recognizes the principle of globally equal rights per capita to the global commons of the atmosphere, but achieved by smooth transition. Where countries or groups do have a diversity of natural endowments, C&C acknowledges this too by embracing, for example, the European Union, which operates as a unit at the international level whilst creating its own convergence arrangements. C & C simplifies climate negotiations to just two questions: 1) What is the maximum amount of CO2 that can be permitted in the atmosphere? 2) By what date should global capital shares converge to that level? C & C provides a realistic framework for global negotiations on emissions reductions. It is increasingly being seen as the most credible basis for achieving the types of drastic reductions that scientists increasingly see as the only way to stabilise climate sufficiently to avoid climate chaos. C & C obviously does ask more reductions from those who currently produce the most GHGs but despite this it has been endorsed by many prominent bodies including the RCEP, the Cabinet Office and the Greater London Authority.

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