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1. Introduction
Dhamma-Vinaya was the Buddha's own name for the religion he founded. Dhamma--the truth--is what he discovered and pointed out as advice for all who want to gain release from suffering. Vinaya--disciplineis what he formulated as rules, ideals and standards of behavior for those of his followers who went forth from home life to take up the quest for release in greater earnestness. In establishing his religion of release, though, the Buddha did not simply set out a body of recommendations and rules. He also founded a company (parisa) of followers. This company falls into four main groups: bhikkhus (monks), bhikkhunis (nuns), laymen and laywomen. Although the Buddha saw no need to organize the laity in any manner, he arranged for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis--who had given up the entanglements of the household life to devote themselves more fully to the goal of release--to develop into communities; and saw that they needed, as all communities do, ideals and standards, rules and customs to ensure their stability. This need is what gave rise to the Vinaya.

2. The origin of the community

The Order of Buddhism is called Sangha1 this word originally meant 'group', implying 'republic' in the political sense and 'guild' in the economical sense of the word. Owing to various personal reasons disciples of the Buddha took order.2 Buddhist texts say that the Buddha first established the Community of monks; later, apparently with reluctance and after the intercession of his faithful companion Ananda, he granted the wish of his aunt and foster mother

1 2

Akira Hirakawa, The Twofold Structure of the Buddhist Sangha, JOI. vol. XV, No.2, Dec. 1966, 131-137. Hajime Nakamura: Daily Life ethics of early Buddhism, Tokyo, Shunjiisha, 1972, 10+508+22 pp.

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MahapajapatI and established the Community of nuns. The Buddha and his disciples are said to have been one of a number of groups of religious mendicants in ancient India. 3 The word sahgha, which literally means a crowd or gathering, came to refer specifically to the Community of monks and nuns in the terminology of Theravada monasticism. In Pali texts the term sahgha does not include lay-followers; these are included in the expression cattro paris, "the fourfold assembly": bhikkhu (monks), bhikkhuni (nuns), updsaka and updsika (male and female lay followers). The monastic Community is made up of two groups: bhikkhu-sahgha (the order of monks) and bhikkhuni-sahgha (the order of nuns); together they are called ubhatosahgha, "the twofold community"4 To refer to the entire Community, in any and every place, another term is used: catuddisa bhikkhusahgha, "the Community of the four quarters." This phrase is found in the Vinaya texts and in ancient inscriptions, to symbolize the Community's common spirit and common ownership of property5. According to the Pali Canon, the monastic Community was first established in Benares, in the Deer Park, after the first discourse of the Buddha to the five ascetics, Kondanna, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahanama and Assaji.6

3. Introduction of Pli Tripiaka

Pli Tripitaka means three baskets. Tripitaka is the Sanskrit word. Basically The Buddhas word is known as Dhamma. The doctrines preserved in the scriptures are called tripitaka. There are versions of triptiaka adopted by three schools in the world today. Those are Pli tripitaka of Theravda tradition, Chinese tripitaka of Mahyna tradition and Tibetan tripitaka in Tibetan
3 4

Wijayaratna1 Dakkhivibhaga sutta, M III 255 5 Wijayaratna,p1 6 Vin I 12

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Language called Kagyur (translation of Sanskrit text and four great Tantras) and Tangyur (works of Indian and Tibetan scholars). Here we pay attention only for the Tripitaka of Theravda tradition. According to the Theravda tradition Pli tripitaka is the original sources and others are later compositions. According to Venerable Saydaw U Thittila7 the versions of the Pli Canon existing in Theravada countries such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos differ very slightly, with only a few minor grammatical forms and spellings. In substance and meaning and even the phrases used, they are in complete agreement. The Pli Tipitaka contains everything necessary to show forth the Path to the ultimate goal of nibbana, the cessation of all suffering. According to A.K. Warder8 although Mahyna claimed to have been founded by the Buddha himself, scholars consensus of the evidence is that Mahyana teachings come from South India somewhere in Andhra Pradesh during the 1st century AD. Several of Mahyna leading teachers were born in South India, studied there and later went to the North to teach, one of them was Ngarjuna. The idea that the sutras had been confined to the South was a convenient way for Mahayanists to explain to Buddhists in the North why it was that they had not heard these texts directly from their own teachers, without admitting that they were later inventions. The three baskets are named: Basket of Discipline ( Vinaya Pitaka ), which deals with the rules and regulations laid down by the Buddha for the monks and nuns; : Basket of Discourses ( Sutta Pitaka ) which contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha in various places; Basket

Chapter One Origin and Expansion of Buddhism by Ven. J.Kashyap. Chapter Two The Fundamental Principles of Theravada Buddhism by Ven. Sayadaw U Thittila. The Path of the Buddha editedby Kenneth W.Morgan. Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1986. 8 Warder. A. K, Indian Buddhism (Chapters One & Ten), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi2000.

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of Ultimate Things ( Abhidhamma Pitaka ) which consists of the higher and special doctrine delivered by the Buddha.

4. Structure of Vinaya Pitaka

The first one of the Tripitaka is Vinaya pitaka or basket of Discipline. It deals with the rules and regulations promulgated by the Buddha for the monks and nuns in their daily life. The Vinaya Pitaka really means a basket containing manuscripts of Vinaya or the rules of discipline. It contains rules and regulations for the management of the Buddhist Samgha, and for the conduct of the daily life of monks and nuns. These rules are supposed to have been laid down by the Buddha himself as occasion necessitated their promulgation. 9 It has five books and grouped into three divisions. 1. Prjikapli 2. Pcittiyapli suttavibhaga - Division of rules

3. Mahvaggapli 4. Cullavggapli khandaka - Sections

5. Parivrapli

parivra Accessory

When the Buddha first established the Sangha, the community initially lived in harmony without any codified rules of conduct. As the Sangha gradually grew in number and evolved into a more complex society, occasions inevitably arose when a member would act in an unskillful way. Whenever one of these cases was brought to the Buddha's attention, he would lay down a
9

Bimala Churn Law. A HISTORY OF PALI LITERATURE. Printed in India, New Delhi, 1933, p.67

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rule establishing a suitable punishment for the offense, as a deterrent to future misconduct. The Buddha's standard reprimand was itself a powerful corrective: It is not fit, foolish man, it is not becoming, it is not proper, it is unworthy of a recluse, it is not lawful, it ought not to be done. How could you, foolish man, have gone forth under this Dhamma and Discipline which are well-taught, [commit such and such offense]? It is not, foolish man, for the benefit of un-believers, nor for the increase in the number of believers, but, foolish man, it is to the detriment of both unbelievers and believers, and it causes wavering in some. 10 4.1 Ptimokkha The meaning of the term patimokkha is a matter of conjecture. According to the Mahavagga, it means "the beginning, the head (or entrance--mukha), the foremost (pamukha) of wholesome qualities."11The term serves as the name not only of the basic code of training rules, but also of a sermon in which the Buddha enumerated the basic principles common to the teachings of all Buddhas: "The non-doing of all evil, the performance of what is wholesome, and the purification of one's heart: this is the Buddhas' message."12Thus whatever the etymology of the term patimokkha, it denotes a set of principles basic to the practice of the religion. The rules followed by monks or nuns are collected in a genre of literature called the Ptimokkha Stta. The Suttavibhanga is based on the Ptimokkha. This is very probably one of the oldest texts, containing the formulary for the ceremony of confession, as it was performed on Uposatha-days in the monastic orders. The Suttavibhanga is a commentary on this text.13

10 11

Horner. I.B, The Book of the Discipline, Part I, London: Pali Text Society, 1982, pp. 36-37. Mv.II.3.4 12 Dhp.183 13 Wilhelm Geiger, Pali Literature and Language, translated by Batakrishna Ghosh (1942), p.15.

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The basic code of training rules for bhikkhus, in its Pali recension, contains 227 rules, divided into eight sections in accordance with the penalty assigned by each rule: parajika, defeat; sanghadisesa, formal meeting; aniyata, undetermined; nissaggiya pacittiya, forfeiture and confession; pacittiya, confession; patidesaniya, acknowledgement; sekhiya, training; and adhikarana-samatha, settlement of issues. The following chapters will discuss the precise meanings of these terms. 4.2 Suttavibhanga The word sutta (sutra in Sanskrit) is a very ancient literary term in India. The literary meaning is thread, and it is applied to a kind of book the contents of which are, as it were, a thread, giving the gist of substance of more than is expressed in them in words. 14 According to Buddhism sutta means a discourse, a chapter or a small part of a sacred book. In the Vinaya pitaka suttavibhanga means rules and regulations of the order which is called Ptimokka (Bhikku and Bhikkhuni). Sutta vibhanga explains all the disciplinary rules recorded in the Ptimokkha. Therefore Suttavibhanga is a commentary on the Patimokkha-sutta ("Obligatory Rules") of the Vinayapitaka. It is one of the oldest parts of the Pali canon. It consists of two parts, (the Bhikkhu-patimokkha ("Rules for Monks") and the Bhikkhuni- patimokkha ("Rules for Nuns"). Suttavibhanga is divided into two books called Prjikapli and Pcittiyapli. The Suttavibhliga "tells us firstly how and when and why the particular rule in question came to be laid down. This historical introduction always closes with the words of the rule in full. The SuttavibhaIiga lays down and explains all the rules which are contained in the Patimokkha.

14

Bimala Churn Law. A HISTORY OF PALI LITERATURE. Printed in India, New Delhi, 1933, p.69

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4.2.1 Prjikapli Prjikapli which is first Book of the Vinaya Pitaka gives an elaborate explanation of the important disciplinary rules concerning Prjika and Sanghdisesa, as well as Aniyata and Nissaggiya which are minor offences. 4.2.2 Pcittiyapli The Pcittiya Pli which is second Book of the Vinaya Pitaka deals with the remaining sets of rules for the bhikkhus, namely, the Pcittiya, the Pidesanya, Sekhiya, Adhikaranasamatha and the corresponding disciplinary rules for the bhikkhunis. Although it is called in Pali just Pacittiya, it has the distinctive name of 'Suddha Pacittiya', ordinary Pcittiya, to distinguish it from Nissaggiya Pcittiya, described above. 4.3 Khandaka The second section of the vinaya pitaka is Khandaka. It is also sub-divided into two parts. 4.3.1 Mahvaggapli The third book of the Vinaya pitaka is Mahvagga (great section). It is divided into ten Khandakas (chapters) namely, Mahkkhandhaka, Uposathakkhandhaka,

Vasspanyikakkhandhaka, Pavranakkhandhaka, cammakkhandhaka, Bhesajjahkkhandaka, kathinakkhandhaka, Cvarakkhandhaka, Campeyyakkhandhaka, Kosambakkhandaka. It gives an historical account of Buddhas enlightenment. His first sermon of Dhammachakkappavattana sutta to five disciples and joining his great disciples to the order etc. It also included How he began to stabilize the order, the rules for ordination, for reciting the Ptimokkha during uposatha days, and various procedures that monks are to perform during formal gatherings of the

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community, observing the rains retreat (vassa) and Kathina ceremony where annual making and offering of robes take place.etc. 4.3.2 Cullavagapli The fourth book is Cullavagapli (minor section). It is also divided into twelve Khandakas (chapters) namely, (1) Kammakkhandhaka (Rules for dealing with offences that come before the Order), (2) Privsikakkhandhaka (Procedures for putting a Bhikkhu on probation), (3) Samuccayakkhandhaka (Procedures for dealing with accumulation of offences by a Bhikkhu), (4) Samathakkhandhaka (Rules for settling legal procedures in the Order), (5) Khuddakhavatthukkhandhaka (Miscellaneous rules for bathing, dress, etc.), (6) Sensanakkhandhaka (Rules for dwellings, furniture, lodging, etc.), (7) Sanghabhedhakkhandhaka (Rules for schisms), (8) Vatthakkhandhaka (duties of teachers and novices Samanera ), (9) Ptimokkhakkhandhaka (Rules for exclusion from the Patimokkha), (10) Bhikkhuikkhandhaka (Rules for the ordination and instruction of Bhikkhunis), (11) Pacasatikakkhandhaka (Account of the First Council, at Rajagaha), (12) sattasatikakkhandhaka (Account of the Second Council, at Vesli).

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4.4 Parivra The Parivra is the third section of vinaya pitaka and the fifth book. It contains summaries and classifications of the disciplinary rules. It is a later supplement. The Parivra could be considered as a manual for the above four books.

5. Seven Kinds of offence

The rules of discipline first laid down by the Buddha are called Mlapannatti (the root regulation); those supplemented later are known as Anupannatti. Together they are known as Sikkpadani, rules of discipline. The act of transgressing these rules of discipline, thereby incurring a penalty by the guilty bhikkhu, is called Apatti, which means reaching, committing.15According to monastic rules and offence ( patti) may be either major (garukpatti) or minor (lahukpatti). A major one, as a potential cause of schism, must be difference from all other ecclesiastical minor offences referred to in the canonical texts. In this regard Dr. Biswadeb Mukherji has pointed out; patti can therefor only mean the minor offences which are outside the scope of the seven types of major offences included in the Vinaya. 16 However U Ko Lay adduces in his book offences classified under seven categories.17 The offences for which penalties are laid down may be classified under seven categories depending on their nature. i. Prjika iii. Thullaccaya v. Ptidsanya
15 16

ii. Sanghdisesa iv. Pcittiya vi. Dukkata

U Ko Lay, Guide to Tipitaka, Selangor Buddhist Vipassana Meditation Society, Malaysia.1991. p,1 Journal of Research, Vishva-Bharati, Vol. 1, part 1, Vishva-Bharati Research Publication 1976-77. Article entitled The schismatic matters and the early Buddhist literature by Dr. Biswadeb Mukherji, p.93 17 U Ko Lay, Guide to Tipitaka, Selangor Buddhist Vipassana Meditation Society, Malaysia.1991. p,5

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vii. Dubbhsita An offence in the first category of offences, Prjika, is classified as a grave offence, garukpatti, which is irremediable, atekicch and entails the falling off of the offender from bhikkhuhood. An offence in the second category, Sanghdisesa, is also classified as a grave offence but it is remediable, satekicch. The offender is put on a probationary period of penance, during which he has to undertake certain difficult practices and after which he is rehabilitated by the Sangha assembly. The remaining five categories consist of light offences, lahukpatti, which are remediable and incur the penalty of having to confess the transgression to another bhikkhu. After carrying out the prescribed penalty, the bhikkhu transgressor becomes cleansed of the offence.18 5.1 Prjika The first section of rules presented in the Suttavibhanga includes the four prjikas. Prjika discipline consists of four sets of rules laid down to prevent four grave offences. Any transgressor of these rules is prohibited from becoming a Bhikkhu. In the language of Vinaya the prjika patti falls upon him. He automatically loses the status of a Bhikkhu, he is no longer recognized as a member of the community of Bhikkhus, and he is not permitted to become a bhikkhu again. 19 The four rules, in short, relate to four conditions of defeat in the effort to accomplish the object for which a Bhikkhu has entered the Order.20 The four prjika offences which lead to loss of status as a Bhikkhu are: (i) Sexual intercourse of any kind,
18 19

U Ko Lay, Guide to Tipitaka, Selangor Buddhist Vipassana Meditation Society, Malaysia.1991. p,2 U Ko Lay, Essence of Tipitaka.Vipassana Research Institute: India, 1998, p. 11 20 Bimala Churn Law. A HISTORY OF PALI LITERATURE. Printed in India, New Delhi, 1933, p.74

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(ii) Taking what is not given, (iii) Taking of human life or conspiring to do so, and (iv) Falsely claiming to have achieved a superior spiritual status. 5.2 Sanghdisesa The second section is comprised of thirteen sanghadisesa rules that refer to offences that require the offender to spend a period of penance before he can be reinstated by a formal act of the bhikkhu order. Five rules deal with minor sexual offences, two with properly constructing bhikku dwelling, two with bringing false accusations against fellow bhikkhus, two with causing dissension within the order, and two with insubordination. 21 5.3 Aniyata Aniyata means indefinite, uncertain.22The third section contains two undetermined (aniyata) cases in which an offender might be charged with the breaking of one or another of the rules in the disciplinary code, depending on the nature of the offence. Specifically, they refer to types of transgressions that can occur if a bhikkhu were to sit in a secluded or non-secluded place with a woman. 23 5.4 Nissaggiya Pcittiya The thirty nissaggiya pcittiya rules make up the fourth section and require expiation and forfeiture if transgressed. Although bhikkus were not permitted to have any personal

21

John C. Holot, Discipline: The canonical Buddhism of the vinayapitaka , Shri Jainendra Press, New Delhi, 1983, p,34 22 U Ko Lay, Guide to Tipitaka, Selangor Buddhist Vipassana Meditation Society, Malaysia.1991. p,7 23 Discipline: The canonical Buddhism of the vinayapitaka , p.35

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possessions, four requisites (a set of robes, a bowl, a bed, and medicine) were considered indispensable. These particular rules prevent the bhikkhu from obtaining outright possession of these requisites or any other article and serve as reminders that everything ultimately belong to the collective order.24 The penalty consists firstly of giving up the object in respect of which the offence has been committed. Then it is followed by confession of the breach of the rule, together with an undertaking not to repeat the same offence, to the sangha as a whole, or to a group of bhikkhus, or to an individual bhikkhu to whom the wrongfully acquired objects have been surrendered.25 5.5 Pcittiya The ninety-two pcittiya rules are included in the fifth section. The pcittiyas have the distinctive name of suddha pcittiya, ordinary pcittiya, to distinguish it from nissaggiya pacittiya, described above. They represent a miscellany of concerns intended to promote harmony among bhikkhus and to help the individual avoid leading a life of luxury that might distract him from progressing along the path. 26 5.6 Ptidesanya The sixth sets of rules, the ptidesanyas, are four precepts governing etiquette while making alms rounds. If one of them is broken, the offender need only confess his wrong-doing. 27

24 25

Discipline: The canonical Buddhism of the vinayapitaka , p.35 U Ko Lay, Guide to Tipitaka, Selangor Buddhist Vipassana Meditation Society, Malaysia.1991. p,7 26 Discipline: The canonical Buddhism of the vinayapitaka , p.35 27 Ibid., p.35

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5.7 Skhiya The seventh section of rules referred to as the skhiyas are the most minor in nature; although, as we shall see, they sparked a grand controversy in early Buddhist history. 28 The rules can be divided into four groups. The first group of twenty-six rules is concerned with good conduct and behavior when going into towns and villages. The second group of thirty rules deals with polite manners when accepting alms-food and when eating meals. The third group of sixteen rules contains rule which prohibit teaching of the Dhamma to disrespectful people. The fourth group of three rules relates to unbecoming ways of answering the calls of nature and of spitting. 29 5.8 Adhikaranasamatha The last classification within the Suttavibhanga does not really contain Ptimokkha disciplinary rules per se. it consists of seven ways to settle disputes. No stories preface these declarations, no definitions or elaborations are provided; they are simply listed.

6. Differences the number of the Vinaya rules among the Buddhist sects
The number of the vinaya rules shown in the text belonging to different schools is of the greatest significance to the students of Buddhist history. It indicates unmistakably the comparative antiquity of the texts as well as the line of development followed by each school.30Before dealing with the exact figures taken from the various works, it would be appropriate to make inquiries with regard to the numeracy reference found in the Canonical literature other than the Vinaya-Pitaka.

28 29

Ibid., p.35 U Ko Lay, Guide to Tipitaka, Selangor Buddhist Vipassana Meditation Society, Malaysia.1991. p,10 30 Pachow. W, A Comparative Study of the Prtimoksa: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: Delhi. 2000. p,8

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One record found in the Pli Nikya cited in the Milindapanha, Diyaddhesu sikkhpadasatesu samdya 31 The Pli gives 150 rules, whereas the Samyuktgama-Sutras, Atha kho annataro Vajjiputtak Bhikkhu yena Bhagava tenupasankami.ekamantam nisinno kho so Vajjiputtako bhikkhu Bhagavantam etad avoca: Sdhikam idam bhante diyaddhasikkhpadasatam anvaddhamsam uddesam gacchati nham bhante etha sakkomi sikkhitum ti. Once the Blessed One was staying in the village of the Vajjians and the venerable Vajjiputta was attending upon him. Now, the venerable Vajjiputta went to the place where the Lord Buddha was. Having saluted him with his head touching the feet, he stood on one side and said. O blessed one, The Lord Buddha has laid down more than 150 rules, Lord, I am not able to learn according to the rules The word sdhikam in the Pli version is very significant here, because it indicates that Ptimokkha is something more than 150. We know that the actual number in the text is 227. That is to say this something more means actually 77 rules! We are tempted to believe, that this is attributable to the role of the Saiksa Dharms, because their sum total is 75 in the Pli version. 32 When we compare the number of content of the disciplinary rules as they have survived in various recension of the Patimokkha Sutta, we notice a striking absence of dissimilarity. Very

31

Milindapanha, vol. 1, p. 232. In passing, is it possible to maintain, that the word diyaddha was also interpreted in the sense 2 instead 1? 32 Pachow. W. A Comparative Study of the Prtimoksa: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: Delhi. 2000, p,9

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few alterations in the disciplinary code were allowed by various schools of Buddhism despite the fact that schism came early in the history of the tradition.33 The disciplinary code according to extant versions of the Ptimokkha Sutta

School i Sarvastivda Mlasarvstivda Dharmaguptaka Mahssaka Pli Mahsngika 4 4 4 4 4 4

Rules Classified by the 8 Categories of offences ii 13 13 13 13 13 13 iii 2 2 2 2 2 2 iv 30 30 30 30 30 30 v 90 90 90 91 92 92 vi 4 4 4 4 4 4 vii 113 98 100 100 75 66 viii 7 7 7 7 7 7 total 263 248 250 251 227 218

This table34reflects a remarkable similarity in terms of the structure and content of these various versions of the Ptimokkha, and as such, allows us to make the observation that almost all of the disciplinary code had been universally accepted in Buddhism before the beginning of Buddhist sectarianism. 35 Thus we see that 263 rules in the Sarvstivada is the highest and 218 rules in the Mahsngika the lowest. There is no variance in I, II, III, IV, VI and VIII, of all the texts. The most divergent section is the VII (Sk. Dharmas) which runs from 66 to 113 rules.36 The Sk. dharmas or rules of decorum were not merely observed and practiced by the members of the Buddhist Sangha. They had such a wide and universal appeal that even the Kings and Rulers at that time had to acquaint themselves with some of these etiquettes. It was then a social
33 34

Discipline: The canonical Buddhism of the vinayapitaka , p, 40 Ibid., 40 35 Ibid., 40 36 Pachow. W. A Comparative Study of the Prtimoksa: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: Delhi. 2000, p, 14

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code for the highly cultured circles. Several Stras in the Sanyukta and Anguttara nikaya state that King Bimbisra and King Pasenadi Kosala had on many an occasion paid visits to the Buddha. Before their approach to him, they had to withdraw the five insignia of a King, namely, (1) the crown, (ii) the canopy, (iii) the Fan or the duster, (iv) the sword, and (v) the shoes. Among these (i), (ii), (iv), and (v) correspond to 96, 106, 107, and 104 of the Sarvstivdins Sk. dharmas respectively. 37 The role of discipline in the early history of Buddhism is therefore of the most extreme importance. Buddhist discipline accompanied the rise of settled monastic communities in a period of time no more than one hundred years following the death of the Buddha. So highly regarded was this newly evolved system of discipline that few alterations were tolerated, and those few minor rulers under discussion sparked such a heated exchange that an irreversible schism resulted. A glance reveals that the greatest discrepancy between extant recension of the Ptimokkha line in the number of Skhiya rules constitutive of the seventh category of rules of training. Prebish and Nattier have convincingly argued that this discrepancy in Skhiya rules lies at the heart of reasons for schism between the Sthavira faction of monks and the Mahsangiks at the second great Buddhist council held around one hundred years after the decease of the Buddha.38

7. Conclusion
The traditional belief is that the Vinaya rules were promulgated by the Buddha after 20 years of His enlightenment. In the Buddha's life, the expert on Vinaya was ven. Upli (Vinayathera). After passing away of the Buddha, Ven. Maha Kassapa arranged a council, where Vinaya
37 38

Ibid., 10 Prebish and Janice J. Nattier, History of Religions, 1977. p, 257

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developed into several texts. In the early period there was Ubhatovibhaga and Khandhaka. In the long run, Vinaya Piaka was completed by Theravda monks. In this study of Vinaya Piaka, we are able to recognize some facts showing, that Vinaya Piaka was edited by Theravda monks. Maybe those editions were given during the first and second councils by editors. The study of Bhikkhu Ptimokkha, which is a part of the Vinaya, is necessary as it proves to be one of the ways to understand the historical growth of the Sagha (community). The early Sagha is the embodiment of the teaching of the Buddha, and the growth of Buddhism lay within it. If one wants to understand Buddhism, one must study the development of the Buddhist Sagha in the early period. The best way to trace this development is to take up the study of Ptimokkha which is the power underlying the unity of the Sagha.

8. Bibliography Primary Sources

Majjhima Nikya - Chatta Sangayana Tipitaka 4.0. Text copyright 1995 Vipassana Research Institute, Lucene.Net http://www.tipitaka.org/chattha Dhammapada P.T.S London 1914

(http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sltp/Dhp_utf8.html#v.44) Milinda Panho P.T.S London 1880

(http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sltp/Mil_utf8.html#pts.071)

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Vinaya Pitaka - Chatta Sangayana Tipitaka 4.0. Text copyright 1995 Vipassana Research Institute, Lucene.Net http://www.tipitaka.org/chattha

General Books
Akira, Hirakawa. The Twofold Structure of the Buddhist Sangha. JOI. vol. XV, No.2, Dec. 1966 Akira, Hirakawa. A History of Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited: Delhi, 1993 Bimala Churn Law. A HISTORY OF PALI LITERATURE. Printed in India: New Delhi, 1933 Gunaratne P. History of the Buhhdist Sangha in India and Sri Lanka. Karunaratne and Sons Ltd: Colombo 10, 1993 Hajime Nakamura. Daily Life ethics of early Buddhism. Tokyo: Shunjiisha, 1972 The Path of the Buddha. Edited by Kenneth W.Morgan. Motilal Banarsidas: Delhi, 1986 Warder. A. K. Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited: Delhi, 2000 Horner, I.B. The Book of the Discipline. Part I, London: Pali Text Society, 1982 John C, Holot. Discipline: The canonical Buddhism of the vinayapitaka. Shri Jainendra Press: New Delhi, 1983 Journal of Research, Vishva-Bharati, Vol. 1, Vishva-Bharati Research Publication, 1976-77 Pachow, W. A Comparative Study of the Prtimoksa. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: Delhi, 2000 Prebish and Janice J. Nattier, History of Religions. Printed in India: New Delhi, 1977

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U Ko Lay, Guide to Tipitaka. Selangor Buddhist Vipassana Meditation Society: Malaysia.1991 U Ko Lay, Essence of Tipitaka.Vipassana Research Institute: India, 1998 Wilhelm Geiger, Pali Literature and Language. translated by Batakrishna Ghosh (1942)