Subject: Aircraft Structure and Design Weekly Hours : Theoretical :3 Units : 7 Tutorial : 1 Experimental : 1 Contents Week 1 Introduction 2 Structure

components \ Airworthiness 3 Wing structure type \ Fuselage design, configuration 4 Definitions \ Fuselage design, configuration 5 Aircraft structure alloys \ Wing design, configuration 6 General engineering theory of bending 7 Wing design, configuration Approximations for thin-walled 8 sections\ Empennage design, configuration 9 Structural idealization \ Empennage design, configuration 10 General case of loading \ Undercarriage design, configuration 11 Shear of open tube (constant wall thickness, no booms) \ Undercarriage design, configuration 12 Shear center for thin-walled open tubes without booms \ Undercarriage design, configuration 13 Shear of open tube (constant wall thickness with booms) \ Preliminary weight analysis 14 Shear center for thin-walled open tubes with booms \ Preliminary weight analysis 15 Bredth-Batho formula for pure torsion \ Choice of engines 16 Shear in closed tubes 17 Center of gravity 18 Shear center for closed tubes \ Payload-range diagram 19 Span-Wise taper effect 20 Flight and gust envelope 21 Angle of twist \ Wing and tail loads (for flight-gust envelope)

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Multi-cells multi-flanges wing sections Air and inertia load distribution Multi-cells multi-flanges wing sections \ Drag estimation Shear center multi-cells multiflanges wing sections \ Drag estimation Bulkheads, wing ribs & Fuselage frames \ Drag estimation Fuselage frames (Direct stress distribution) \ Structural design and stress analysis Rib analysis Structural design and stress analysis Fatigue, Fatigue failure and failsafe design \ Structural design and stress analysis

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 ):(General Introduction
.1-1 :
. - : .1 . .2 ) ...(. .3 . .4 . .5 . .6 . . ) ( return on investment . . : . . : . : .1 ).( Conceptual design phase = .( Preliminary .2 ) = = .( Detailed .3 ) = : .1 ).( Prototype manufacturing .2 ).( Testing .3 ) .(Final production . . . . . . ) (1-1 .

.2-1 :
) ( Project group . : .1 : . .2 : ).(Dimensioning & Optimization .3 : . . .4 : ).(Moment of inertia .5 : . .6 : ) (. .7 : .
1

 .8 : . : .1 . .2 . .3 . .4 . .... .5 ... .6 . .7 . ) (2-1 ) (Configuration .

REQUIREMENTS

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

?WILL IT WORK ?WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE ?WHAT REQUIREMENTS DRIVE THE DESIGN ?WHAT TRADE-OFF SHOULD BE CONSIDERED ?WHAT SHOULD IT WEIGHT AND COST

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

FREEZE THE CONFIGURATION DEVELOP LOFTING DEVELOP TEST AND ANALYTICAL BASE DESIGN MAJOR ITEMS DEVELOP ACTUAL COST ESTIMATE

DETAIL DESIGN

DESIGN THE ACTUAL PIECES TO BE BUILD DESIGN THE TOOLING AND THE FABRICATION PROCESS TEST MAJOR ITEMS, STRUCTURE, UNDERCARRIAGEETC FINALIZE WEIGHT AND PERFORMANCE ESTIMATE

FABRICATION

Figure (1-1): Main design procedure stages 2

INPUT MISSION AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA . PAYLOAD . RANGE . CRUISE ALTITUDE . CRUISE SPEED . TAKE OFF FIELD LENGTH . LANDING FIELD LENGTH OR APPROACH SPEED . CLIMB REQUIREMENTS CONFIGURATION GEOMETRY AND DATA TECHNOLOGY DATA . AERODYNAMICS . PROPULSION . STABILITY AND CONTROL . AIRFRAME AND SYSTEM . WEIGHT DATA

INITIAL ESTIMATE OF EMPTY & TAKE OFF WEIGHT

CHANGE WEIGHT, WING & ENGINE SIZE

- WING SIZING - NO. OF ENGINES - ENGINE CONF. & SIZING FIELD PERFORMANCE - UNDERCARRIAGE DESIGN LAYOUT DESIGN - GENERAL ARRANGEMENT - GEOMETRY PARAMETERS EXCEPT EMPENNAGE PERFORMANCE CRITERIA MET WEIGHT AND BALANCE - GROUP WEIGHT - WING LOCATION - LOADING C.G. LIMITS - HORIZONTAL TAIL SIZE - AERODYNAMIC C.G. LIMITS - VERTICAL TAIL SIZE EVALUATION AND OUTPUT - THREE-VIEW DRAWING - WEIGHT-BALANCE DIAGRAM - DRAG-POLARS, LIFT CURVES - OFF DESIGN PERFORMANCE - WEIGHT STATEMENT - OPERATING COST NO YES - TAKE OFF FIELD LENGTH - LANDING FIELD LENGTH

Figure (1-2): Generalized design procedure

MISSION PERFORMANCE - CRUISE SPEED - PAYLOAD-RANGE DIAGRAM

CHANGE WEIGHT NO AIRPLANE BALANCE YES

 ):(Airworthiness
. .... . . . ) 1 ( 107. ) (Codes . ) (BCAR: British Civilian Airworthiness Requirements ) .(CAA: Civil Aviation Authority ) (FAR: Federal Aviation Rules ) FAA: Federal .(Aviation Administration BCAR : :A . :B . :C . :D .

)(Crash Airworthiness
: ) (Cabin . . . ) (Ultimate Load Factor . BCAR : Direction of load Upward Forward Sideward Normal & Utility a/c 3.0 g 9.0 g 1.5 g Acrobatic a/c 4.5 g 9.0 g 1.5 g

Fuselage Design
The main fuselage characteristics are:
1. It constitutes the shell containing the payload which should be carried to a certain distance at a specified speed. The shell offers protection against climatic factors (cold, low pressure, a very high wind velocity and against external noise. 2. It is the most suitable part for housing the cockpit, usually in the nose. 3. The fuselage maybe regarded as the central structural member to whom the other main parts are joined (wings, tail unit and in some cases the engines). 4. Most of aircraft systems are generally housed in the fuselage, it also some times houses engines, fuel tanks and retractable undercarriage.

Fuselage design requirements:

1. The drag of fuselage should be low, since it represents ( 20 to 40 % CD O ) 2. The structure must be sufficiently strong, rigid and light, possess a fixed useful life and be easy to inspect and maintain. 3. Operating costs are influenced by the effect of the fuselage design on fuel consumption and by manufacturing costs. 4. The fuselage does not merely serve to carry the empennage, but also affects the tail configuration. The shape of fuselage is derived from efficient arrangement of passengers or freight, see (figure.1). The cylindrical arrangement is used for the following reason: 1. Structural design and manufacturing are considerably simplified. 2. It is possible to obtain an efficient internal layout with little loss of space. 3. The flexibility of the seating arrangement is improved. 4. Further development by increasing the length of the fuselage (stretching) is facilitated.
Figure (1a): Fuselage with relatively large payload volume and efficient internal arrangement (Dassault Mercure)

Figure(1b): typical fuselage cross-section of transport aircraft

Figure(1c): typical fuselage cross-section of transport aircraft 2

Cabin design (configuration): a- Cross-section: Configuration and dimension.

Circular cross-section is the simplest shape, see (figure 1), and the width ( b f ) can be evaluated from (figure 2) or calculated from the following formula:

b f = 2.0 * (100 + 50) + a * N + l * ( N + 2) + A

Where 100 mm: Typical fuselage wall thickness. 50 mm : Distance between end arm set and wall. N : Number of set in a row. N+2 : Number of arm set. A : Minimum aisle width between arm sets (see figure 3). B : = = = without = =(see figure 3). a & l : From figure (4).

Figure (3): Minimum aisle width for passenger transport

Figure (2): Fuselage width vs. "total set width"

Figure (4): Definition of set dimensions

Table (1): Definitions of sets main dimensions Note that no more than (three) sets abreast in arrow at each side of an aisle i.e. for seven to twelve sets row, two aisles are needed.
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b- Cabin length.
The length of fuselage cabin cabin ( l c ) can be evaluate from figure (5) or is approximately:

l c = number of seats in a column* p max

Figurer (5): cabin length based on statistical correlation c- Passenger seat. Preliminary design is based on a certain standard type of seat, but airlines can lay down their own specification for cabin furnishing. Sets type are: Deluxe type : Set pitch is ( 38 - 40 in) 965 - 1016 mm Normal type : = = = ( 34 - 36 in) 865 - 914 mm Economy type: = = = ( 30 - 32 in) 762 - 812 mm
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d- Flight desk.
The general configuration can be chosen by comparison with other a/c. Location and dimension of pilot seat and the flight controls can manipulated as shown in figure (6) where visibility from the cockpit during horizontal flight and during approach is assured .

Figure (6a): pilot seat for fighter a/c

Figure (6b): pilot seat for transport a/c 6

Fuselage main dimensions:

The dimensions can be computed by approximated, simple two methods: 1. Quick method:For fuselage with cylindrical mid section Vf , volume = 2 2 D f l f (1 ) 4 f

2 23 1 ) (1 + 2 ) f f where f = fuselage finess ratio = l f D f f 4.5 Sf , w , Wette area = D f l f (1 4 AC where A C , fuselage cross-section area D f , fuselage dim eter = For fully stream lined shapes without cylindrical mid section: l 2 l f (0.5 + 0.135 n ) Vf , volume = D f lf 4 l 0.3 Sf , w , Wette area = D f l f (0.5 + 0.135 n ) 2 3 (1.015 + 1.5 ) lf f where l n , length of the fuselage nose sec tion 2. General method:The general method depends on a diagram and illustrative figures. The following formulas are used: A C , frontal area = K A .b f ,max .h f ,max C f , circumferential length = 2.0 K C (b f ,max + h f ,max ) Vf , volume = A C (l C + K V ,n l n + K V ,t l t ) Wf ,w , Wetted area = C f (l C + K W ,n l n + K W ,t l t ) The length of fuselage nose ( l n ) and fuselage tail ( l t ) are evaluated by comparison with other aircraft that is in service. The comparator aircraft should be of the same type, the same number of passenger.

Figure (7a): factors for calculating the area, circumference, volume and wetted area

Figure (7b): definition of streamline body geometry

l ln = lc * nl c comparator a/c

l lt = lc * tl c comparator a/c
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Fuselage weight
The fuselage makes a large contribution to the structure weight, but it is much more difficult to be predicted by general methods than the wing. The reason is the large number of local weight penalties in the form of floor, attachment, support structure at, bulk heads, doors, windows and other special structural feature. Fuselage weight is affected primarily by gross shell area ( SG Sfuselage wetted area ), which intern depend upon the overall dimensions of the fuselage as well as the design diving speed. For AL-alloy fuselage, the following simple weight estimation method can be used as a first approximation: lt .2 Wf = K wf * VD * * S1 G bf * hf K wf : Constant, =0.23 if the weight is in (kg). VD : dive speed in (m/s).

SG lt

: Gross shell area in ( m 2 ). : The distance between quarter (1/4) root chord of the wing and quarter (1/4) root chord of the tail, i.e. between aerodynamic centers for the wing and the tail, in (m). b f , h f : Fuselage maximum width and height, in (m). To the total basic weight that calculated by above formula:8% : should be added for pressurized cabin. 4% : = = = for rear fuselage mounted engines. 7% : = = = if the main u.c. is attached to the fuselage. 10% : = = = for freighter aircraft.

The nominal fuselage weight is about ( Wf ( 8 12 ) % MTOW ), (MTOW) is maximum takeoff weight.

lt
Wing a.c. Tail a.c.

3.Wing Design
3.1. Basic requirement:
1. The aircraft must satisfy the performance figures laid down in the design specification with best economic yield and operation flexibility. 2. Flight characteristics must be satisfactory both at high and low flying speeds. 3. It must be possible to design the structure within the external lines and the general arrangement which satisfies demands regarding, strength, rigidity, weight, service life, accessibility etc. 4. Sufficient space must be provided for fuel and to permit the attachment and retraction of main u.c. Wing design is a highly iterative process, practically in the preliminary stage; the following comments maybe help to speed it up: 1. it is convenient to make a distinction between:a) Wing size (area). b) Basic shape (plan form, section and twist). c) High lift devices. 2. In case of low speed aircraft, it is probably best to determine the aspect ratio first; the wing loading and type of high lift devices are dealt with next. 3. In case of high speed jet aircraft the span loading and wing loading many are dealt with first. 4. The wing sweep and mean thickness/chord ratio of high subsonic a/c are based primarily on the Mach number in high speed flight. 5. On high subsonic, long rang a/c the high lift configuration is likely to be decided after a satisfactory wing shape, for high speed flight, has been obtained. 6. A final check on low speed performance, fuel tank volume and buffet margins may lead to corrections of wing area which have only minor affect on high speed performance.

3.2. Wing location:

Low wing: Advantage: 1. Good visibility in a turn during take off and landing. 2. Acts as an emergency dissipater in case of crash, with good possibility of survival. 3. Passenger seats can be arranged on the middle portion of the wing. 4. In small a/c, concentrated load and occupants could be reacted directly by the low wing. 5. Short u.c. 6. Simple flap and ailerons control mechanism. 7. Continuous wing structure. 8. Conventional tail is quit sufficient.

Low wing: disadvantage: 1. High interference drag. 2. Special equipment must be used during loading and unloading. 3. Because of ground effect, large ground clearance is wanted which means long leg u.c. 4. For a wing mounted engine, a high a/c (long u.c.) is needed.

High wing: Advantage:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Very suitable for military transportation (IL-76, IL-86, C-5A). High ground clearance, i.e. minimum ground effect. Suitable for wing attached engine. Continuous wing structure. High aerodynamic efficiency.

High wing: Disadvantage:

1. Low visibility in a turn during take off & landing. 2. Ttail is needed. 3. The energy dissipated finally by the wing, and it may be as a heavy weight, crush on the passenger. 4. The passenger's seats need to be arranged on a torque box and not directly on the floor. 5. In small a/c occupants weight should transmitted to the fuselage and up to the wing, i.e. weight penalty. 6. Long u.c. attached to the wing, or a complicated short u.c. with small track if attached to the fuselage. Mid wing: This type is chosen, generally, when minimum drag in high speed a/c is needed case for fighters and high speed transporter. The advantages and disadvantages are moderated and between what for high wing and low wing.

3.3. Wing characteristics (see figure 1):

; Taper ratio = tip chord C t = root chord C r
b/2

SG ; Gross or Design wig area = 2 C dy

0

The area enclosed by the wing outlines including wing flap in the retracted position, and aileron, but excluding fillets or fairings.

Snet ; Net wing area, the gross wing area minus the projection of the central wing part.

S wet ; Exposed or wetted wing area which is the net external wing surface area that exposed to the airflow. If the wing contains nacelles, the wetted area should be reduced by total area wing in side the nacelle structure.

of

t 1 + Swet = 2Snet 1 + 0.25 c r 1 + Figure (1a): wing characteristics definitions = [(t c )t (t c )r ] C, SMC ; Geometric or standard mean chord. wing area S C= = span b b b2 AR ; Aspect ratio = = C S C 2 S C r ; Root chord = t = 1 + AR Quarter chord line; is the line passes through points at 0.25C for all sections.

0.25 ; Angle of dihedral, the angle between the projection of the quarter chord line on the (YOZ) plane and y-axis. The negative angle is called anhedral. 0.25 ; sweep angle, the angle between the projection of the quarter chord line on the (XOZ) plane and the Y-axis. ( L.E. ) is for leading edge and ( T.E ) is for trailing edge. For straight taper wing, the relation between sweep angles at section (1) and section (2) is: 4 1 (e1 e 2 ) Tang 2 = Tang 1 + AR 1 + Where (e) is a fraction of the chord. For example at leading edge ( e1 = 0.0 ) and at trailing edge ( e 2 = 1.0 ). For wing or tail plane with straight trailing edge, i.e. ( T.E. = 0.0, e 2 = 1.0 )

0.0 = Tang 0.25 + Tang 0.25

4 1 (0.25 1.0) AR 1 + 3 1 = AR 1 +

; wing twist, angle of incidence of wing section relative to that of root section, measured in plane parallel to (XOZ) plane. Positive twist, (wash-in), nose rotated upwards. Negative twist, (wash-out), = = downwards. g ; Geometric twist is the twist of the chord line of a section relative to the chord line of root section. a ; Aerodynamic twist is the twist of the zero-lift line of a section relative to the zero-lift line of root section. a = g + l =0 ) r l =0 For any section, for example at tip section: a ) t = g ) t + l=0 ) r l=0 ) t l=0 ; Angle of attack for zero-lift line
i ; Wing angle of incidence, (angle of wing section), the angle between the root chord and the airplane reference axis (axis passes from tail to nose).
C ; MAC, mean aerodynamic chord, the chord of an equivalent untwisted, unwept and non-tapered wing, for which the total lift and pitching moment are essentially equal to the lift and pitching moment on the actual wing.

3.4. Determination of (MAC):

*Analytical method: b/2 2 C = C 2 dy S 0

2 Cydy S 0 For straight taper wing: 2 1 + + 2 C = Cr 3 1+ b 1 + 2 y= * 2 3(1 + ) ;y = *Graphical method: (see figure 2). At root side draw ( C t ) at each side, and at tip draw ( C r ) at each side. The

b/2

Figure (2): graphical method

interception point of diagonals indicates the position of ( C ) and ( y ). *For (rectangular & trapezoidal) wing: 1. Determine (MAC) of the rectangular and taper portions separately, ( C1 & C2 ). 2. determine the areas ( A1 & A 2 ) as follow (see figure 2 ):

For rectangular A1 = a 1 C1 For trapezoidal A 2 = a 2 C2 C1A1 + C2 A 2 A1 + A 2 y A + y2A2 y= 1 1 A1 + A 2 C= y= y1A1 + y 2 A 2 A1 + A 2

a/c nose

x1

x2

Cr

Ct

y1

a1

a2

y2

Figure (3): multi-area method 5

*Elliptical wing (see figure 3):

1. Divided the wing into (n) umber of strips of equal width. ( y ). 2. Measure the mean chord of each strip ( C i ) and the distance ( y i ) from this mean chord to the airplane center line. 3. Prepare a table as shown below (Table 1).

a/c nose

xi

Ci

yi
b/ 2

4.

(C 2 ) ( yC) C= ;y = ( C) ( C)

;x =

(xC) ( C)
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1 Strip number 1

2 Strip chord C1

3 2 2
2 C1

Figure method for irregular wing area 4 (4): strips5 6 7

Distance to y1

2 4

y1C1 y 2C2 y 3C 3 . . . ( yC)

Distance to x1

x1C1 x 2C2 x 3C 3 . . . ( xC)

2 3 . . .

C2 C3 . . . ( C)

C2 2
2 C3 . . . (C 2 )

y2 y3 . . .

x2 x3 . . .

Table (1): strips method

And finally figure (5) can be used to evaluate mean aerodynamic chord ( C ).

Figure (5): diagram for the mean aerodynamic chord of straight tapered wings with or without prismoidal inboard section.

3.5. How to evaluate wing size:

Wing loading ( w ) and aspect ration ( AR ) is chosen by comparison with similar a/c. The s wing loading for short range subsonic transporter lies in the range of (300 to 500 kg m 2 ). The weight of the a/c is gusted as first start from comparator a/c. then:SW = W

(w s )

( S W ) is in m 2 and then all other dimensions are evaluated. Taper ratio is assumed and thickness ratio is taken from NACA.

3.6. Airfoil section:

Requirements 1. The basic airfoil must have a low profile drag coefficient for the range of lift coefficients used in cruising flight. 2. For the inboard sections with flaps extended, the drag must be low in high lift condition, practically during take off and climb. 3. The tip section should have high maximum lift coefficient and gradual stalling characteristics. 4. The inboard wing sections should have high maximum lift with flaps extended. 5. The critical Mach number should be sufficiently high. 6. The pitching moment coefficient should be low. 7. The aerodynamic characteristics should not be extremely sensitive to manufacturing variations in the wing shape, contamination and dirtetc. 8. The wing sections should have the largest possible thickness ratio in the interest of low structure weight; a sufficient internal space must be provided for fuel tanks, main u.c., mechanical controlsetc.

Figure (5): geometric definitions of wing

Zero lift line: is a line passing through T.E. at angle ( L=0 ) with the direction of airflow. L=0 : It is an angle, if the airflow makes it with the chord line the lift becomes zero. a.c. : Aerodynamic center is appoint a bout which the pitching moment ( M a .c. ) is independent of angle of attack ( ), for design purpose, ( a.c. = 0.25 C ). For subsonic airfoils: t * Airfoil circumference = 2 * C 1 + 0.25 . c * Airfoil cross section area 0.68 * t * C .

3.7. High lift devices:

They are mechanical devices, which used mainly to increase lift coefficient during take off and landing stages. They are mainly flaps, which are positioned at T.E., and slats, which are positioned at L.E. see table (2).

Table (2a) some flaps and slats configuration. 9

Table (2b) some airfoil characteristics.

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From figure (6), the beneficial of using high lift devices is obvious, ( C l ) is increment of lift coefficient due to T.E. flaps only, while dashed line is due to L.E. flaps or slats. The upper curve shows the effect of T.E. and L.E. high lift devices. Figure (6): the effect of leading edge slat, flap and trailing edge flap upon lift and angle of basic wing section.

3.8. Airfoil section coding:

Many airfoil sections were designed in many countries with their own coding. NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) in USA grouped these sections in rational families and series. NASA (National Aerodynamic and a Space Administration) is responsible now. 1. 4- digit series, (for slower a/c): Ex. NACA 4415 - 34 (4) The maximum camber ( y c ) value is at ( 0.04 C ). (4) The position of maximum camber is at ( 0.4 C ). (15) Section maximum thickness is ( 0.15 C ). (3) Magnitude of leading edge radius, (6 is normal, 0 is sharp). (4) The position of maximum thickness is ( 0.4 C ). 2. 5- digit series, (for slower a/c): Ex. NACA 23015 (2) Design lift coefficient is of magnitude ( 2

* 3 = 0.3 ). 10 2 (30) The position of maximum camber is at ( 30 * 1 * C = 0.15 C ). 100 2

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(12) Section maximum thickness is ( 0.12 C ). The design lift coefficient is the theoretical ( C l ) for the airfoil when ( ) is such that the slope of mean camber line at the L.E. is parallel to the free air stream velocity. 6- digit series, (for slower a/c, laminar-flow wing sections): Ex. NACA 63 - 412 (this is 5-digit airfoil in 6-digit series). (6) 6-digit series. (3) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( 0.3 C ). (4) Favorable lift coefficient (designed) is ( 0.4 ). (12) Section thickness ratio is ( 0.12 C ). Ex. NACA 65, 3 - 218 (6) 6-digit series. (5) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( 0.5 C ). (3) Favorable lift coefficient range is ( 0.3 ) above and below the design lift coefficient where favorable pressure gradients exist on both surfaces. (2) Design lift coefficient is ( 0.2 ). (18) Section thickness ratio is( 0.18 ).
Ex. NACA 64A - 215 (6) 6-digit series. (4) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( 0.4 C ). (A) Section is straight on both surfaces from about ( 0.8 C ) to the T.E. (2) Design lift coefficient is ( 0.2 ). (15) Section thickness ratio is( 0.15 ). Ex. NACA 64 2 - 215 (6) 6-digit series. (4) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( 0.4 C ). () Section has cusped T.E. (without A). ( .2 ) low drag range is ( 0.3 ) above and below lift coefficient ( 0.2 ). (2) Design lift coefficient is ( 0.2 ). (15) Section thickness ratio is ( 0.15 ).

3.

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Ex. NACA 64A - 215 (6) 6-digit series. (4) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( 0.4 C ). (A) Section is straight on both surfaces from about ( 0.8 C ) to the T.E. (2) Design lift coefficient is ( 0.2 ). (15) Section thickness ratio is ( 0.15 ).

4.

7- digit series: Ex. NACA 747A - 315 . (6) 7-digit series. (4) Extent of region of favorable pressure gradient over upper surface from ( 0.4 C ) of L.E. at the design lift coefficient. (7) Extent of region of favorable pressure gradient over upper surface from ( 0.7 C ) of L.E. at the design lift coefficient. (A) Section is straight on both surfaces from about ( 0.8 C ) to the T.E. (3) Design lift coefficient is ( 0.3 ). (15) Section thickness ratio is ( 0.15 ).

3.9. Wing aerodynamic characteristics:

:

How to start: The weight of the a/c and wing loading are usually given. The aspect ratio and taper ratio must be assumed or given. Wing area, wing-span, standard mean chord, mean aerodynamic chordetc, must be evaluated. 3-D wing drawing should be done where all dimensions were indicated clearly. This procedure is valid for horizontal and vertical tail planes. Evaluation lift curve for unflapped wing: 1. 2. Chose suitable airfoil, NACA ( 632 615 ). Determine slope of lift curve for wing section,( a o ), for two dimension in compressible flow, for standard roughness and ( Re = 6 10 6 ), as follow: Take a straight portion of the lift curve, see figure (7). C l = 1.05

= 10 o

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ao =

C l 1.05 = = 0.105 per deg . 10 = 0.105 57.3 = 6.0165 per rad.

3.

Determine ( a 1 ), lift curve for unfflaped wing for sub-sonic aircraft at low Mach no.: 1 1 = + (1 + )K a 1 a o cos e K : Factor from sheet W 01.01.01 , upper curve. : = = = W 01.01.01 , upper curve. 0.25 tan e = tan 0.25 45.AR.(1 + ) Determine ( a 1,M ), lift curve for unfflaped wing for sub-sonic aircraft at high Mach, but below the critical Mach no.:

4.

1 a 1,M a o ,M

1 + (1 + )K a o,M cos e a ao = o = e 1 M 2 cos 2 e =

0.25 : Sweep back of quarter chord line. M : Mach number. ao : slope of lift curve of airfoil section in 2-D, incompressible flow, at low Mach no. a o,M : slope of lift curve of airfoil section in 2-D, incompressible flow, at high Mach, but below the critical Mach no. which is ( M cos e ). K : Aspect ratio correction factor. : Taper ratio correction factor. : Prandtl-Glauert factor, 1 M 2 cos 2 e . e e : Effective sweep back in degree.

Ex. A straight rectangular wing, (aspect ratio = 7.3), M < 0.2, a o = 0.105 per deg . Find wing lift curve slope. a o = 0.105 * 57.3 = 6.0165 per rad. 0.25 = 0.0 : For straight wing ( = 0 ). = 1.0 : for rectangular wing. AR = 7.3 . From sheet W 01.01.01 K = 0.04 .
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Since ( M < 0.2 a o,M = a o = 6.0165 per rad ).

AR 7.3 = = 1.21233 from sheet W 01.01.01 = 0.19 a o ,M cos e 6.0165 * 1 1 1 = + (1.0 + 0.19 ) * 0.4 = 0.21381 a 1 = 4.677 / rad a 1 = 0.082 / deg a 1 6.0165 * 1 5. lift curve slope can be evaluated also as flow: ao a1 = f per rad . ao E+ AR f : Correction factor for wing taper 0.995 . planform semiperimeter E : June's edge velocity factor wing span 2 For straight tapered wing, E = AR (1 + ) For the previous ex.: 2 * 1.0 E =1+ = 1.137 7.3 * (1 + 1.0) 6.0165 a 1 = 0.995 = 4.278 / rad 6.0165 1.137 + * 7.3 The value from this method is not far away from the previous value, 4.677 / rad.

For subsonic high Mach no. 1 2 a1 = 2 2 2 1 + + AR AR k 2 cos 2 tan 1 a 2 tan = ; k= o 2

; = 1 M2

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16

3.1. How to draw wing lift cure:

Usually wing section lift curve is available from NACA sheets, while lift cure for a wing, as 3-D object, is not available and should be evaluated during design stage. This lift curve is evaluated by aerodynamic wing testing in a wind tunnel. For preliminary test stage there are many simple ways to draw such curve without wind tunnel testing. The following procedure can be used: 1. since lift curve slope ( a1 ) is known and ( ) is the same, then: i. C L = a1 = 10 0.082 = 0.82 . ii. Zero lift angle ( L =0 ) does not change with aspect ratio, and from figure (7b) its value ( L =0 = 5.0 deg ). iii. Draw a straight line, from point (O) at ( = 5O ), with slope ( aO = 0.105 ). Extend this line until it will intercept line ( C L = C l ,Max ). For our example NACA 63 2 615 , C l ,max = 1.4 . The point interception is ( A ). iv. Measure the distance between ( A ) and ( A ), peak point on origin lift curve along line ( C L = C l ,Max ). The distance is ( AA = 4 O ). 2. Maximum wing lift curve ( C L,Max ) variation due to surface roughness and Reynolds number ( Re ) influence is calculated. Smooth roughness i. Choose surface roughness (standard surface roughness) CL,Max Standard roughness and Reynolds number value c 6 1.66 at take off ( Re = 2 10 ). b ii. From origin NACA 63 2 615 1.58 a sheet, the following data is 1.46 d available. 1.40 For smooth roughness
Re = 9 10 6 C l , Max = 1.66 Re = 6 10 6 C l , Max = 1.58 Re = 3 10 6 C l , Max = 1.466

1.25

For standard roughness

Re = 6 10 C l, Max = 1.40
6

2 3

Re 106

Figure (7a): Reynolds number-Lift curve relation

iii.

iv.

Draw the relation ship between ( C L ,Max ) and ( Re ), the relation is assumed linear. For smooth roughness there are three points. For standard roughness there is one point. So the second line is drawn from point (d) parallel to the firs line. At ( Re = 2 10 6 ) for standard roughness, the actual maximum lift coefficient is then ( C L,Max = 1.25 ).

17

3. From point (O) with slope ( a1 = 0.082 ) draw a straight line till it intersect line ( C L ,Max = 1.25 ) at ( B ). Then from point ( B ) move to the left a distance ( 4 deg ) a long line ( C L,Max = 1.25 ) to point ( B ). 4. Copy the curved portion between ( A & A ) for the origin curved, on the new curve between ( B & B ). NACA 63 615
2

Sandard roughness
1.5
Lift coeff . CL

C L , Max = 1.4

A B

Re = 6 10 6
A

C L , Max = 1.4

4O
B

1.05

0.5

0.82

-5

10

15 20 Angle of attak, O

Figure (7b): Wing & Airfoil characteristics.

18

3.11. Lift coefficient increment due to T.E. flaps:

1. Determine lift coefficient increment due to split flap. The following formula can be used, see figure (8):
CL = f ( AR) 1 2 3 f (6)

f ( AR) : A parameter which is a function of aspect ratio. f (6) : A parameter which is a function of ( AR = 6 ). 1 : Correction factor depends on ( C f C ).

: Correction factor depends on ( o ). : Correction factor depends on ( b f b ). Cf : Flap mean chord. bf : Flap span. : flap deflection angle in degree. The parameters ( C f , b f & ) are laid down (chosen) by the designer. Ex. A rectangular wing has a split flap, where AR = 9 , C f C = 0.25 , t c = 0.12 , b f b = 0.6 and = 40 deg , find the increment in the lift coefficient. i. From figure (8a) with AR = 9 , f ( AR) f (6) = 1.1 . ii. From figure (8b) with C f C = 0.25 , 1 = 0.65 . iii. From figure (8c) with = 40 deg , 2 = 1.25 . iv. From figure (8c) with b f b = 0.6 , 3 = 0.65 .
2 3
C L =
f ( AR) 1 2 3 f (6) = 1.1 0.65 1.25 0.65 = 0.581

19

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

f (A ) f (6)

8b
0.3 0.2

8a

0.1 0 0 0.25 0.5

Flap chord Cf Wing chord C

0.75 1

0.1 0 0 3 6

AR , Aspect ratio
9 12

2.5

t c

0.30

0.9 0.8

15 14 12 11

0.21
2

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

0.18 0.15 0.12

1.5

, Taper ratio

0.3

8d
0.2 0.5 0.1 0 0 0.25 0.5

8c
Flap span b f Wing span b
0.75 1

in degree. Flap angle,

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Figure (8): correction factors for split flap

20

Determine lift coefficient increment due to slotted flap. For full span slotted flap the following formula is used.
C a C L , N C C L = C L + 1 C a C L C 6

Where: C : extended wing cord. a : Wing aspect ratio. a6 : Standard aspect ratio which is (6). : lift coefficient increment based on extended wing chord C and standard C L aspect ratio (6). C L , N : lift coefficient of the actual wing where flaps are at neutral position. At each angle of a take ( ), there is a certain value for ( C L , N ).

2. Determine lift coefficient increment due to double slotted flap. Usually one is main flap and the other is auxiliary. The data is applicable to slotted or split auxiliary flap with the deflection of the main not less than ( 10 deg ). This data does not apply to flaps having in them selves a fixed slot or some similar arrangement. For obtaining the lift coefficient increment due to a double slotted flap, contributions of the main flap and the auxiliary flap are estimated separately, using the dotted curves in the upper set of curves of data sheet ( F 01.01.08 ) for obtaining the lift coefficient increment due to the main flap and the curves of data sheet ( F 01.01.09 ) for obtaining the contribution of the auxiliary flap.
C L = C L ,T C a C + C L , N 1 C a6 C + C L ,A = C L

C L ,T

Where: C L , N : lift coefficient of the actual wing at the chosen incidence with main flap and auxiliary at neutral position. : lift coefficient increment due to full span main flap with ( f , A = 0 ), based on C L extended wing chord and aspect ratio ( AR = 6 ), see data sheet ( F 01.01.08 ). , A : lift coefficient increment due to full span auxiliary flap based on extended wing C L chord C and standard aspect ratio (6). C L ,T : lift coefficient lift coefficient increment due to full span double slotted flap. C L : lift coefficient increment due to full span double flap with the wing at the chosen incidence, based on wing chord and aspect ratio of the wing.

21

Ex: Find lift coefficient increment due to a fixed hinge full span slotted flap having the following data:
c f = 2.4 ft., f = 45 O , C = 9.5 ft, C = 10.2 ft, a 6 a = 1.065 and C L , N = 1.10

Sol.
cf

= C

2.4

10.2

= 0.235

CL = 0.90 C = 10.2 = 1.074 C 9.5 a 6 1.10 C L,N (1.065) = 1.15 a = C 0.90 L C a , C C = 1.074 and L , N C 6 a = 1.15 ), lower curves (figure 9b) at F 01.01.08 From sheet ( L

From sheet ( F 01.01.08 ), upper curves (figure 9a) at c f C = 0.235 & f = 45O , then:

then:
C L a 6 = 1.16 a C L C L = CL a 1.16 a6 C L = 0.90 1 1.16 = 0.98 1.1065

Note: For the same data the optimum Cl that can be obtained is ( 0.98 ) at ( f 55 deg ), see sheet ( F 01.01.08 ), upper curve, then:
a 6 CL,N = 1.20 C L a

And from lower curves

C L a 6 a C L = 1.15 C = 1.06 L

22

Figure (9a): lift coefficient increment due to full span slotted flaps.

Figure (9b): lift coefficient increment due to full span slotted flaps.

23

Figure (10): lift coefficient increment due to auxiliary flap for full span double slotted flaps. The main flap is slotted.

24

Table (3a) wing design data

25

Table (3b) wing design data

26

Figure (11)

27

11

14

12 12 11 11

28

13

29

14

3.12. Wing weight

Some of the non-optimum weight penalties in wing arise from joints, non-tapered skins, U.C. attachment, fairing etc. The following simplified expression can be used for general a/c with AL-alloy cantilever wings. It is valid for the case of wing mounted retractable U.C., but not for wing mounted engine:
Ww b ref 0.75 = K w bs 1 + Wgross bs bs t r 0.55 n alt Wgross S w
0.3

Wgross : Gross weight, maximum take off weight.

Kw

: Factor for proportionality, for transport a/c = 6.67 10 3 if Wgross 5670 kg = 4.90 10 3 if Wgross 5670 kg

bs b ref tr

: Structural wing span = b cos ( 0.5 ) : Reference span = 1.905 m : Maximum thickness of root chord.

The weight given by this equation includes the weight of high lift devices and ailerons. If spoilers and speed brakes are used, added ( 0.0.2 Wgross ). Reduce ( 0.05 Wgross ) for two wing mounted engines. Reduce ( 0.10 Wgross ) for four wing mounted engines. Reduce ( 0.05 Wgross ) if U.C. is not wing mounted. It can be seen from this equation that the wing structure weight decreases with increasing wing loading ( Wgross S ), and this is the reason why all transport aircraft has been designed with large wing loading, i.e. relatively small wing area for given all up weight.
30

Tail Design
Tail surface functions are: 1. To ensure equilibrium of moments I steady state flight by exercising a force at a
given distance from the center of gravity. 2. To ensure stable equilibrium, so after disturbance the equilibrium must be restored with an adequate damping.

3. To generate forces for maneuvering the aircraft. Type of surface controlling system: 1. Manual, direct mechanical transmission. The stick forces increase with size, EAS and load factor. 2. Power assisted controls, by means of pneumatic or hydraulic ram which exerts the multiple of the force applied by the pilot (boost ratio). 3. Power operated controls, in these systems the control surfaces are moved by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic means without direct physical effort by the pilot. Horizontal tail plane:
The design of tail pane is always an iterative process. After initial choice of a certain shape parameters such as aspect ratio, thickness ratio, taper ratioetc. The next stage is to choice the type of aerodynamic balance, whether the stabilizer will be fixed or adjustable and the type of control system, which is more difficult and more data needed. After these decisions have been taken a bout the previous assumptions, the tail plane shape or even the wing location will have to be revised. When designing tail plane, one should consider horizontal tail plane volume instead of tail area and so tail distance is evaluated. Bigger tail volume gives greater airplane stability. Large c.g. movement needs large tail plane, vice verse. Transport a/c needs large tail plane and seat arrangement. Horizontal tail plane volume is defined as: S .l VH = H H . (1) S wing .C
S H : Horizontal tail plane area. Swing : Wing area.
1

lH C

: Distance from aircraft c.g. to horizontal tail a.c. : Standard mean chord.

In the above formula, tail volume is related to wing area and to the SMC which has great importance on the airplane longitudinal stability and control. In table (1) a variety of horizontal tail volumes for many airplanes in service. ( VH ) is assumed and since ( l H ) is known from layout, then ( S H ) is evaluated and as aspect ratio is assumed then all other dimensions are computed. Horizontal tail usually uses symmetrical airfoils.

Vertical tail plane:

The design of vertical; tail plane is more complicated than that of the horizontal tail plane. The following requirements are necessary: 1. The vertical plane must not stall as a result of an oscillation after deflection of the rudder or sudden engine failure. 2. Multi-engines a/c must remain controllable to ensure steady flight if an engine failed. 3. It should be possible to land transport a/c in cross wind up to ( 55 k m h ). 4. The a/c must possess good directional and lateral static stability. 5. In small a/c, recovery from spin must be possible and rudder must be effective even art large angle of attack. Vertical tail plane volume is defined as: S .l VV = V V (2) Swing .b
SV : Vertical tail plane area. Swing : Wing area.

: Distance from aircraft c.g. to V. tail a.c. : Wing span. Here vertical tail is related to wing span which has a great significance on directional stability and control. ( VV ) is assumed, see table (2), by comparison with similar airplanes that in service. Vertical tail always uses symmetrical airfoils.

lV b

Tail surface configuration: 1. Group A: single fin with horizontal tail (or stabilizer) mounted either on the fuselage or on the fin structure. It is simple and stiff. For high wing location a T- tail is desirable to prevent tail fluttering due to a wake behind the wing.
2

2.

Group B: twin fins may used to minimize rolling moment due to large distance from fin a.c. to a/c longitudinal axis, for single large fin. It is also a good choice when a twin tail booms are used.
Group C: Vee (or butterfly) tail which is adopted for sailplanes and some times on powered a/c to keep the tail surfaces clear of jet efflux. It has the following advantage: Less drag interference. Fewer tendencies toward rudder lock. Fewer surfaces to manufacture. High location of surfaces which reduce possibilities of tail buffeting due to wakes. And it has the following disadvantage: More complicating operating system. Possible of interaction of elevator and rudder action. Not popular.
S Vee = S H + S V
Figure (2): Butterfly tail plane configuration

3.

Figure (1): Some tail plane configurations

Tail group weight:

This weight constitutes a small part of a/c weight which is a bout ( 2 to 3% ) of MTOW. But as it has a remote location from c.g, it has appreciable effect on the position of the a/c c.g. Accurate weight prediction is difficult due to the wide variety of tail plane configurations adopted and the limited knowledge of strength stiffness and other
3

conditions that controls the design, for example some highly maneuverable aircrafts ( F 14, F 15, F 18..., MIG 25, MIG 29, MIG 31.., SU 35, SU 37... ) need twin fins, which increase tail group weight. For relatively low speed, light a/c, the maneuvering loads are most important and the specific tail weight is affected by the load factor as follow:
Wtail = K wt n wt .S 2 tail K wt : Constant =0.64

0.75

( S tail & Wtail ) are in ( m 2 & kg ) respectively. If the tail plane area is not known, the total tail plane weight may be assumed between ( 3.5 to 4.0 % ) of the empty weight. For transport category a/c and executive jets, the design dive speed appears to have a dominate effect as in the figure ( ).
VD : Design dive (maximum) speed in ( m s ) which is expressed in terms of ( EAS). : Swept back angle for tail plane. k H , k V : Correction factors.

( k H = 1.0 ) for fixed stabilizers, (convention type). ( k H = 1.1 ) for variable incidence stabilizers, (movable tail). ( k V = 1.0 ) For fuselage mounted stabilizers.
Figure (3): Normalized specific horizontal and vertical tail plane weights

S .h ( k V = 1.0 + 0.15 H H ) For fin mounted stabilizers. SV .b V

h H : Height of horizontal tail plane above fin root. b V b f : fin height, see figure (4).

Figure (4): Tail plane dimensions 5