Diplomarbeit

Institut f ur Physikalische Chemie der Universit at Wien W ahringerstrae 42, 1090 Wien
Diplomarbeit zur Erlangung des Titels Magister rerum naturalium der Formal- und Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakult at der Universit at Wien
On the Parametrization of Point Groups in Spaces of Dimensions 2, 3, and 4 based on Cliord Algebra
Alexander Pokorny
alexander.pokorny@univie.ac.at http://mailbox.univie.ac.at/Alexander.Pokorny
c Alexander Pokorny 1999
Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 From complex numbers to Cliord algebra . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Linear algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Hamiltons quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.3 William Kingdon Cliord . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 About rotations and vectors and their parametrization 1.3 Dimensions higher than 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Group Theory and Algebra 2.1 Fundamentals of algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Groups and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Permutation groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Cayleys Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Subgroups and generating systems . . . . 2.2.4 Multiplication tables . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5 Complex products and conjugation . . . . 2.2.6 Cosets or residue classes . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.7 Lagranges Theorem and conjugacy classes 2.2.8 Factor groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.9 Group products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Representation Theory 3.1 Vector spaces and their bases . . . 3.1.1 Basis transformations . . . . 3.1.2 Special linear spaces, norms 3.1.3 Linear operators . . . . . . 3.1.4 Invariant subspaces . . . . . 3.1.5 Axial and polar vectors . . . 3.2 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Characters . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Orthogonality relations . . . 3.2.3 Criteria for reducibility . . . 3.2.4 Regular representation . . .
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1 1 1 1 2 3 3 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 17 18 19 21 22 23 23 25 26 28 29
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iii
Contents 4 Multilinear Algebra 4.1 Algebras, bilinear and quadratic forms 4.2 Constructing the Cliord Algebra . . . 4.2.1 Some Cliord Algebras . . . . . 4.3 Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 33 34 35 36 39 39 39 40 41 42 42 43 47 47 53 55 56 56 57 58 60 61 63 65 65 70 81 81 83
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5 Symmetry Operations 5.1 Symmetry operations that may occur in Rn 5.1.1 Symmetry operations in 2-space . . . 5.1.2 Symmetry operations in 3-space . . . 5.2 The classication of symmetry operations . . 5.3 The description of symmetry operations . . 5.3.1 Reections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6 The Cliord Algebra Software 6.1 The Main Program group . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Calculation and Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Creation of a report . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 The calculations in detailexamples . . . . . 6.3.1 Checking closure . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Analysing operation orders . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Analysing classes . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.4 Calculating the regular representation . 6.3.5 Hermann symbols . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7 Regular Polytopes in R3 and R4 7.1 The cubic group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 The cubic group Oh in 3-space . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 The group of the hypercube G8-c in 4-space 7.2 The group of the regular simplex . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 The group of the tetrahedron Td in 3-space 7.2.2 The group of the pentatope G5-c in 4-space . 8 Tables of Results 8.1 Groups in R3 8.1.1 Cn . . 8.1.2 Cnv . 8.1.3 Cnh . 8.1.4 Dn . . 8.1.5 Dnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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89 . 89 . 89 . 91 . 94 . 97 . 100 105 107
Notation and Conventions Bibliography
iv
Zusammenfassung
Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt neue Wege der Parametrisierung von Gruppen im Rahmen der Cliord-Algebra. Diese Parametrisierung ist deshalb interessant, weil sie vor allem eindeutig ist im Gegensatz zu den EulerRodrigues Parametern und auerdem nicht wie die Quaternionen auf den 3-dimensionalen Euklidischen Vektorraum beschr ankt bleibt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden daher Gruppen in zwei, drei und vier Dimensionen vorgestellt, die durch Cliord Parameter deniert sind. Auerdem wird gezeigt, da es m oglich ist, von einer bekannten Gruppe der Dimension n auf eine Gruppe der Dimension n + 1 u berzugehen, und da man dazu lediglich neue Parameter einf uhren mu, die die neue Koordinatenachse ber ucksichtigen. Die Gruppe der Dimension n ist dann eine Untergruppe der Dimension n +1, wie auch der (n 1)-dimensionale Raum ein Unterraum des n-dimensionalen ist. Die praktischen Rechnungen beinhalten alle kristallographischen Punktgruppen des R3 , die aber schon in den Gruppentafeln von Altmann und Herzig [31] ausreichend dokumentiert sind, soda hier lediglich Exemplarisches vorgestellt wird. Die praktische Durchf uhrung der Rechnungen sowie die verwendeten Algorithmen sind anhand einfacher Gruppen im R3 erkl art, wie z. B. C3 , D3 und D6h . Da die ben otigten Rechenressourcen mit jeder neuen Dimension mehr als exponentiell ansteigen, beschr anke ich mich hier auf maximal 4-dimensionale R aume, die aber auch bereits interessante Aspekte der Physik er onen. In der Relativit atstheorie und der subatomaren Physik ben otigen eine Reihe von Arbeiten ein praktisches Werkzeug, um mit Gruppen in vier und mehr Dimensionen umzugehen, aber auch die Chemie ist an solch einem mathematischen Zugang interessiert, z. B. was die Behandlung von Quasi-Kristallen und inkommensurablen magnetischen Strukturen betrit. Die Anwendungen, die in diesem Bereich angesiedelt sind, bleiben aber wegen der vorl augen Beschr ankung auf R4 sp ateren Arbeiten vorbehalten. Einleitend wird ein kurzer Streifzug u ber die bekannten Grundlagen der Gruppentheorie in kurzer und ziemlich knapper Form dazu benutzt, um die wesentlichsten S atze und Beziehungen bei der Hand zu haben. Nach den allgemeinen Grundlagen ist zus atzlich ein Abri der Darstellungstheorie notwendig, da es auch hierbei um fundamentale Beziehungen geht, die sp ater vor allem f ur die regul are Darstellung eine entscheidende Rolle spielen werden. Im Kapitel 4 wende ich mich der multilinearen Algebra zu, deren Grundlagen, vor allem die bilinearen und quadratischen Formen, zum Verst andnis der Cliord-Algebra notwendig sind. Hier wird auch auf verschiedene geometrische Interpretationen hingewiesen, die auf unterschiedlichen Betrachtungsweisen beruhen, da die klassische Vektorrechnung im Gegensatz zur Cliord-Algebra den Begri von Gr oen und Pseudogr oen (Skalaren wie Vektoren) genausowenig unterscheidet wie axiale und polare Vektoren. Wie in der Verwendung von Matrizen ist es aber m oglich, per denitionem mathematische Zahlenk orper,
vi
Zusammenfassung
Algebren bzw. Formalismen dort einzusetzen, wo sie der Struktur eines Problems ad aquat erscheinen. Und ahnlich wie eine Matrix einen Vektor mit Vektoren als Elementen als auch einen linearen Operator darstellen kann, so scheint es nicht ungew ohlich, auch die Cliord-Elemente als Operatoren zu begreifen und damit Gruppenoperationen zu parametrisieren. In weiterer Folge werden die Parametrisierungsm oglichkeiten der Symmetrieoperationen beschrieben, Vor- und Nachteile gegeneinander abgewogen und schlielich anhand der Software in der Praxis angewandt. Da die Programmierarbeit im Rahmen der schriftlichen Diplomarbeit nicht wiedergegeben werden kann und soll denn ein FORTRAN 90 Listing u ber 2000 Zeilen w urde wohl niemand lesen wollen habe ich versucht, die wichahlten Rechnungen am Papier tigsten Algorithmen in Kapitel 6 vorzustellen und ausgew gegen uberzustellen. Nachdem die rechnerischen M oglichkeiten also verf ugbar waren, mute nun ein Weg gefunden werde, die Verallgemeinerung der Gruppen auch in der Praxis vorzunehmen und, ausgehend von den bekannten Punktgruppen im R3 einen Weg in den R4 zu beschreiten, der den geometrischen Zusammenhang nicht auer Acht l at. In einem Artikel stellt Hurley [20] schon 1950 eine ganze Reihe von Punktgruppen im R4 vor, deren geometrische Bedeutung aber nicht klar erkennbar ist. Auerdem wird neben der M oglichkeit, die Gruppen aus geometrisch wohldenierten Untergruppen kleinerer Dimension zu generieren durch die kompletten Charaktertafeln eine wesentlich reichere Information geboten. Da auch im 3-dimensionalen Raum die platonischen K orper einen besonderen Platz einnehmen, habe ich diese K orper bzw. ihre Symmetrie anhand des Hyperw urfels (Verallgemeinerung des W urfels in den R4 ) und des Pentatops (5-Zell, Verallgemeinerung des regul aren Simplex bzw. Tetraeders in den R4 ) im letzen Kapitel ausf uhrlicher behandelt und die wichtigsten Ergebnisse tabellarisch dargestellt. Obwohl hinl anglich bekannt 3 und um die Rechnungen auch f ur den R zu dokumentieren, sind auch ausgew ahlte Tabellen von Gruppen dieser Dimension zu nden, wobei sie zum Teil von den Tafeln in [31] abweichen k onnen, da die Parametrisierung nicht eindeutig ist (einerseits wegen der projektiven Faktoren, andererseits wenn die Lage im Koordinatensystem unterschiedlich gew ahlt wurde).
***
Ich m ochte mich bei Prof. Simon L. Altmann, Brasenose College, Oxford, f ur seine Anregung zur Besch aftigung mit Gruppentheorie und Cliord-Algebra sehr herzlich bedanken, f ur seine Einf uhrung in diese Gebiet und die pers onlichen Anregungen und Aufmunterungen, besonders am Beginn, als das Ziel dieser Arbeit f ur mich noch nicht deutlich abzusehen war. Ebenso danke ich Prof. Peter Herzig, der mich f ur mathematisch kompetent genug erachtet hat, mich dieses ziemlich formalen Themas anzunehmen, und dem A ich auerdem nicht nur meine Anit at zum Computersatz mit L TEX verdanke (ohne den diese Arbeit um vieles schwieriger geworden w are) sondern auch mein Interesse f ur die Rechenmethoden der Physikalischen und Theoretischen Chemie, die fernab vom Labor einen der wesentlichsten Bereiche der Grundlagenforschung u berhaupt ausmachen, ohne den der in den Medien derzeit so aktuelle Trend zur Praxisorientierung u berhaupt undenkbar w are! Schlielich danke ich ihm auch f ur die Durchsicht des Manuskripts, die nicht nur fachliche Aspekte umfate, sondern auch meinen englischen Text in eine halbwegs
Alexander Pokorny
Zusammenfassung
vii
annehmbare Form brachte. Die Abfassung auf Englisch wurde von mir deshalb bevorzugt, da damit der didaktische Aspekt der Diplomarbeit als Einstieg in die Welt des wissenschaftlichen Publizierens das ja vornehmlich auf Englisch erfolgt in besonderer Weise unterstrichen wird. Nicht zuletzt m ochte meinen Eltern danken, die ebenfalls versucht haben, auf sprachliche Richtigkeit zu achten, und all jenen, die ich zwangsweise u ber Gruppentheorie und Cliord-Algebra zu bilden bem uht war, da sie letzteres ohne gr oere Sch aden und Zorn auf meine Person ertragen haben. Wien, Mai 1999 Alexander Pokorny
Alexander Pokorny
viii
Zusammenfassung
Alexander Pokorny
1 Introduction
1.1 From complex numbers to Cliord algebra
Group theory plays an important role in the study of symmetry, which is one of the most important concepts in modern science. Therefore, there is a good reason to describe its behaviour and set up an appropriate mathematical formalism.
1.1.1
Linear algebra
The classical approach to group theory is usually achieved by linear algebra, where symmetry operations may (more or less) easily be described as transformation matrices. Considering operations this method will provide a straightforward strategy to calculate any desired features of a given group. Traditionally, symmetry operations are represented by matrices. Reections and the inversion are quite simple to express in terms of matrices, even if the dimension of this matrices might be not very convenient for operations in bigger groups or in higher dimensions. Of course, dierent representations provide a more or less convenient way of handling groups. Also the parametrization is quite simple. The rotations, however, are classically treated in terms of the Euler angles which are quite clumsy for both manual and computer-aided calculations. In 1844 Hermann Grassmann published his Ausdehnungslehre [32] where he fundamentally renewed geometrical understanding of spaces. Similar ideas, however, can be found already in 1797 in the programme of Caspar Wessel (LAcad emie Royales des Sciences et des Lettres de Denmark), published in Danish, but translated in French a 100 years later, in 1897.
1.1.2
Hamiltons quaternions
Meanwhile, another revolutionary development was made. On the 16th of October 1843 William Rowan Hamilton [33] dicovered the quaternions which were important for the future development not only for group theory. Hamilton in detail explained the discovery of quaternions in the foreword to his Lectures on Quaternions (Dublin, June 1853) [12]. Originally using the well known complex numbers in the Gaussian plane, i. e. as duples (a, b) = a + bi, a, b R. It was his son who asked one day if he could also multiply triples of numbers that way or a similar one. Hamilton rst tried to use a + bi + cj , but he realized that it did not work with
1. Introduction
triples of this form. Later he used a + bi + cj + dk and nally he found a way to multiply this quadruples properly, where the name quaternion derives from. It was the rst time it was a known fact that this quaternions form an algebra, which must contain the scalar a, but Hamilton failed in discovering bivectors or in understanding Grassmans work.
1.1.3
William Kingdon Cliord
Finally, William Kingdon Cliord, closed the gap and wrote a paper On the Algebra of Grassmann [34], which was the basis for a further development of Cliord Algebra. By the way, Cliord was not only a mathematician but also a philospher; a short biography is given here (from the Encyclopdia Britannica): Cliord, William Kingdon (b. May 4, 1845, Exeter, Devon, Eng.d. March 3, 1879, Madeira Islands, Portugal), British philosopher and mathematician who developed the theory of biquaternions (a generalization of the Irish mathematician Sir William Rowan Hamiltons theory of quaternions) and then linked them with more general associative algebras. Cliord was educated at Kings College, London, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of the latter in 1868. In 1871 he was named professor of mathematics at University College, London. Three years later he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. Inuenced by the non-Euclidean geometries of Bernhard Riemann and Nikolay Lobachevsky, Cliord wrote On the Space-Theory of Matter (1870). He presented the idea that matter and energy are simply dierent types of curvature of space, thus foreshadowing Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity. In addition, he used biquaternions to study motion in non-Euclidean spaces and certain closed Euclidean manifolds (surfaces), now known as spaces of Cliord-Klein. He showed that spaces of constant curvature could have several dierent topological structures and proved the topological equivalence of a Riemann surface to a box with holes in it. Karl Pearson of England further developed Cliords views on the philosophy of science, which were related to those of Hermann von Helmholtz and Ernst Mach, both of Germany. In philosophy Cliords name is chiey associated with two phrases of his coining, mind- stu (the simple elements of which consciousness is composed) and the tribal self. The latter gives the key to his ethical view, which explains conscience and moral law by the development in each individual of a self that prescribes conduct conducive to the welfare of the tribe. He recognized the serious diculties created for certain features of Immanuel Kants philosophy by the non-Euclidean geometries of Riemann and Lobachevsky. Cliords works were for the most part published posthumously and include Elements of Dynamic, 2 vol. (1878, 1887), Seeing and Thinking (1879), Lectures and Essays (1879), Mathematical Papers ( 1882), and The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences, completed by Karl Pearson (1885). [35]
Alexander Pokorny
1. Introduction
1.2
About rotations and vectors and their parametrization
The early method for doing symmetry work was usually geometrical or a matrix method, respectively, the latter usually involving Euler-angle parametrization, subject to various singularities in its parameter space [19]. In modern work, however, more precise and even simpler methods are preferred. Algebras full this criteria, but on the other hand they are abstractly dened in relation to some vector space, and in the past the elements of such an algebra have often been identied as certain physical objects [19]. Hamilton [33] himself interpreted his quaternion units i, j, k as ordinary vectors in 3-space. It was Riesz [36] who pointed out, that these vectors were axial and not polar, as the usual Gibbs vectors are. It can be shown [19], that Hamiltons vectors are in fact binary rotations by , and of course, a rotation leaves an (n 2)-dimensional subspace invariant, being the poles of the rotation. This pole can be interpreted as a position vector, but it has to be taken into account, that they are dierent geometrical objects, anyhow. It was mainly Hestens [37, 38] who interpreted elements of a Cliord algebra as vectors, but it sometimes lead to uncomportable results, e. g. a vector product became a polar and not an axial vector [37] (which is the current praxis in physics).
1.3
Dimensions higher than 3
Going further into higher dimensional spaces, the parametrization method of quaternions will not be possible anymore. After having presented most of the conventional methods, I shall introduce Cliord parametrization and show how it works with well known groups from R3 , e. g. C3 , D3 , D6h . With a detailed formalism of Cliord algebra it is then possible to derive groups in a more general way than proposed earlier preserving the geometrical relation between the space from which we are generalizing into higher dimensions. Hurley [20] presented several groups of 4-space, but the geometrical meaning is not evident in most cases. The groups I derived in R4 are in clear relation to its ancestors of 3-space, which makes the Cliord parametrization an extremly important tool also for group theory, where it has not extensively applied in the past. Higher dimensional spaces are needed for many physical applications (quark and subatomic physics), but also in chemistry. For example 6-space will be important for icosahedral quasi-crystals and incommensurable magnetic structures. This work, however, has to be left for later studies because an increase of dimension by one requires an enormous amount of computational resources, and hence it is advisable to do smaller preliminary work rst and then go into higher dimensions. Finally, I shall introduce a few examples of interesting groups in 4-space, the tesseract (hypercube) and the pentatope (5-cell) in R4 , both platonic bodies as in R3 , too. Without commentary, I shall nally also present some tables of groups in 2, 3 and 4-space all obtained using my Cliord algebra software to show that it is indeed the state of the art method for doing group theoretical calculations.
Alexander Pokorny
2. Group Theory and Algebra
Alexander Pokorny
2 Group Theory and Algebra

In this and from the following sections I shall give a short outline of the fundamentals of group theory form a very formal point of view; including a more algebraic mathematical language. Therefore a look at the fundamental principles of algebra is also required.
2.1
Fundamentals of algebra
Denition 2.1. Let X be a set. A function : X X X or (x, y ) ((x, y )) is called a binary algebraic operation. A function : X X X X or (x1 , . . . , xn ) ((x1 , . . . , xn )) is named n-ary algebraic operation. The pair (, X ), i. e. a set X and a binary operation dened in X , is called an algebraic structure. Let F be a nite set of n-ary operations i , F = {i }, i I N, then the pair (X, F ) is called a universal algebra. Denition 2.2. An algebraic operation is called (1) commutative, if x y = y x, x, y X and (2) associative, if (x y ) z = x (y z ), x, y, z X . The operation is called distributive over , if x (y z ) = (x y ) (y z ), x, y, z X . An element u X is called unity or neutral element with respect to , if u x = x u = x, x X . The element x1 X is called the inverse of x, if x X : x x1 = x1 x = u. Denition 2.3. Let (X, ) and (X , ) be two algebraic structures. Furthermore let f : X X be a function. f is named a morphism (or homomorphism) from (X, ) to (X , ), i f (x y ) = f (x ) f (y ), x, y X . Let f be a morphism from (X, ) to (X , ). Then f is called (1) Monomorphism, if f is injective. (2) Epimorphism, if f is surjective. (3) Isomorphism, if f is bijective. Two systems (X, ) and (X , ) are called isomorphic, if there is an isomorphism f : (X, ) (X , ); we can write this for short (X, ) = (X , ). We will distinguish a certain number of dierent algebraic structures important for our purposes according to certain additional properties.
6 Structure Semigroup Monoid Group Abelian Group Ring Field
2. Group Theory and Algebra Description (S, ), where is associative. semigroup with e, such that e x = x e = x, x S . Monoid, such that any element x S has its inverse x1 with x1 x = x x1 = e. Group, such that commutative (S, +) is an Abelian group, (S, ) is a semigroup and it holds: a, b, c S : a (b + c) = a b + a c, (b + c) a = b a + c a. Ring, such that the non-zero elements form an Abelian group under multiplication
Table 2.1: Fundamental algebraic structures that will be important.
Denition 2.4. Let f be a morphism1 from (X, ) to (X , ). Then f is called: (1) Endomorphism, if X X . (2) Automorphism, if X = X and f an isomorphism. Denition 2.5. (X, ) is a semigroup, if is associative, i. e. (x y ) z = x (y z ), x, y, z X . A semigroup is called monoid, if a unit element exists in (X, ), i. e. u : x u = u x = x, x X . A monoid (X, ) is called group, if any element x X has its inverse, i. e. x X x1 : x x1 = x1 x = u. The denition given above may befrom a certain point of viewunsatisfactory because it does not list the related axioms explicitly. Thus I will give a second denition in the following section, listing all properties of a group.
2.2
Groups and their properties
Denition 2.6. Let G be a non-empty set closed under a binary algebraic operation (multiplication 2 ) G G G such that the following three axioms for the group operations are satised: (1) a, b, c G : a (b c) = (a b) c (associativity), (2) a G !e G : a e = e a = a (neutral element) and (3) a G !a G : a a = a a = e (inverse).
1
More generally, morphisms can map from an algebraic structure to another, containing any nite number of operations. Since groups are our main interest, we shall use morphism in the meaning of group morphism, if nothing else is said explicitly. 2 We will consider group operations normally as multiplications, which makes us able to treat compositions of operations simply as multiplication of the latter, which is the most convenient way not only for symmetry operations. There are, however, also groups with addition + as group operation, but they will not be important for our purposes.
Alexander Pokorny
G is called a group and denoted by (G, ) or simply by G if it is clear which binary operation is used. The number of elements of a group (G, ) is called the order of a group G, ord G = |G|. If the operation is commutative, i. e. a b = b a, a, b, G, the group is called commutative or Abelian group. The algebraic structure (H, ) is called a subgroup of the group (G, ) (which I shall denote as H < G 3 ), i H G and H satises all the group axioms.
2.2.1
Permutation groups
Denition 2.7. Let X be a non-empty set. The set of all permutations of X is called the permutation group or symmetric group Sn . It has to be mentioned that all even permutations form a subgroup An < Sn with 1 its order ord An = 2 ord Sn , which is sometimes called alternating group. The set of odd permutations, however, does not form a subgroup, since the product of two odd permutations gives an even permutation, thus the set is not closed with respect to the binary operation. Denotion A permutation i is denoted as permutation matrix i := 1 2 3 4 n . i1 i 2 i3 i4 in
Cycles
A closed sequence of permutation operations is called a cycle, denoted (ii i2 i3 ...). A cycle consisting of two permutations is called transposition. In the following example we shall have a look at permutation matrices. Sometimes it may be useful to rewrite the matrix in dierent order to recognize the cycle structure. 1 4 3 2 3 2 4 1 1 3 2 4 3 1 4 2 = 1 3 4 2 3 4 2 1 = (1342)
= (13)(24)
Multiplication
The multiplication of permutation matrices, i. e. stepwise execution of one permutation operation after another, is performed in the following way: Since these matrices are considered as operators, multiplication order should go from right to left4 and is easily done by arranging the columns of the left matrix such that its rst row is equal to the second
This convention follows Kurzweil and Stellmacher [40], where <, are used to denote subgroups. A confusion with the order relation operator < is not likely. 4 It would also be possible to dene it the other way round, but the present convention is the one preferred in literature. [41, 10]
Alexander Pokorny
2. Group Theory and Algebra row of the right matrix. Then the product is given by the matrix consisting of the rst row of the right and the second row of the left matrix. 1 4 3 2 1 3 2 4 3 2 4 1 3 1 4 2 3 1 4 2 1 3 2 4 4 3 2 1 3 1 4 2 = = 1 3 2 4 4 3 2 1 = (14)
The permutation in terms of cycles is much easier. [10] 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 2 3 2 4 1 3 4 2 1 Commutativity = (1342)(13)(24) = (14)
The multiplication of permutation matrices is generally not commutative! However, the multiplication of cycles having no element in common is commutative [10].
Corollary 2.1. (1) Any permutation of order n can be written as a product of cycles of Sn having no elements in common. (2) Any permutation of nit order n 2 can be written as product of n 1 transpositions: (1...n) = (1n)(1[n 1])(1[n 2])...(13)(12)(11). [41, 10] Denition 2.8. A permutation p Sn is called even, if sgn f = 1 and odd, if sgn f = 1, where sgn f = (1)k , k being the number of transpositions.
2.2.2
Cayleys Theorem
This theorem is of great importance for the determination of the structures of groups in general, and in particular it is useful to determine the number and elements of the classes. Theorem 2.1 (Cayleys). Every group (G, ) of nite order n is isomorphic with a subgroup of the symmetric group Sn . Proof. Let us take G to perform our permutational operations. For any g G we will dene the mapping fa : G G, fa (x) = ax, x G. fa is surjective, because b G x = a1 b G : fa (x) = a(a1 b) = b, and injective, because fa (x) = fa (y ) = ax = ay = x = y , x, y G. Thus fa is bijective and hence represents a permutation of G. The set F = {fa | a G} is a group with respect to , because (fa fb )(x) = fa [fb (x)] = fa (bx) = abx = fab (x), x G. Hence the closure of the set is shown. We need an identity element fe and an inverse fa1 , such that fa fa1 = faa1 = fe . Now we can dene a mapping : G F , (a) = fa , which is bijective and a morphism ((ab) = fab = fa fb = (a) (b), a, b G. Therefore is an isomorphism G F . Since the symmetric group Sn is the group of permutations of n elements, |Sn | = n! and |F | = n, it holds that F < Sn , for we know both of them to be groups. Hence (G, ) is isomorphic with a subgroup of Sn .
Alexander Pokorny
We can see immediately an important consequence of Cayleys Theorem. The number of possible non-isomorphic groups of order n is nite, since these groups are isomorphic with subgroups of Sn . The latter, however, is a nite group, hence it has only a nite number of subgroups. There may be an innite number of isomorphic groups to any of those subgroups of Sn , but only a nite number of non-isomorphic. Denition 2.9. Permutations that leave no symbol unchanged are called regular permutations. A group of those regular permutations is called a regular subgroup of Sn .
2.2.3
Subgroups and generating systems
Subgroups are already dened in Def.2.6. Now we shall consider the properties of subgroups of a given group G. Lemma 2.1. Let (G, ) be a group, I a non-empty index set and {Ui }, i I , a family of subgroups of G; then (1)
iI
Ui < G,
(2) (Ui Uj ) < G (Ui Uj ) (Uj Ui ). Proof. (1) First, any Ui contains e, hence iI Ui = . Furthermore, we have a, b i I : a, b Ui = i I : ab1 Ui = ab1 iI Ui = iI Ui = iI Ui < G. (2) Indirect proof: Assume Ui Uj and Uj Ui (i. e. Ui Uj = ), but (Ui Uj ) < G. Then a Ui , a / Uj and b Uj , b / Ui ; because of a, b, (Ui Uj ) we have also ab (Ui Uj ) (ab Ui ) (ab Uj ). Since Ui and Uj are groups, a1 Ui and b1 Uj exist. Now, it must follow that a1 (ab) = b Ui and (ab)b1 = a Uj , which is a contradiction in both cases. Denition 2.10. Let (G, ) be a group, S G a subset and I an index set. Then the product of all subgroups of G that contain S , iI Ui |S Ui is called subgroup generated by S and denoted S . In the special case S = G we say, G is generated by S or S is a generating system of G. G is said to be nitely generated, if there is a nite generating system {a1 an } G, usually written G = a1 an . Denition 2.11. A group (G, ) is called cyclic, if is generated by one of its elements, i. e. a G : G = a . Addition modulo 3 Let be G = {13 , 23 , 33 = 03 }. E.g. 13 + 13 = 23 and 23 + 13 = 33 = 03 . Such a class of division remainders modulo n is more than a group, it is a ring with one and even a eld, if n is prime.
Alexander Pokorny
10 Rotation of order 3

2 3 Let be G = {C3 , C3 , C3 = E }. The operation C3 gives a rota 2 tion of 23 (120 ), the operation C3 a rotation of 43 (240 ) or geometrically interpreteda rotation of 23 (120 ) in the opposite 3 sense. C3 represents a rotation of 2 (360 ), which is the identity.
Theorem 2.2. Any subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic itself. [10]
2.2.4
Multiplication tables
Since group theory deals with abtract elements, the behaviour of the elements under multiplication is often not obvious and has to be dened explicitly. 5 . In the case of cyclic groups, for example, it is easy to see that the general rule of multiplication of a group (G, ) = a is ai aj = ai+j . A great number of groups (e. g. all proper groups of rotations about one axis) are cyclic and quite easy to treat. For a general one gives the multiplication results in form of a table, which is shown in the following examples. Subgroups of S4 The group S4 possesses only two subgroups of order 4, namely the cyclic group C4 and the Klein four-group V4 :6 (1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23). S4 a b c Quaternion group Q a b c e b c e a c e a b V4 a b c a b e c c e b a c b a e
A special group Q = {1, 1, i, i, j, j, k, k }, which will be of further importance later. Q 1 1 i i j j k k 1 1 1 i i j j k k 1 1 1 i i j j k k i i i 1 1 k k j j i i i 1 1 k k j j j j j k k 1 1 i i j j j k k 1 1 i i k k k j j i i 1 1 k k k j j i i 1 1
Group theory that deals with geometrical operations in n-space uses multiplication groups, i. e. the application of an operation one after another is performed by multiplying the operations in reverse order (from right to left). We shall not be concerned with additive groups any longer. 6 The symbol V4 comes from the German Kleinsche Vierergruppe.
Alexander Pokorny
11
2.2.5
Complex products and conjugation
Denition 2.12. Let G and H be sets. Then the set G H is called the complex product7 of G and H , and dened by G H = {gh | g G, h G}. If one set consists only of one element, i. e. G H = {g } H we write shorter gH . Denition 2.13. A subgroup N < G of a group (G, ) is called an invariant subgroup (self-conjugate subgroup, normal divisor) of G, N G, if aN = N a, a G. The group G and {e} are always invariant subgroups, which we shall call trivial invariant subgroups. Invariant subgroups have some special properties. If N is an invariant subgroup of G, a, b, G, then (aN ) (bN ) = (ab)N . We see, that the coset aN behaves like an identity element. On the other hand, if we multiply (aN ) (a1 N ) = (aa1 )N N = N , yields an inverse element a1 N . Corollary 2.2. Any non-empty nite set U G is a subgroup of G, i U U = U = U 1 . Proof. Let be u, v U G, therefore also uv U . Let I be the index set of all elements of U . For the whole group, we have U U = {ui uj = uk }, i, j, k I . Hence U U = U = U 1 . Theorem 2.3. For the complex product A B , where A, B < G, the following conditions are valid: (1) (A B )1 = B 1 A1 (2) (A B ) < G A B = B A Proof. (1) Multiplication from right yields (A B )1 (A B ) = B 1 A1 (A B ). The left side of this equation is unity, the right term B 1 A1 (A B ) = B 1 (A1 A) B = B 1 B = 1 as well. (2) (=) If A B < G then (A B ) = (A B )1 = B 1 A1 = B A < G. (=) A B = B A = (A B )(A B ) = A (B A) B = A (A B ) B = A A B B = A B . Furthermore, (A B )1 = B 1 A1 = B A = A B.
Denition 2.14. Given a group (G, ), an element b G is called conjugate to the element a G, denoted b 1 a, i we can nd an element g G such that gag 1 = b. Theorem 2.4. The relation conjugate to (1) is an equivalence relation.
7
The complex product must not be confused with the Cartesian product which is usually denoted by the same sign G H = {(a, b) | g G, h H } which is a set of pairs, whereas g G, h H : (gh) = g G = G H.
Alexander Pokorny
12
Proof. For an equivalence relation the three following conditions have to be fullled, having a, b, c G: (1) a 1 a, reexivity. gag 1 = a, choosing g = e we get eae1 = a = a = a. (2) a 1 b = b 1 a, symmetry. gag 1 = b we multiply from the left with g 1 and from the right with g and get g 1 gag 1 g = g 1 bg = a = g 1 bg , which is a conjugate relation, now not taking g but g 1 as conjugating element. (3) a 1 b b 1 c = a 1 c, transitivity. Having gag 1 = b = a = g 1 bg and hbh1 = c = b = h1 ch, we get a = g 1 h1 chg = (hg )1 c(hg ).
2.2.6
Cosets or residue classes
An important question is the relation of orders of a group and its subgroups. This question leads us to the problem of cosets (residue classes, Nebenklassen). Denition 2.15. Let (G, ) be a group, U G a subgroup and a G, then the subset U a = {ua | u U } G is calles right coset from G to U , in analogy aU = {au | u U } G the left coset. a G is called representative of U a or aU . Corollary 2.3. Let (G, ) be a group, U G and a G. (1) For all x U a : U a = U x, i. e. any x U a can be taken as representative of the coset U a. (2) The right cosets from G to U form a partition of G, i. e. a) G = (U a)
a G
b) U a U b = Proof.
a=b Ua = Ub a = b
(1) From x U a it follows that x = ua, u U . Hence U x = U a. (2) ad (a). a G = a = ea U a = G = aG {a} aG (U a). On the other hand, (U G) (a G) = U a G = aG (U a) G. Then we get G = aG (U a). aG (U a) G G aG (U a) = ad (b). If for two right cosets (U a) (U b) = , then g G : g (U a) (U b) (g U a) (g U b), i. e. with respect to (1) we have U g = U a = U b.
To get a decomposition of G in disjoint cosets, the procedure is the following: First, nd an element a1 G and a set U G, such that a1 / U . Then form U U a1 . Find now an element a2 G, a2 / (U U a1 ). This procedure may be continued until we get: G = U U a1 U a2 U a3 = U
ai G
U ai ,
G G, i I
(2.1)
Alexander Pokorny
13
2.2.7
Lagranges Theorem and conjugacy classes
Denition 2.16. The number of dierent cosets of a group (G, ) over a subgroup U < G is called index of U under G and denoted [G|U ]. Theorem 2.5 (Lagrange). Let (G, ) be a group and U G. If |G|, |U | and [G|U ] are all nite, then |G| = [G|U ] |U |. Proof. Let U a and U b be two right cosets; then the mapping f : U a U b, f (ua) = ub is bijective, i. e. |U a| = |U b| = |U |. The number of cosets is [G|U ], hence |G| is the number of elements of the coset multiplied by the number of cosets
[G|U ] =
|G| |U |
or
ord(G|U ) =
ord G ord U
(2.2)
Corollary 2.4. In a group (G, ) of order |G|, the order of an element a G, ord a = | a | [10], is always a divisor of |G|. Proof. a G, hence |G| = | a | [G| a ] = (ord a) [G| a ]. Corollary 2.5. A group (G, ) of prime order |G| = p, is cyclic and G = a , where a = e, a G. Proof. a G : a = e, because |G| = p = 1 = a = e. Since ord a is a divisor of |G| = p = 1 (corollary 2.4), the only possible consequence is ord a = p. Because ord a = | a |, |G| = | a | = p, where a G with the same number of elements as G. Since p is nite, it follows that G = a , hence G is a cyclic group. Denition 2.17. All elements of a group (G, ) conjugated to an element a G form a set Eq (a) = {b G | b = gag 1 , g G}, which is called the conjugacy class. Every element a G is conjugate to itself, since eae1 = a. Hence, the identity element e forms a class by itself: Eq (a) = {b G | b = geg 1 } = {e}. In an Abelian group, each element forms a class by itself, since for any a, b G : bab1 = a. Additionally all elements of a given class have the same order. Lemma 2.2. For a given group (G, ), a subgroup N , the following statements are equivalent: (1) gN = N g , g G, i. e. N is an invariant subgroup. (2) gN g 1 = N , g G. Proof. By multiplying gN = N g with g 1 we get gN g 1 = N gg 1 = N Theorem 2.6. A subgroup N of a group (G, ) is invariant, if and only if it contains only complete conjugacy classes.
Alexander Pokorny
14
Proof. (=) Suppose a subgroup N to be invariant, hence it holds gN g 1 = N . Let be a N , also gag 1 must be in N , g G, hence Eq (a) N . (=) If N contains a and Eq (a) = {b G | b = gag 1 , g G}, it follows that N = gN g 1 , g G. Denition 2.18. A group that has no non-trivial invariant subgroups, is called a simple group. A group is said to be semisimple, if none of its invariant subgroups are Abelian. Lemma 2.3. All the subgroups of an Abelian group are invariant. Proof. Let (G, ) be an Abelian group and N a subgroup N < G. Then the N is an invariant subgroup if aN = N a for any a G, i. e. if an = na, n N and a G, which is true because G was assumed Abelian.
2.2.8
Factor groups
Denition 2.19. Let (G, ) be a group and N an invariant subgroup. Then (G|N ) = {aN | a G} is a group with respect to the complex product , i. e. (G|N, ). This group shall be called the factor group of G to N . Theorem 2.7. The order of a factor group ord(G|N ) = [G|N ] and if G is nite, ord(G|N ) = |G| . If G is Abelian, (G|N ) is Abelian, too. |N | Proof. We have to show, that is an operation, and that it fullles the group axioms. Let be a N = aN , b N = bN for two elements from (G|N ). Then a = au, b = bv , for some u, v N . Now we have a b = (au)(bv ) = a(ub)v = (ab)w, w N . Therefore (a b )N = (ab)N . Now we will prove the axioms: (1) Associativity: (aN ) [(bN ) (cN )] = (aN ) [(bcN )] = [a(bc)]N = [(ab)c]N = [(ab)N ] (cN ) = [(aN ) (bN )] (cN ). (2) Identity element: (aN ) N = (aN ) (eN ) = (ae)N = aN , (aN ) (G|N ). (3) Inverse: (aN ) (a1 N ) = (aa1 )N N = eN = N The order is the number of dierent cosets from G to N , [G|N ], if |G| is nite, it G| follows from theorem 2.5 that [G|N ] = ||N . If G is Abelian, then (aN ) (bN ) = | (ab)N = (ba)N = (bN ) (aN ), (aN ), (bN ) (G|N ). Denition 2.20. A group A < G is called subnormal divisor, if there are subgroups A1 , . . . , Ad , such that A = A1 A2 ... Add1 Ad = G. We write for short A G. In contrary to the the relation A i. e. A B G = A G. N G = A G the relation is transitive,
Alexander Pokorny
15
2.2.9
Group products
We shall now consider group multiplications. The Cartesian product and the complex product have already been mentioned. Now we will have a look at the so-called direct product. Denition 2.21. Let G be a group and N1 , . . . , Nn
n
G its normal divisors. We dene G}
G=
k=1
Nk = {n1 n2 . . . nk | ni Ni G.
as the (inner) direct product of normal divisors Ni
Lemma 2.4. If G is a group dened as inner direct product of its normal divisors Ni , then [10] (1) Ni Nj = {e}, i = j , (2) ab = ba, a Ni , b Nj , (i = j ). Denition 2.22. Let G be a group, M < G a subgroup and the normal divisor N We dene G = N M as the (inner) semidirect product of G. Theorem 2.8. The direct product of cyclic groups is Abelian. [40] Outer direct products are also dened. They are important, if the question arises what a composition of certain groups will give. Convention We shall use the symbol , that is normally used to denote the direct sum (in analogy to the direct product, cf. denition 3.4), to write out the elements of a group G in a very convenient way [31]:
n
G.
G = g1 g2 . . . gn =
k=1
gk
Alexander Pokorny
16
3. Representation Theory
Alexander Pokorny
3 Representation Theory
3.1 Vector spaces and their bases
First I shall give the basic denitions of linear spaces and operators, which will play an important role in both, group theory and representation theory. Denition 3.1. A set V is called a linear space over a eld F, V (F), i the following conditions for u + v and a u are satised, having x, y V and a, b F. (1) Properties of summation (+): x + y = y + x (commutativity), (x + y ) + z = x + (y + z ) (associativity), x V : !0 V : 0 + x = x + 0 = x (zero element), x V : !(x) : x + (x) = 0 (inverse). (2) Properties of scalar multiplication (): a (x + y ) = a x + a y (distributivity), (a + b) x = a x + b x (distributivity), (a b) x = a (b x) (dissociativity), 1 x = x. A subset M X of a linear space X over F is called a linear subspace of X , if and only if a x + b y M , x, y X and a, b F. Linear spaces over the eld R are called real linear spaces. For the sake of simplicity I shall write any scalar multiplication without , having e. g. ab instead of a b. Denition 3.2. A system of vectors x1 , . . . , xn is called linearly independent, i there is a non-trivial linear combination 1 x1 + + n xn = 0, i : i = 0. The maximum number of linearly independent vectors in V (F) is called the dimension of the vectorspace, dim V (F). Any system of n linearly independent vectors in an n-dimensional linear space V (F) is called a base of V (F). Theorem 3.1. Let be E = (e1 e2 . . . en ) a matrix composed by vectors ei of a linear space V (F). The vectors are linearly independent, if and only if det E = 0.
17
18
In the following we shall denote vectors in general as x and express them under a given basis e1 . . . en as xe . The convention of writing an arrow over the variable is only used for geometrical vectors and not for elements of any other linear spaces. Usually we shall write geometrical vectors as column matrices, i. e. x1 x2 e x = . . . . xn Any vector in V (F) can be expressed as a linear combination of the basis vectors. Thus a vector x V (F) with the components xe i can be written as
n
x=
i=1
x1 e11 e21 x2 e12 e22 e ei xe = . . i = E x = (e1 . . . e2 ) . . . . . . . xn en1 en2
. . . en1 x1 . . . en2 x2 . . . .. . . . . . . . . enn xn
(3.1)
Denition 3.3. A non-empty set W V (F) is called linear subspace of V (F), if for any x, y W and any F the conditions hold: x + y W, W. Denition 3.4. Let W1 and W2 be linear subspaces of V (F). We say, V is the direct sum of W1 and W2 , i. e. V = W1 W2 , i any x V can be written as x = w1 + w2 , w1 W1 and w2 W2 .1
3.1.1
Basis transformations
Let us consider two bases E and F in a linear space V (F). Since E is a basis of V (F) we can express every vector f i from F as a linear combination of ei , i. e. (with (ij ) = A)
k
fj =
i=1
ei ij ,
j = 1..n,
(3.2)
if A is not singular. We call A the transition matrix from one basis to another. Thus we can write directly F = EA and E = F A1 .
1
(3.3)
We shall use this symbol also to denote the summation of elements to be a set, i. e. X = {x1 , . . . , xn } = x1 xn . However, confusions will not occur.
Alexander Pokorny
19
We now want to transform the vector coordinates under the change of base. Since both expressions must be equivalent
n n
x=
i=1
ei xe i
= Ex
and x =
j =1
f f j xf j = Fx ,
we can simply rewrite the second equation with (3.2) and thus we get
n k n n
x=
i=1 j =1
ej ji
xf i
=
j =1
ej
i=1
ji xf i
(3.4)
For we know that
n e ji xf i = xj , i=1
we can rewrite it as a matrix formula xe = Axf or xf = A1 xe (3.5)
3.1.2
Special linear spaces, norms
Denition 3.5. A real linear space V (R) is called Euclidean, if a scalar product V V R : (x, y ), x, y V is dened, such that x, y, z V , R the following conditions hold: (x, y ) = (y, x), (x + y, z ) = (x, z ) + (y, z ), (x, y ) = (x, y ) = (x, y ), (x, x) 0, (x, x) = 0 only, if x = 0. The norm of a vector (its length) is dened as x = Dening the two vectors x, y V (R) as
n n
(x, x), with x V (R).
x=
i=1
ei xe i
and y =
j =1
e ej yj ,
the scalar product is

n n n e yj ej j =1 n T e xe i (ei , ej )yj i=1 j =1 n n e xe i Mij yj i=1 j =1
(x, y ) =
i=1
xe i ei
(3.6)
The product of the basis vectors (ei , ej ) forms a matrix whose elements are the so-called metric coecients. If the basis is orthonormal, the metric matrix takes the special form Mij = ij and hence our scalar product (3.6) reduces to
n
(x, y ) =
i=1
e xe i yi
or in matrix form (x, y ) = (xe )T y e
(3.7)
Alexander Pokorny
20
Denition 3.6. A real linear space V (R), x, y V (R) with scalar product and a distance function (x, y ) = x y = (x y , x y ) is called metrical, i (x, y ) 0, (x, y ) = 0 x = y (x, y ) = (y , z ) (x, z ) (x, y ) + (y , z ), x, y , z V (R). The formalism given above holds only for real spaces, not, however, for complex linear spaces. But we can simply generalize the concept of the scalar product, which yields the following denition: Denition 3.7. A complex linear space V (C) is called unitary, if a scalar product V V C : (x, y ), x, y V is dened, such that x, y, z V , C the following conditions hold: (x, y ) = (y, x) , (x + y, z ) = (x, z ) + (y, z ), (x, y ) = (x, y ), (x, y ) = (x, y ), (x, x) 0, (x, x) = 0 only, if x = 0. The norm of a vector (its length) is dened as x = (x, x), with x V (R).
Denition 3.8. A complex linear space V (C), x, y V (C) with scalar product and a distance function (x, y ) = x y = (x y , x y ) is called metrical, i (x, y ) 0, (x, y ) = 0 x = y (x, y ) = (y , z ) (x, z ) (x, y ) + (y , z ), x, y , z V (C). We can now determine the scalar product in a complex linear space with x, y V (C):
n n
x=
i=1
ei xe i
and y =
j =1
e ej yj ,
and according to our denitions we get

n n T e (xe i ) (ei , ej )yj = i=1 j =1 i=1 j =1 n n e (xe i ) Mij yj
(x, y ) =
(3.8)
Again, assuming an orthonormal space with Mij = ij we can rewrite this formula as
n
(x, y ) =
i=1
e (xe i ) yi
or in matrix form (x, y ) = (xe )+ y e
(3.9)
Alexander Pokorny
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3.1.3
Linear operators
Denition 3.9. A mapping R : V W , with V (F) and W (F) being linear spaces, is called linear mapping, if for x V (F) and y W (F), a, b F the condition R (ax + by ) = aR x + bR y holds. If R : V F, we shall call it a linear form, whereas if R : V V , R is called a linear operator. A linear operator R : V V also depends on the basis E chosen to represent the operator. We can write
n n
y = Rx = R
j =1
ej xe j
=
j =1
(R ej )xj .
(3.10)
The elements R ej can be written as linear combinations of the basis vectors:

n
R ej =
i=1
e ei Dij , j = 1 . . . n.
(3.11)
Substituting the corresponding term in (3.10), we get

n n e ei Dij j =1 i=1 n n
y = Rx =
xe j
=
i=1
ei
j =1
e Dij xj .
(3.12)
Comparing this result with (3.1) yields the formula

n e yi
=
i=1
e e Dij xj ,
y e = De (R )xe .
(3.13)
For further considerations we shall remember the relation between the basis and its representation when applying an operator: R (e1 . . . en ) = EDe (R ). (3.14)
Applying a linear operator to a vector x is denoted by y = R x. If more than one linear operator are to be applied, the operators are written from right to left, i. e. y = R n . . . R 2 R 1 x.
1
(3.15)
1 1 It is trivial to prove, that the inverse of a composed operator is (R 1 . . . R n ) = R n ...R 1 . Since all linear operators R i : V (F) V (F) form a linear space often denoted as HomF (V, V ), dim V (F) = n, that is isomorphic to the linear space of all n n-matrices M nn , the relation (3.15) also holds for the matrix representations under a given basis E , i. e.
De (R 1 . . . R i ) = De (R 1 ) . . . De (R i ).
(3.16)
Alexander Pokorny
22
If we want to transform to a given base F , we know that F = EA, i. e.

n n
fi =
j =1
ej ji ,
and hence R f i =
j =1
R ej ji
(3.17)
Additionally, with ji A1 , we can dene

n
ek =
l=1
f l lk
(3.18)
Now we apply R on f i and get

n
R fi =
j =1 n
(R ej )ji =
n
=
j =1 n
ji
k=1 n
e ek Dkj = n e Dkj k=1 n n e lk Dkj ji k=1 j =1 l=1
=
j =1 n
ji fl
l=1 n f f l Dli l=1
f l lk = = (3.19)
= = We can hence write,

n f Dli =
n e lk Dkj ji , j = 1 . . . n
(3.20)
k=1 j =1
or in matrix form Df (R ) = A1 De (R )A (3.21)
A transformation of the type (3.21) is called equivalence transformation. We shall see (cf. p. 25) that transformations of this type leave certain properties of the matrix invariant (namely the trace and the determinant). A nal word on nomenclature. Linear operators are mappings on a linear space. They can be represented as matrices depending on a given basis. We say, a certain basis induces a representation.
3.1.4
Invariant subspaces
Denition 3.10. A linear subspace W V (F) is called invariant with respect to a linear operator R : V V , if for any x W there is also R x W , i. e. W = {x V | (x W V ) = (R x W V )}.
Alexander Pokorny
3. Representation Theory Let us consider a linear space V with the subspaces Wi , i. e.

n n
23
V =
i=1
Wi ,
dim V =
i=1
dim Wi ,
where any subspace Wi is invariant with respect to a linear operator R : V V . If the basis E of V is the sum of the several basis Ei of the subspaces, then the matrix representation of R appears in block-diagonal form: e D (R ) = W1 W2 .. . Wn
3.1.5
Axial and polar vectors
The elements x, y V (F) are often called vectors. If they have a geometrical meaning we denote them as x, y . An axial vector (in fact a skew-symmetric tensor of rank 2) behaves exactly like a polar vector under rotation, but a polar vector must be multiplied with (1) to share the properties of an axial vector.
h C
Figure 3.1: Left: A reection plane parallel to a rotational axis. The reection changes the orientation of the rotation (but a polar vector does not change sign). Right: A reectional plane orthogonal to the rotational axis does not change the orientation of the rotation (but changes the sign of the polar vector).
3.2
Representations
Theorem 3.2. The set of all linear operators R i : V V , dim V = n forms a linear space HomF (V, V ) of dimension n2 .
Alexander Pokorny
24
The set of all bijective linear operators R i : V V , dim V = n forms a group with respect to the composition; this group is called the general linear group GL(n, F) (the group of automorphisms of V ). This fact will be of remarkable importance for the theory of representations that shall interest us in the following sections. Denition 3.11. A representation of the group G in a linear space V (F) (the representation space) is a morphism : G GL(V ), i. e. for any element g G there is a linear bijective operator G : V V , such that g, h G : G (gh) = G (g )G (h), or for the sake of . simplicity, gh = g h Denition 3.12. A representation : G GL(v ) is said to be reducible, i there is no non-trivial subspace in V that is invariant with respect to all operators g , g G. Any non-irreducible representation is called reducible. In other words, a representation is reducible means that is a direct sum of irreducible representations. Before we formulate a theorem, we have to prove another important theorem, that is called (with a certain degree of understatement) Lemma 3.1 (Schurs). If V and W are two representation spaces of a group G and A : V W is a morphism, then [42] either A is an isomorphism, or A = 0, if V = W , then A = 1, C. Proof. (1) We know that ker A and im A are invariant subspaces. (2) A must have an eigenvalue , since C is algebraically closed, hence for some C , A 1 has a nonzero kernel. By (1), then we must have A 1= 0 = A = 1. Theorem 3.3. For any representation : G GL(V ) of a nite group G, there is a decomposition
k
V =
i=1
Viai ,
(Vi irreducible representations) that is unique, as the Vi and their multiplicities ai . [42] Proof. From Schurs Lemma we know that if W is another representation of G with a decomposition
k
W =
j =1
Wj j ,
and : V W is a mapping of representations, then must map any factor Viai b into the factor Wj j for which Wj = Vi . When applied to the map V V , the uniqueness stated in the theorem follows.
Alexander Pokorny
25
Denition 3.13. Let V, W be two complex linear spaces. Two representations : G GL(V ) and : G GL(W ) are called equivalent, i there exists a linear bijective operator A : V W , such that for any g V GL(V ) and g W GL(W ), g G the following diagram commutes V GL(V ) ,
A g W g V
W GL(W ) i. e. A g V = g W A , and hence A 1 g W A = g V . We know that this similarity transformation can be expressed in terms of the representation matrices (on a given basis)2 , i. e.
n n
Dli g V =
k=1 j =1
lk Dkj g W ji , j = 1 . . . n
(3.22)
or in matrix form D g V = A1 D g W A (3.23)
3.2.1
Characters
We have shown that transforming from one representation space to another is just a similarity transformation. Of course, an innite number of such spaces can be chosen, hence it is interesting that there is a property which is invariant to the transformations described above. This property will be chosen to be the character of our representations. If we transform a matrix to a dierent basis, the determinant and the trace remain unchanged. This gives us the possibility to chose one of them to be characteristic for the operation and not depending on the basis chosen. It is favourable to select the trace, because usually unitary representations are preferred and for the latter the determinants are always 1, and hence we dene: Denition 3.14. Let D( g ) be the representation matrix of an opertion g G. Then the trace of the matrix ( g ) = tr D( g ) is called the character of g . Name Faithful representation Trivial representation Regular representation Description : G GL(V ) is an isomorphism, ker = {1} All characters are unity, g G : ( g ) = 1. contains all irreducible representations
Table 3.1: The most common types of representations and their properties.
2
Note, that this similarity transformation does not transform between two bases but between two automorphism groups of linear spaces!
Alexander Pokorny
26
Theorem 3.4. The character is invariant under similarity transformation, i. e. it is independent of the basis of the representation. [41] Theorem 3.5. The character is the same for all elements of a class. rg s holds for Proof. Given a group G, for all elements of a class H the condition g 1 h =h r, h s H . Written as representation matrices and operators, this two elements h becomes [41] )D( [D( g 1 )D(h g )]ii =
i n 1
s) Dnn (h s) Dnn (h
n
r )Dli ( Dik ( g )Dkl (h g) =

ijk
r) = kl Dkl (h
kl k
r) = Dkk (h
n
s) Dnn (h
(3.24)
3.2.2
Orthogonality relations
From Schurs Lemma we know that a matrix A (representative of the morphism A) is zero, i D( g )A = AD ( g ), where D and D are dierent representations of a group G, or A = 1, if D = D . We consider the latter case rst. Let us now construct the matrix A=
g G
D( g )XD( g 1 ),
(3.25)
where X is an arbitrary matrix. We want to see if the condition D( g )A = AD( g ) holds, therefore we write [41] )A = D(h
g G
)D( D(h g )XD( g 1 ) )D( 1 )D(h ) D(h g )XD( g 1 )D(h

g G
=
g G
g g ). D(h )XD({h }1 ) D(h
(3.26)
g Since g runs through all elements of a closed group, h also runs through all elements of the group, but in a dierent order, which does not aect the sum, however. Now we know from Schurs Lemma that A = 1; Xlm = 1, = lm , i. e. Dil ( g )Dmj ( g 1 ) = lm ij
g G
(3.27)
Alexander Pokorny
3. Representation Theory or
Dil ( g )Djm ( g ) = lm ij , g G
27
(3.28)
if D is unitary. We will only consider these cases without any loss of generality. To evaluate lm we have to set i = j and then sum over i: g )Dmi ( g 1 ) = nlm = Dil (
g G i g G
gg 1 ) Dml ( ml = gml .
g G
=
g G
Dml (E ) =
(3.29)
g So we have found that lm = n lm and hence we get the following formula (for the unitary case):
Dil ( g )Djm ( g) = g G
g lm ij , n
(3.30)
where g is the order of the group G. It can be easily shown, that for the case D = D of two dierent irreducible representations and , we get the Great Orthogonality Theorem (GOT): [41, 8]
( ) ( )
Dil ( g )Djm ( g) =
g G
g lm ij , n
(3.31)
where n is the dimension of the irreducible representation . This very powerful and general theorem can be reduced to a less general but very practical form simply by setting i = l and m = j , then we get Dii ( g )Djj ( g) =
g G ( ) ( )
g ij . n
(3.32)
Now we sum over i and j on both sides and hence we get Dii ( g )Djj ( g) =
i j g G i j () ( )
g ij n
=
g G
() ( g )( ) ( g) g n ii
i
= g .
(3.33)
Alexander Pokorny
28
The resulting formula is called the Little Orthogonality Theorem (LOT): [41, 8]
() ( g )( ) ( g ) = g .
g G
(3.34)
Since the all elements of the same class have equal characters, we can simplify the above expression, where g (C ) is the number of operations of a class C , and thus we get
g (C )() (C )( ) (C ) = g .
C G
(3.35)
If we consider all nonequivalent irreducible representations of a group, the matrix elements Dij ( g )() form a vector for xed , i, j in a g -dimensional space, and therefore the irreducible representation D() provides n2 orthogonal vectors. In a g -dimensional space the number of linearly independent vectors cannot exceed g , we can say that [41] n2 g.
(3.36)
3.2.3
Criteria for reducibility
Now we shall examine criteria for reducibility. The character of an irreducible representation is called primitive, characters of reducible representations are named compounds. A reducible representation can be written in terms of irreducible representations, i. e.: D( g) =
a D() ( g ),
(3.37)
and hence for the characters a similar relationship is valid: i =
a i ,
( )
( )
(3.38) gi and sum over i, we
where a are simple positive integers. If we multiply now by i get i

i ( )
i gi =
a
i
gi i
( ) ( ) i
= (3.39)
a g = ga ,
and hence a = 1 g gi i
i ( )
i .
(3.40)
Alexander Pokorny
29
If we multiply (3.38) by gi times the complex conjugate equation and sum over i, we get i i gi =
i ,
a a
i
i i
( ) ( )
gi =
,
a a g ; (3.41)
i i gi = g
i
a2
Now we can see that, if the representation is reducible, one of the integral coecients a must be one, the others must vanish. We can now write a simple but important criterion for reducibility: gi |i |2 = g.
i
(3.42)
3.2.4
Regular representation
A special representation shall be considered in the following section. Let G = {g 1 , . . . , g n } be a group of nite order. Now we take an element g i and multiply the whole group with g i , i. e. G =g i G (3.43)
That gives the group G but in permuted order, which I want to express writing G . Regarding G and G as vectors, we can hence set up a matrixthat represents a linear operatorwhich performs this permutation, e. g. 0 1 ... 0 1 0 . . . 0 {g 1 , g 2 , . . . , g n } . . . 2 , g 1 , . . . , g n } (3.44) = {g . . . . . . 0 0 0 ... 1 This permutation matrix only contains elements that are 1 or 0 and only one 1 per row and one per column! The matrix is unique and hence suitable to be a representation for the operation g i . Formally, we can say, that if g a g i = g b Dab ( gi ) = ab (3.45)
Of course, for the unit element E the matrix will be the unit matrix, hence the character (E ) = g , where g = |G|. For all other elements, every operation is changed into a dierent one, hence we can say generally, that [41] (gi ) = 0 f or g i = E g f or g i = E (3.46)
Let us now express the regular representation in terms of irreducible representations, such that i =
a i .
( )
(3.47)
Alexander Pokorny
30
The identity always has its own class without any further elements. For this class of the identity we have i = 1 = g , while in the th irreducible representation we have ( ) 1 = n . So we can say that the composed character of the identity in the regular representation is given by g=
a n
(3.48)
Furthermore, remembering (3.40) we can calculate the coecients a . For the identity, only the term i = 1 contributes, hence we get a = 1 g gi i i
i ( )
1 ( ) = gn = n = 1 . g
(3.49)
Substituting now (3.48), we get the important formula [41] n2 = g.
(3.50)
Finally, we shall state another important theorem that gives a relation between group structure and representation theory. Theorem 3.6. The number of nonequivalent irreducible representations of a group is equal to the number of classes in the group. [41]
Consequences The regular representation is very important for our work, since it contains all irreducible representations of the group and is very easy to calculate with a straightforward procedure, which is important for automatized computer work. Furthermore, (3.50) states that any irreducible representation is contained n times in the regular representation, where n is the dimension of the representation. Reducing the regular representationas any reducible representationgives blockdiagonal form. Symbolically, a reduced representation matrix (in the regular representation) looks as in the following example, +/ being a number not necessarily zero, and + gives the block structure, if the multiplicity problem is dealt with properly. However, this is not required, if only the characters have to be calculated, because in the regular representation each n-dimensional representation occurs exactly n times and therefore only the traces of the blocks of n2 n2 elements (symbolized by +/ in (3.51)) have to be devided by n in order to obtain the characters of the irreducible representations. Here is a symbolic example, a real example will be shown on page 54.
Alexander Pokorny
31
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
(3.51)
Alexander Pokorny
32
4. Multilinear Algebra
Alexander Pokorny
4 Multilinear Algebra
4.1 Algebras, bilinear and quadratic forms
We are now going into the multilinear algebra to dene the Cliord algebra we need for our parametriation of group elements (operations). This requires some preliminary denitions. Denition 4.1. An algebra A over F is a linear space with a multiplication that is distributive and associative multiplication, i. e. a, b A (a, b) A, such that for all a, b, c A and all , F (a + b)c = (ac) and c(a + b) = (ca) + (cb), a(bc) = (ab)c. Denition 4.2. Let V (F) be a linear space. Then we call a mapping B : V V F a bilinear form, if B (x + y, z ) = B (x, z ) + B (y, z ), B (x, y ) = B (x, y ), B (x, y + z ) = B (x, y ) + B (x, z ), B (x, y ) = B (x, y ), with F and x, y, z V (F). Additionally, the bilinear form B (x, y ) is called symmetric, if B (x, y ) = B (y, x), and skew-symmetric, if B (x, y ) = B(y, x) [3]. Theorem 4.1. For any x, y V , we can write B (x, y ) = (xe )T B e y e , E is a basis of V . Proof. Let us rst represent x and y on as column vectors on a given basis E :
n n
x=
k=1
ek xe k
and y =
j =1
e ej yj .
Now we calculate B (x, y ) and get

n n n e ej yj j =1 n e xe k yj B (ek , ej ) k=1 j =1 n n e xe k yj kj , k=1 j =1
B (x, y ) = B
k=1
ek xe k,
where B e = (ij ) is called the matrix of the bilinear form.
33
34
We note that the matrix of a bilinear form has the same symmetry properties as the form itself, i. e. if the form is symmetric, the matrix is also symmetric, if, however, the bilinear form is skew-symmetric, so is the matrix of the bilinear form. Denition 4.3. A mapping Q : V V F is called quadratic form, if a bilinear form B : V V F exists, such that for any vector x V : Q(x) = B (x, x). The bilinear form B (x, x) is called polar to the quadratic form Q(x). Often quadratic forms1 are symbolized by their polar bilinear forms with two equal arguments, i. e. B (x, x). Furthermore, we should mention the simple relation between bilinear and quadratic forms 1 B (x, y ) = {Q(x + y ) Q(x) Q(y )}. 2 (4.1)
In analogy to Theorem 4.1 we can state that for any given vector x V there is a matrix of the quadratic form, such that Q(x) = (xe )T Qe xe . (4.2)
Let Q be a quadratic form on R(p,q) , an n-dimensional real linear space with signature n = p + q , with
2 2 2 Q(x) = x2 1 + + xp xp+1 xp+q
(4.3)
4.2
Constructing the Cliord Algebra
Let (V, Q) be a nite dimensional linear space over F with the basis e1 , . . . , en of V . Now we constuct a new vector space C (V, Q) with dim C (V, Q) = 2n by forming a new basis consisting of any distinct products of basis elements of V , i. e. 1, e1 e2 , e1 e2 e3 , e2 e3 , e1 e2 e3 en , . . . , where denotes the inner product (Cliord multiplication, sometimes also we shall omit this sign in the following) with these properties: ei ej + ej ei = 2B (ei , ej ) ei = ei = ei
(4.4) (4.5)
for all ei , ej C (V, Q), F. The space constructed in such a way is not only a linear space, but also an algebra, the so-called geometric algebra of Cliord algebra. This denition shall be sucient for my purpose, for details see [43].
Quadratic forms are even more important, since any analytical formulae of conic sections are quadratic forms, which can be transformed easily to principal axis form by diagonalizing the matrix of the form. In quantum mechanics bilinear forms are used to dene the matrix elements of operators, i |H |j or (a quadratic form) to dene the expectation value H = |H | = E , where | = 1.
Alexander Pokorny
4. Multilinear Algebra Theorem 4.2. The linear space constructed above has the following properties:
35
C p,q is an algebra over F, because the multiplication ei ej , ei , ej V is associative and distributive (but not commutative), C C
p,q p,q
is a simple algebra of dimension 2p+q , i p q = 1 mod 4 [18]. is unique except for the cases of isomorphy.
We call this algebra the Cliord Algebra of the linear space V with respect to the quadratic form Q. According to the signature (p, q ) of the quadratic form, Cliord Algebras are often written as C p,q . In the following I give a small list of simple Cliord Algebras.
4.2.1
C C
0,1 1,0
Some Cliord Algebras

Here is e2 i = 1, hence C
0,1
C.
Now e2 i = 1 holds, therefore the algebra is nothing else than a direct sum of R with itself.
2 Here, e2 i = +1, but of course (ei ej ) = 1 and the basis is {1, e3 e2 , e1 e3 , e2 e1 }, i. e. C 0,3 H.
0,3
3,3
If we choose for example a basis {1, e1 , e2 , e3 , e3 e2 , e1 e3 , e2 e1 , e1 e2 e3 } (apart from scalar and pseudo-scalar) there are three elements with positive square (the vectors) and three with negative square (the bivectors). This is the algebra I shall use in order to parametrize 3-space. Choose a basis {1, e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 , e3 e2 , e1 e3 , e2 e1 , e1 e4 , e2 e4 , e3 e4 , e1 e2 e3 , e2 e3 e4 , e1 e3 e4 , e1 e2 e4 , e1 e2 e3 e4 } and again, there are 4 elements with negative positive square (the vectors) and 4 with negative square (the 2-vectors), the bivectors being composed of the 1- and 2-vectors. This shall be the algebra to parametrize operations in 4-space.
4,4
Now it is interesting to dene a certain bilinear form to construct a special Cliord Algebra. In analogy to the quaternions it is suitable to use ei ej + ej ei = 2ij (4.6)
the sign depending if we want to use Cartan (+1) or Pauli (1) gauge. The following properties of Cliord-multiplication are important for our calculations (and follow directly from 4.6): ei ej = ej ei and e2 i = 1 (4.7)
Alexander Pokorny
36
Convention Since I shall use the notation ei for Cliord elements in the context of group theory, it is furthermore unnecessary to mark the Cliord multiplication with a special sign, hence we shall write a product of two Cliord elements as ei ej . I shall always use the Cartan gauge. We shall call ei vectors, ei ej bivectors and so on. Without loss of generality, we shall furthermore sort the elementary basis vectors ei within the basis of Cliord Algebra in an arbitrary order2 , i. e., for e3 e2 e4 we shall write e2 e3 e4 instead. Example Having the two expressions A = ae2 e3 e1 and B = be1 e3 the product of the two is simply AB = abe2 e3 e1 e1 e3 . Since e1 e1 = 1, we have AB = abe2 e3 e3 and again AB = abe2 .
4.3
Quaternions
Hamilton [33] invented the quaternions in 1843, when he tried to generalize the concept of complex numbers to more than one imaginary unit. After having tried to use two imaginary units i and j , he realized that it was not possible that way, and that he had to assume a fourth imaginary unit k to be able to multiply the triples of numbers (the three imaginary units), and hence the quaternions were born. Let us consider in analogy to the complex number z C : z = a + bi, a, b R (4.8)
an expression a + bi + cj + dk , with a, b, c, d R. Then we have a real part a, but three imaginary parts b, c, d. We can now write q H : q = a + bi + cj + dk, a, b, c, d R (4.9)
where H is the eld of quaternions, given the letter H as a tribute to Sir William Rowan Hamilton. In the following I shall use a short form to write quaternions, which we use as the so called Euler-Rodrigues parameters, it is a simple expression: , = + 1 i + 2 j + 3 k. (4.10)
For quaternions q H, q = , , R and R3 the following equations hold: ij = ji = k , jk = kj = i, ki = ik = j i2 = j 2 = k 2 = 1 ijk = 1 One of the most inportant features of quaternions is their multiplication rule. It is simple to prove this rule just by using the denition given above. In 3-space a parametrization of rotations in terms of quaternions is very elegant, because one needs only the rotation axis as a vector from laboratory space and the angle to write the quaternion. Composed rotations are then very easy to obtain.
2
For 3-space the basis used here will be {1, e1 , e2 , e3 , e3 e2 , e1 e3 , e2 e1 , e1 e2 e3 }, in 4-space we shall choose {1, e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 , e3 e2 , e1 e3 , e2 e1 , e1 e4 , e2 e4 , e3 e4 , e1 e2 e3 , e2 e3 e4 , e1 e3 e4 , e1 e2 e4 , e1 e2 e3 e4 }.
Alexander Pokorny
4. Multilinear Algebra Theorem 4.3. 1 , 1 2 , 2 = 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 + 2 1 + 1 2
37
Proof. This formula is easy to prove, just multiply the two expressions: 1 , 1 2 , 2 = (1 + 11 i + 12 j + 13 k )(2 + 21 i + +22 j + 23 k ) = = 1 2 + 1 21 i + 1 22 j + 1 32 k + 11 i2 + 11 i21 i+ + 11 i22 j + 11 i23 k + 12 j2 + 12 j 21 i + 12 j 22 j + + 12 j 23 k + 13 k2 + 13 k 21 i + 13 k 22 j + 13 k 23 k = = 1 2 + (11 i21 i + 12 j 22 j + 13 k 23 k ) + (1 21 i+ + 1 22 j + 1 23 k ) + (11 i2 + 12 j2 + 13 k2 )+ + (12 j 23 k + 13 k 22 j + 11 i23 k + 13 k 21 i + +11 i22 j + 12 j 21 i) = 1 2 1 2 + 1 (21 i + 22 j + 23 k )+ + 2 (11 i + 12 j + 13 k ) + (12 23 13 22 )i + (11 23 + + 13 21 )j + (11 22 12 21 )k
And now we simplify by writing scalar and vector product as usual and we get 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 + 2 1 + 1 2 . The multiplication rule is important since it makes it possible to calculate products of two quaternions in a very easy way, which was a signicant advantage in handling rotations in R3 . There is another important feature of quaternions. In analogy to the regular representation, we can calculate the representation matrix of 1, i, j and k in a very easy way: 1 1 0 1 i i 0 1 1 = = j j 0 0 k k 0 0 1 i 0 i 1 1 i = = j k 0 k j 0 0 1 j i k 0 j = = j 1 1 0 i k 1 k 0 i j 0 k = = j i 0 k 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 i 0 j 1 k 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 1 j 0 1 0 k 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 i 0 0 0 j 1 0 0 k 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 i 1 0 0 j 0 0 0 k
(4.11)
(4.12)
(4.13)
(4.14)
Alexander Pokorny
38
Thus we have a (regular) representation for the quaternion group Q = {1, 1, i, i, j , j , k , k }.3 Q 1 1 i i j j k k 1 1 1 i i j j k k 1 1 1 i i j j k k i i i 1 1 k k j j i i i 1 1 k k j j j j j k k 1 1 i i j j j k k 1 1 i i k k k j j i i 1 1 k k k j j i i 1 1 Table 4.1: Multiplication table of the quaternion group Q. The representation matrices can also be expressed in terms of the Pauli matrices, i. e. 1 = 0 1 1 0 2 = 0 i i 0 1 = 1 0 0 1 I= 1 0 0 1 (4.15)
1 0 0 0 I 0 0 1 0 0 D(1) = = 0 I 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 D(j ) = = 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 i2 0 1 0 0 0 D(i) = = 0 i2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 I 0 D(k ) = = I 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Table 4.2: Representation matrices for the quaternion group.
By the way, the quaternion group has the structure of a double group, if we would neglect the signs, it would give the Klein four-group.
Alexander Pokorny
5 Symmetry Operations
5.1 Symmetry operations that may occur in Rn
Since we are dealing with groups in Rn we have to ask rst, which properties my be derived simply from the knowledge of the dimension n of the given space, giving us an overview of what we have to expect in groups in n-space. Let us consider a crystallographic point group (G, ) Rn , with G = {1, g 1 , g 2 , . . . , g m }, where m N. We are rst asking, which orders k of operations can occur at a given n dimension n of space, where the order is dened as the smallest k such that g i = 1.
5.1.1
Symmetry operations in 2-space
The only symmetry operations that are possible in 2-space are pure rotations around a point (not axis) and reections about a mirror line (not plane).
& & ' ( ' ( ' ( ' ( ' ( ' ( ' ( ' ( ' (' A "#$% ( ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) &0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0) B 0 & (a) C ! 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1& 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 21 & D
E
A B C (b) D E
' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ '&%$ $ & $ & $ & $ & $ & $ & $ & $ & $ & % ' % ' % ' % ' % ' % ' % ' % ' % ' 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( '&%$10)( A ! 1 &%$0)(2 ' &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 ' 0)(3 0)(3 0)(3 0)(3 0)(3 0)(3 0)(3 0)(3 2 ' 2 ' 2 ' 2 ' 2 ' 2 ' 2 ' 2 '&%$10)(32 3 B 1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 &%$1 ' 0)( ' 0)( ' 0)( ' 0)( ' 0)( "# ' 0)( ' 0)( ' 0)( ' 0)( '&%$10)( (a) C ' $ & $ & $ & $ & $ & $ & $ & %&$1 % ' % ' % ' % ' % ' % ' % ' %&$1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( 1 0)( ' 0)( '%&$10)( &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ ' &%$ '&%$ D '
E
E D C (b) B A
Figure 5.1: Reection (left) and inversion (right), which is identical to the rotation about the angle , where (a) indicates the original and (b) the image.
It is evident, that the inversion in 2-space is nothing else, than a rotation about the angle . Let us, for instance, have a look at the rotation matrix in R2 , which is given by D= cos sin sin cos =
=
1 0 0 1
= E,
where E is the identity matrix. In spaces of odd dimensions we shall see that the identity of inversion and a rotation by does not hold.
39
40 Symmetry operation Sch onies-symbol Rotations Cn Reections x , y Inversion1 i C2
5. Symmetry Operations International symbol n, n = 2, 3, 4, . . . 2 12
Table 5.1: Symmetry operations in 2-space (R2 ).
5.1.2
Symmetry operations in 3-space
Generally, symmetry operations in three dimensions are the well known geometrical operations of Euclidian space:2 E (a) A A (b) E H F G D D B B C C (b) F G E H H F G (a) A B D C B A C D (b) G F H E E H F G (a) A C D B B D C A E H F G
Figure 5.2: Reection (left), rotation (middle) and inversion (right), which is identical to the rotation about the angle , where (a) indictes the original and (b) the image.
Symmetry operation Sch onies-symbol Rotations Cn Reections yz , xz , xy 3 Inversion i
International symbol n, n = 2, 3, 4, . . . 2 1
Table 5.2: Symmetry operations in 3-space (R3 ).
The inversion in R2 as a special case of rotation about an angle of should not be listed in this table as a symmtry operation of its own, but it is, nevertheless, useful to compare it with the inversion operation as it will occur in higher dimensions. 2 The operation of translation, however, will not be a point of discussion here, because we will only consider point group properties rst. 3 The inversion in R3 can be considered as a special case of three consequent reections on three planes orthogonal to the three axes x1 , . . . , xn .
Alexander Pokorny
5. Symmetry Operations
41
5.2
The classication of symmetry operations
Follwing Hermann [44] we can classify the operations of crystallographic point groups according to their multiplicity. Hermann uses integer numbers to write the multiplicities for every invariant subspace (hence it is useful to have the block-structure of a suitable representation in mind). Example In 2-space the identity E2 has two invariant subspaces:
E2 =
1 0 , 0 1
(5.1)
hence the Hermann symbol4 for E2 is 11. For E3 it is 111 and so on. A multiplicity of 2 gives automatically a multiplicity of 2 in the orthogonal invariant subspace, hence the symbol for C2 is 22 in 2-space, 221 in 3-space and 2211 in 4-space. This is not the case for a rotation of multiplicity 3 in 3-space, the matrix is, e. g. 1 0 0 Dx () = 0 cos sin , 0 sin cos
(5.2)
where we see two invariant subspaces. The rst (1) has multiplicity 1, the other one multiplicity 3 and is two-dimensional, hence our Hermann symbol is 31, 311 in 4-space etc. Here is an overview of symmetry operations and their multiplicities in several dimensions. Dimension of space n=2 n=3 Operations as Hermann symbols 11 (Identity), 21 (mirror line), 22 (twofold rotation), 3, 4, 6, (3,4,6-fold rotations) 111 (1)5 , 211 (m), 221 (2), 222 ( 1), 31 (3), 41 (4), 61 (6), 32 ( 6), 42 ( 4), 62 ( 3)
Table 5.3: Classication of operations of crystallographic point groups in spaces of several dimensions according to their multiplicities.
Since symmetry operations in 4-space are not so self evident as in the well known spaces of dimension 2 and 3, we shall list them separately according to their partial and overall multiplicities.
4 5
N. B. that this must not be confused with the Hermann-Mauguin symbols! The symbols given in parenthesis are the usual Hermann-Mauguin symbols.
Alexander Pokorny
42 Overall multiplicity m=1 m=2 m=3 m=4 m=5 m=6 m=8 m = 10 m = 12
5. Symmetry Operations Operations (partial multiplicities) 1111 2111, 2211, 2221, 2222 311, 33 411, 421, 422, 44 5 321, 322, 611, 621, 63, 66 8 X (means 10) 43, 64, T (means 12)
Table 5.4: Operations of crystallographic point groups in 4-space with overall and partial multiplicities.
5.3
5.3.1
The description of symmetry operations

Reections
One of the most simple type of symmetry operation is a reection on a mirror plane. In order to be able to name symmetry operations correctly, we should use a more precise and general way of saying it. For that purpose, let us consider the matrix representation in Cartesian coordinates: 1 0 0 D(y ) = 0 1 0 0 0 1
(5.3)
We can see that a reection inverts the sign of one (here the y ) coordinate, that is a 1-dimensional subspace of R3 . Generally, a reection leaves an n 2 dimensional space invariant. Reection with quaternions A reection on a mirror plane orthogonal to a vector n is given in terms of quaternion parameters by: n := 0, (n1 , n2 , n3 ) , (5.4)
where n = (n1 , n2 , n3 ), n is normed to be of unit length. The advantage of this denition is, that one can directly take the plane and use the cartesian coordinates as parameters. But the quaternion expression is limited to 3-space and hence not applicable for generalization in higher dimensional space.
Alexander Pokorny
5. Symmetry Operations Reection in Cliord algebra The reection on the same mirror plane in terms of Cliord elements is given by: n := n1 e1 + n2 e2 + n3 e3 .
43
(5.5)
The advantage of direct evidence of the cartesian coordiantes remains, but we shall see, that Cliord algebra does not limit us to 3-space, which shall be discussed later.
5.3.2
Rotations
The rst straightforward approach the formalism of a complex rotation in a space is the concatenative sequence of rotation by given angles around certain axes. Hence, we can easily set up the rotation matrices for 2-space and 3-space: Rotation in R2 D() = cos sin sin cos 1 0 0 cos 0 sin Dx () = 0 cos sin , Dy () = 0 1 0 , 0 sin cos sin 0 cos cos sin 0 Dz () = sin cos 0. 0 0 1
Rotation in R3
It is possible to describe a general rotation in R3 by a sequence of three rotations, proposed by Euler [45]. Rotations with Euler angles A general rotation in 3-space can be performed by a rotation about the z axis by rst, then a rotation about the y axis by and nally a rotation about the z axis by . Hence we have the overall rotation given by E (, , ) = Dz ()Dy ( )Dz ( ) = (5.6) cos sin 0 cos 0 sin cos sin 0 = sin cos 0 0 1 0 sin cos 0 0 0 1 sin 0 cos 0 0 1 Hence we get the overall rotation matrix sin cos sin + cos cos sin cos cos + cos sin sin sin E (, , ) = cos cos sin sin cos cos cos cos sin sin cos sin sin sin sin cos cos
Alexander Pokorny
44 z Q1 Dz ( ) P
Dy ( )
5. Symmetry Operations
P
Dz ()
Q2 y
Figure 5.3: Rotation in R3 using Euler angles. The operation transforms P into Q1 , Q1 = Dz ( )P . Then we apply Dy ( ) on Q1 to get Q2 : Q2 = Dy ( )Q1 . In the last step Dz () transforms Q2 into P , P = Dz ()Q2 , or the overall operation: P = Dz ()Dy ( )Dz ( )P .
Theorem 5.1. The set of all Euler matrices E (, , ), where , , R, forms the group SO3 (R). The unity element is E (0, 0, 0), the inverse E (, , )1 = E (, , ). [16] Rotations with quaternions (EulerRodrigues parameters) An m-fold rotation can be dened in terms of EulerRodrigues parameters as: Cm (n) := cos , sin n1 , sin n2 , sin n3 m m m m , (5.7)
where n = (n1 , n2 , n3 ) is the rotational axis and m the order of the operation. The inverse is also easy to nd, it is obtained simply by sign reversion of the angle, which makes the sin-term negative, the cos-term, however, remains positive, i. e.
1 Cm (n) := cos
, sin n1 , sin n2 , sin n3 m m m m
(5.8)
The latter equation can be demonstrated easily by using the quaternion product formula. However, this formula is even complicated enough, compared with the straightforward procedure of multiplication of Cliord elements.
Alexander Pokorny
5. Symmetry Operations Rotations in Cliord algebra Similarly, an m-fold rotation can be dened in terms of Cliord Algebra as: Cm (n) := cos or its inverse as
1 Cm (n) := cos
45
+ sin (n1 e3 e2 + n2 e1 e3 + n3 e2 e1 ) m m
(5.9)
sin (n1 e3 e2 + n2 e1 e3 + n3 e2 e1 ) . m m
(5.10)
Alexander Pokorny
46
6. The Cliord Algebra Software
Alexander Pokorny
6 The Cliord Algebra Software

The program group has been written in Fortran 90 and compiled on Linux machines with f90 by NAG c and on Digital c machines with Digital Fortran 90 c . It has been used to produce all the necessary results needed for this work. It has furthermore been developed as a tool for the generation of groups in spaces of any dimension (still limited to spaces of dimension less or equal 4).
6.1
The Main Program group
The software consists of only one executable le group that reads several parameter les: (1) lename from standard input, e. g. $ group < input/calc, where the lename may be chosen in any way. (2) input/groupname dimension .in, where the structure of the lename has a strict form. For example, it may be called input/D6h 3.in. This input le is shown in the following: T Op W E 1 2 3 3 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 3
P P P P P P P P P P P P I I I
E C2 C+3 C-3 C+6 C-6 C21 C22 C23 C"21 C"22 C"23 i S+3 S-3
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
1 0 2 2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 -2 -2 0 -3 3 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 -3 1 -2 -2 0 0 0
0 1 3 -3 2 -2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
47
48 I I I I I I I I I S+6 S-6 Sh Sv1 Sv2 Sv3 Sd1 Sd2 Sd3 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -3 3 1 -2 -2 0 0 0 1 -2 -2 0 3 -3 -3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
6. The Cliord Algebra Software 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
In the header T means type of operation, Op is the name of the operation, W is a parameter that is reserved for output and the following rows are the Cliord parameters of the operations, where the numbers are not the parameters themselves, but variables stored in the le input/standard.vars also required at start time of the program. The latter le has the following structure:
SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 1 \frac{1}{2} \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \cos{\frac{\pi}{8}} \sin{\frac{\pi}{8}} \cos{\frac{\pi}{5}} \sin{\frac{\pi}{5}} \cos{\frac{\pi}{7}} \sin{\frac{\pi}{7}} \cos{\frac{2\pi}{7}} \sin{\frac{2\pi}{7}} \cos{\frac{3\pi}{7}} \sin{\frac{3\pi}{7}} \cos{\frac{\pi}{10}} \sin{\frac{\pi}{10}} \cos{\frac{\pi}{9}} \sin{\frac{\pi}{9}} \cos{\frac{4\pi}{9}} \sin{\frac{4\pi}{9}} \cos{\frac{2\pi}{9}} \sin{\frac{2\pi}{9}} \sqrt{2} 2 \frac{\sqrt{2}}{4} \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \frac{1}{4} \frac{3}{4} \sqrt{\frac{5}{48}} \sqrt{\frac{5}{16}} \frac{1}{8} \frac{\sqrt{5}}{8} \frac{\sqrt{3}}{8} \frac{\sqrt{15}}{8} \frac{3-\sqrt{5}}{8} \frac{\sqrt{5}-1}{8} \frac{\sqrt{5}+1}{8} \frac{\sqrt{5}+3}{8} \frac{5-\sqrt{5}}{8} \frac{5+\sqrt{5}}{8} \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}} 1.000000000000000000000000 0.500000000000000000000000 0.866025403784438646763723 0.707106781186547524400844 0.923879532511286756128183 0.382683432365089771728460 0.809016994374947424102293 0.587785252292473129168706 0.900968867902419126236102 0.433883739117558120475768 0.623489801858733530525005 0.781831482468029808708445 0.222520933956314404288903 0.974927912181823607018132 0.951056516295153572116439 0.309016994374947424102293 0.939692620785908384054109 0.342020143325668733044100 0.173648177666930348851717 0.984807753012208059366743 0.766044443118978035202393 0.642787609686539326322643 1.414213562373095048801688 2.000000000000000000000000 0.353553390593273762200422 0.577350269189625764509149 0.250000000000000000000000 0.750000000000000000000000 0.322748612183951407098272 0.559016994374947424102293 0.125000000000000000000000 0.279508497187473712051147 0.216506350946109661690931 0.484122918275927110647408 0.095491502812526287948853 0.154508497187473712051147 0.404508497187473712051147 0.654508497187473712051147 0.345491502812526287948853 0.904508497187473712051147 0.408248290463863016366214
This le contains the numeric values of required constants and the corresponding A mathematical expressions (in L TEX form).
Alexander Pokorny
49
D6h E C2 + C3 C3 + C6 C6 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 i + S3 S3 + S6 S6 h v 1 v 2 v 3 d1 d2 d3
1 1 0
1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 3 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 1 2
3 2 23
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
1 2 3 2 3 2
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 0 3 2
3 2
3 2 23
e1 e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 e1 e1 e2 e3 0 0 1 0 3 0 2 3 2 0 1 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 2 3 0 2 1 0 2 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 6.1: Cliord parameters of the group D6h .
Table 6.2: Parameters of the group D6h , including EulerRodrigues parameters and Euler angles, taken from [31].
Alexander Pokorny
50
The program then reads the calculation instructions from standard input (or a le as in the command $ group < input/calc) and performs the actions specied. Here is a list of possible calculations: VARS filename OPTION optionname File with variable denitions, by default standard.vars, has to be located in input/. Sets possible options; here is a complete list:
A tex makes it possible to generate L TEX output in the folder outtex/, where e. g. for a le D6h 3.in the following les will be stored:
D6h 3 params.tex (cf. Table 6.1) D6h 3 params short.tex Parameters of D6h
E=1 C2 = e2 e1
+ C3 C3 + C6 C6 1 + 23 e2 e1 2 1 23 e2 e1 2 3 +1 e e 2 2 2 1 3 1 2 e2 e1 2
i = e1 e2 e3
S3 = + S6 = S6 =
+ 1 S3 = 2 e3 +
= = = =
3 e e e 2 1 2 3 1 3 e + 2 e1 e2 e3 2 3 23 e3 + 1 e e e 2 1 2 3 3 1 e + 2 e1 e2 e3 2 3
h = e3 v1 = e2 v 2 = v 3 =
3 e 1 e 2 1 2 2 3 1 e e 1 2 2 2 3 e 2 2 3 e 2 2
C21 = e3 e2 C22 = 1 e e + 2 3 2 C23 = 1 e e 2 3 2 C21 = e1 e3 C22 = C23 =
3 e e 2 1 3 3 e e 2 1 3
d1 = e1 d2 = 1 e + 2 1 d3 = 1 e 2 1
3 e e 1 e e 2 3 2 2 1 3 3 1 e e 2 e1 e3 2 3 2
D6h 3 classes.tex
D6h E C2 + C3 C3 + C6 C6 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 Classes E C2 + C3 C3 + C 6 C6 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 i + S3 S3 + S6 S6 h v 1 v 2 v 3 d 1 d 2 d 3
D6h 3 classes short.tex Classes of D6h : (E ) (C2 ) + + (C3 C3 ) (C6 C6 ) (C21 C22 + C23 ) (C21 C22 C23 ) (i) (S3 + S3 ) (S6 S6 ) (h ) (v1 v2 v3 ) (d1 d2 d3 )
D6h 3 multtable.tex and D6h 3 multtable.tex shown in Table 6.3.
Alexander Pokorny

D6h E E C2 + C3 C3 + C6 C6 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 i + S3 S3 + S6 S6 h v 1 v 2 v 3 d1 d2 d3 E C2 + C3 C3 + C6 C6 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 i + S3 S3 + S6 S6 h v 1 v 2 v 3 d 1 d 2 d 3 C2 C2 E C6 + C6 C3 + C3 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 h S6 + S6 S3 + S3 i d 1 d 2 d 3 v 1 v 2 v 3
+ C3 C3 + C 3 C3 + C6 C6 C3 E + E C3 C 2 C6 + C6 C2 C22 C23 C23 C21 C21 C22 C22 C23 C23 C21 C21 C22 + S6 S6 S 3 h + h S3 i S6 + S6 i + S3 S3 v 2 v 3 v 3 v 1 v 1 v 2 d 2 d 3 d 3 d 1 d 1 d 2 + C6 + C6 C3 C2 C6 + C3 E C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 S3 i S6 + S3 h + S6 d 3 d 1 d 2 v 3 v 1 v 2 C6 C6 + C3 + C6 C2 E C3 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 + S3 + S6 i h S3 S6 d2 d3 d1 v 2 v 3 v 1
51
C21 C22 C23 i C21 C21 C23 C22 C22 C23 C2 + C6 C6 E C3 + C3 v 1 d3 d2 v 2 v 3 d1 i + S6 S6 h S3 + S3 C22 C22 C21 C23 C23 C21 C6 C2 + C6 + C3 E C3 v 2 d 1 d 3 v 3 v 1 d 2 S6 i + S6 + S3 h S3 C23 C23 C22 C21 C21 C22 + C6 C6 C2 C3 + C3 E v 3 d 2 d 1 v 1 v 2 d 3 + S6 S6 i S3 + S3 h i h S6 + S6 S3 + S3 d 1 d2 d 3 v 1 v 2 v 3 E C6 + C6 C3 + C3 C2 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23
+ + S3 S3 S6 S6 h + S3 S6 S3 h i + S6 v 2 v 3 v 1 d2 d3 d1 C6 C3 E C2 + C6 + C3 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 S3 + S6 h + S3 S6 i v 3 v 1 v 2 d 3 d 1 d 2 + C6 E + C3 C6 C2 C3 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 + S6 S3 i S6 + S3 h d 3 d 1 d 2 v 3 v 1 v 2 C3 C2 C6 + C3 E + C6 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 S6 + S3 + S6 i h S3 d2 d3 d1 v 2 v 3 v 1 + C3 + C6 C2 E C3 C6 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21
C21 C21 C21 C23 C22 C22 C23 E C3 + C3 C2 + C6 C6 d1 v 3 v2 d2 d3 v 1 h S3 + S3 i + S6 S6
C22 C22 C22 C21 C23 C23 C21 + C3 E C3 C6 C2 + C6 d 2 v 1 v 3 d 3 d 1 v 2 + S3 h S3 S6 i + S6
C23 C23 C23 C22 C21 C21 C22 C3 + C3 E + C6 C6 C2 d 3 v 2 v 1 d 1 d 2 v 3 S3 + S3 h + S6 S6 i
v 1 v 2 v 3 d 1 d 2 d 3 v 1 d1 v 3 v 2 d 2 d 3 h S3 + S3 i + S6 S6 C21 C23 C22 C22 C23 C21 E C3 + C3 C2 + C6 C6 v 2 d 2 v 1 v 3 d 3 d 1 + S3 h S3 S6 i + S6 C22 C21 C23 C23 C21 C22 + C3 E C3 C6 C2 + C6 v 3 d3 v 2 v 1 d1 d2 S3 + S3 h + S6 S6 i C23 C22 C21 C21 C22 C23 C3 + C3 E + C6 C6 C2 d 1 v 1 d 3 d 2 v 2 v 3 i + S6 S6 h S3 + S3 C21 C23 C22 C22 C23 C21 C2 + C6 C6 E C3 + C3 d 2 v 2 d 1 d 3 v 3 v 1 S6 i + S6 + S3 h S3 C22 C21 C23 C23 C21 C22 C6 C2 + C6 + C3 E C3 d 3 v 3 d 2 d 1 v 1 v 2 + S6 S6 i S3 + S3 h C23 C22 C21 C21 C22 C23 + C6 C6 C2 C3 + C3 E
h i + S3 S3 + S6 S6 v 1 v 2 v 3 d 1 d 2 d 3 C2 + C3 C3 + C6 C6 E C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23
E 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ C3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ C6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C21 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C22 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C23 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C21 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C22 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C23 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ S3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ S6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
h 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
v 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
v 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
v 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A Table 6.3: L TEX output provided by the two output les D6h 3 multtable.tex and D6h 3 facttable.tex. Unfortunately, similar tables for bigger groupsas usual in R4 cannot be printed that way, instead of that I use a linear table searchable by the computer for a specic product.
Alexander Pokorny
52
6. The Cliord Algebra Software full prints the details of a calculation, especially if new operations are calculated to close the group. Also, a schematic view of the block structure when calculating the regular representation is given. factor This option makes it possible to print a multiplication table including the projective factors, i. e. a multiplication and factor table at the same time. regular To calculate the regular representation, this option has to be specied. In contrary to other options, which are A usually set the same way for most calculations (e. g. L TEX output), this option slows down the calculation signicantly and needs a lot of memory, thus it has to be selected carefully. regfull This optiononly useful for testing purposesis equivalent to the option regular, but gives the characters of all operations, whereas the latter only calculates charaters for one operation of every class, since all characters of one class must be the same. But for programming reasons, this option has been built in to provide a possibility to check the results for reliability.
GROUP . . . ENDGROUP
The invironment, where groups can be loaded for further calculations; the line for D6h would be D6h 3 (without underscore!). If the groups are only loaded this way, the group is checked for closure and closed if necessary, the multiplication table, class structure and order of every operation are determined. Irregular representations are optional (see above). denes group C as product A B , where these groups are loaded from input/A dim .in and input/B dim .in. The product-group (direct or semidirect, depending on the type of the second group B ) is calculated, checked for closure and stored as input/C dim .in.
MULT dim A B = C
To illustrate the parameters, I give an example of an input le input/calc, that also contains our group D6h among other dihedral groups, where the maximumdepending, of course, on the memory of the computeris ten groups on my Linux machine: VARS standard OPTION tex OPTION full OPTION regular GROUP D5h 3 D6h 3 ENDGROUP Selecting the standard variable le A Selecting L TEX-output Selecting full output for better control The regular representation shall be calculated, too Group denitions start here Load le input/D5h_3.in Load le input/D6h_3.in Group denitions end here
Alexander Pokorny
53
MULT 3 C2 * Cs = C2v MULT 3 D9 * Ci = D9d
Multiplication denition for input/C2v_3.in Multiplication denition for input/D9d_3.in
The main structure of the program is given in the following simple algorithm: Algorithm 1: Main program group open input (stdin or le) while n not EOF do process input line if input = VARS v then load variable le v end if if input = OPTION x then set option x end if if input = GROUP then repeat load group input/X dim .in until ENDGROUP is reached call calculation subroutines end if if input = MULT . . . then call multiplication subroutine end if end while call output routines
6.2
Calculation and Reports
Let us now calculate our group D6h from the inputle input/D6h 3.in with the command $ group < input/dihedral, where input/dihedral has the following contents:
VARS standard OPTION tex OPTION full OPTION regular GROUP C3v 3 D6h 3 ENDGROUP Selecting the standard variable le
A Selecting L TEX-output Selecting full output for better control The regular representation shall be calculated, too
Load le input/C3v_3.in Load le input/D6h_3.in
Alexander Pokorny
54 The calculation gives the following output:

** Group Theory, Copyright by A. Pokorny, 1998 ** 25.04.1999, at 20:02 OPTIONS: tex full factor regular VARIABLES: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 1.0000000000000000 0.5000000000000000 0.8660254037844386 0.7071067811865477 0.9238795325112868 0.3826834323650898 0.8090169943749473 0.5877852522924731 0.9009688679024193 0.4338837391175582 0.6234898018587335 0.7818314824680299 0.2225209339563144 0.9749279121818235 0.9510565162951536 0.3090169943749475 0.9396926207859085 0.3420201433256688 0.1736481776669303 0.9848077530122080 0.7660444431189779 0.6427876096865395 1.4142135623730951 2.0000000000000000 0.3535533905932738 0.5773502691896258 0.2500000000000000 0.7500000000000000 0.3227486121839515 0.5590169943749475 0.1250000000000000 0.2795084971874737 0.2165063509461096 0.4841229182759272 0.0954915028125263 0.1545084971874737 0.4045084971874737 0.6545084971874737 0.3454915028125263 0.9045084971874736 0.4082482904638630 = = = = F T F T
Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking
operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation operation
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
is closed analysing operation orders operation order analysis complete analysing classes class analysis complete regular representation calculation Representations are real Reducion matrix: classes 2, 2 Finding Irreps, calculating characters Calculating characters of Class 1 Calculating characters of Class 2 Calculating characters of Class 3 Calculating characters of Class 4 Calculating characters of Class 5 Calculating characters of Class 6 Calculating characters of Class 7 Calculating characters of Class 8 Calculating characters of Class 9 Calculating characters of Class 10 Calculating characters of Class 11 Calculating characters of Class 12 Block structure: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
CLIFFORD ELEMENTS 2-space: 3-space: 4-space: LOADING GROUPS Group D6h successfully loaded 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 32 13 21 123 0 1 2 3 4 32 13 21 14 24 34 123 234 134 124 1234
GROUP DEFINITIONS: Group D6h
checking closure Checking Checking Checking Checking Checking operation operation operation operation operation 1 2 3 4 5
writing multiplication table Calculation time: 1 sec.
The program shows the options used, then the variables, parameters andin full modethe details of calculation. First, the group is checked for closure by multiplication of all group operations with each other; if a new operation, that is not contained in the group, occurs, it is added to the group. This is not the case for the group D6h , but we shall see an example later. After that, the orders of any operation and the classes are calculated. Finally the matrices of regular representations are determined, reduced
Alexander Pokorny
55
and a symbolic matrix is shown, where - indicates matrix elements that vanish for all operations, whereas * means, that this matrix element is not zero for at least one operation. Sometimes also + will occur, in that case the matrix element is complex.
6.2.1
Creation of a report
After calculation it will be useful to create a report that simplies the output by combining the operations according to the classes they belong to. If we use $ process input/dihedral we get a le reports/D6h 3.rep:
Report of group D6h_3 outputs ... Operations: proper 12 improper 12 total 24 Classes: T Op W E 1 2 12 3 3 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 3 0 Class 9: 2 elements I S+6 6, 0 0 I S-6 6, 0 0 Class 10: 1 elements I Sh 2, 0 0 Class 11: 3 elements I Sv1 2, 0 0 I Sv2 2, 0 -3 I Sv3 2, 0 3 Class 12: 3 elements I Sd1 2, 0 1 I Sd2 2, 0 -2 I Sd3 2, 0 -2 0 0 -3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 Class 6: 3 elements P C"21 2, 0 0 P C"22 2, 0 0 P C"23 2, 0 0 Class 7: 1 elements I i 2, 0 0 Class 8: 2 elements I S+3 6, 0 0 I S-3 6, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -3 3 1 -2 -2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 1: 1 elements P E 1, 1 0 Class 2: 1 elements P C2 2, 0 0 Class 3: 2 elements P C+3 3, 2 0 P C-3 3, 2 0 Class 4: 2 elements P C+6 6, 3 0 P C-6 6, 3 0 Class 5: 3 elements P C21 2, 0 0 P C22 2, 0 0 P C23 2, 0 0
0 0
-2 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
3 3
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
3 -3
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
2 -2
0 0
1 -2 -2
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 -2 -2
0 3 -3
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 3 -3
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
Finally, we show the character table for D6h that is calculated from the irreducible representation (outtex/D6h 3 chartable.tex):
D6h Cl1 Cl2 Cl3 Cl4 Cl5 Cl6 Cl7 Cl8 Cl9 Cl10 Cl11 Cl12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 0 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 0 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 0 12 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 0
Table 6.4: Character table of the group D6h .
Alexander Pokorny
56
6.3
The calculations in detailexamples

+ + D6h = {E, C2 , C3 , C3 , C6 , C6 , C21 , C22 , C23 , C21 , C22 , C23 , + + i, S3 , S3 , S6 , S6 , h , v1 , v2 , v3 , d1 , d2 , d3 }
Let us now examine how the program works for the group D6h : (6.1)
From the parameter table (Table 6.1) we nd the follwing complete group denition: 1 3 + e2 e1 2 2
+ (C 3 )
D6h = 1 e2 e1
(E ) (C2 )
1 3 e2 e1 2 2
( C3 )
3 1 + e2 e1 2 2
+ C6
3 1 e2 e1 2 2
(C 6 )
e3 e2
(C21 )
1 3 e3 e2 + e1 e3 2 2
(C22 )
1 3 e3 e2 e1 e3 2 2
(C23 )
e1 e3
(C21 )
3 1 e3 e2 e1 e3 2 2
(C22 )
3 1 e3 e2 e1 e3 2 2
(C23 )
e1 e2 e3
(i)
1 3 e3 + e1 e2 e3 2 2
+ ( S3 )
1 3 e3 + e1 e2 e3 2 2
( S3 )
3 1 e3 + e1 e2 e3 2 2
+ ( S6 )
3 1 e3 + e1 e2 e3 2 2
( S6 )
e3 e2
( h ) (v 1 )
3 1 e1 e2 2 2
(v 2 )
3 1 e1 e2 2 2
( v 3 )
e1
( d 1 )
1 3 e2 e1 + 2 2
( d 2 )
1 3 e2 e1 2 2
( d 3 )
(6.2)
6.3.1
Checking closure
To check whether the group is closed, we just have to calculate the multiplication table and see if we get operations previously not contained in the group. For the case of D6h let us do some examples: Multiplication 1 e2 e1
(C 2 )
1 3 e2 e1 2 2
(d 3 )
1 3 3 1 e2 e1 e2 = e1 e2 = e2 e1 e1 2 2 2 2
(v 3 )
(6.3)
Alexander Pokorny
6. The Cliord Algebra Software Multiplication 2 1 3 e3 + e1 e2 e3 2 2

+ ( S3 )
57
1 3 3 1 e1 e2 e3 = e3 e1 e2 e3 + e1 e2 e3 e1 e2 e3 = e2 e1 2 2 2 2 (i)
( C6 )
(6.4)
Multiplication 3 1 3 e3 e2 + e1 e3 2 2
(C22 )
3 1 e3 + e1 e2 e3 2 2
+ (S6 )
1 3 = e1 e2 2 2
( d 3 )
(6.5)
In the way shown above, the complete multiplication table will be calculated. For every product commutativity is checked, hence it is nally known whether the group is Abelian or not. Algorithm 2: Multiplication Table O . . . operation N . . . Number of operations in group for i = 1 to N do for j = 1 to N do a = Oi Oj ; b = Oj Oi if a = b then group is not Abelian end if write a in table in row i and column j end for end for
6.3.2
Analysing operation orders
In the next step the operation orders shall be checked. For that purpose, operations are multiplied by themselves until the original operation is found. For example, let us check + the order of the operation C3 : 12 1 3 + e2 e1 2 2
+ (C3 )
1 3 + e2 e1 2 2
+ (C 3 )
1 3 3 3 + e2 e1 + e2 e1 + e2 e1 e2 e1 4 4 4 4 1 3 3 + e2 e1 4 2 4
1 3 + e2 e1 2 2
( C3 )
Alexander Pokorny
58
23
1 3 + e2 e1 2 2
(C3 )
3 1 + e2 e1 2 2
+ ( C3 )
3 3 3 1 e2 e1 + e2 e1 + e2 e1 e2 e1 4 4 4 4
1 3 4 4
=1
(6.6)
(E )
+ + + + So it is obvious, that C3 C3 C3 = E , therefore the order of the operation C3 is 3. Generally, I use the following algorithm to determine the orders of all operations of a group:
Algorithm 3: Orders of operations O, P . . . operations N . . . number of operations in group ord Oj . . . order of operation Oj , ord Oj = 0 for j = 1 to N do P := Oj repeat increase ord Oj by 1 P = P Oj until P = Oj end for
6.3.3
Analysing classes
It is important to know the class structure of a group since this gives a detailed view of the group. According to the general denition of a class (Def. 2.17), it is necessary to check for every operation h is conjugated to h , if ghg 1 = h (6.7)
holds, where g G. However, it is easier for computational purposes to rewrite this equation as gh = h g (6.8)
and evaluate the latter expression for all h G to calculate the class containing the element h G. I shall demonstrate the procedure nding the classes of the simple group C3 . First we set h = 1 and look for a suitable h G. It is obvious, that the case gh = hg is always true if one either g or h is the identity; it forms always its own class. Each element is, + furthermore, self-conjugate. But it remains to try, if C3 and C3 are conjugate:
Alexander Pokorny
6. The Cliord Algebra Software 1 3 e2 e1 2 2

(C3 )
59 3 1 + e2 e1 2 2 3 1 + e2 e1 2 2 1 3 + e2 e1 2 2
+ (C3 ) + (C3 ) + (C3 )
+ C3 C3
1 3 1 + e2 e1 2 2 1 3 e2 e1 2 2
(C 3 ) + (C 3 )
1 3 + e2 e1 2 2 1 3 e2 e1 2 2
(C3 ) + ( C3 )
3 1 e2 e1 2 2 1 3 e2 e1 2 2
(C3 ) (C3 )
(6.9)
+ Hence the class structure of C3 is {(E ), (C3 ), (C3 )}, which is in accord to the fact that each element of an Abelian group forms a class on its own. If we compare this result with the group D6h , one can see that in this group the two three-fold rotations form a class. This is easy to explain, because one has to nd only a single element g D6h that satises (6.8), e. g. 3 1 1 3 1 3 3 1 (6.10) e1 e2 + e2 e1 = e2 e1 e1 e2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ( v 2 )
+ (C3 ) (C3 )
( v 2 )
+ Therefore, C3 and C3 form a class in D6h and completing this procedure for the whole + + group, we get the following class structure: D6h = {(E ), (C2 ), (C3 , C3 ), (C6 , C6 ), (C21 , + + C22 , C23 ), (C21 , C22 , C23 ), (i), (S3 , S3 ), (S6 , S6 ), (h ), (v1 , v2 , v3 ), (d1 , d2 , d3 )}.
Algorithm 4: Determination of class structure (conjugations) O . . . operation N . . . number of operations in group C . . . number of classes, C = 0 index O . . . number of the operation to which Oh was found to be conjugate to for h = 1 to N do look for all elements conjugate to h for h = 1 to N do for g = 1 to N do if |Og Oh | = |Oh Og | then Oh and Oh are conjugate index Oh = h end if end for end for end for
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6.3.4
Calculating the regular representation
The procedure of nding the regular representation of a group is an optional calculation because it can consume a large amount of memory and time and hence it will only be done if a desired group has been successfully created and veried. As described in Section 3.2.4 we write the elements of the group as a row vector that is just permuted if multiplied by one of the elements of the group. Since the group D6h considered until now is quite big, it is more convenient to concentrate on a smaller subgroup now, e. g. C3 . 1 0 0 + + | = E, C3 , C3 | = E = 0 1 0 E E, C3 , C3 0 0 1 0 0 1 + + + + C3 E, C3 , C3 | = C3 , C3 , E | = C3 = 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 + + | = C3 = 0 0 1 , E, C3 E, C3 , C3 | = C3 C3 1 0 0
(6.11)
(6.12)
(6.13)
That is the regular representation of the group C3 , but, of course, it is reducible. Finding the irreducible representations is easy, because the sum of matrices over a class gives a suitable matrix for reduction and in this cyclic Abelian group every element is a + class on its own, hence let us take the representation matrix of C3 and nd the eigenvalues and eigenvectors: 1 3 1 = + i, 2 2 1 2 1 = 1 + 2 1
3 i 2 3 , i 2
1 3 2 = + i, 2 2 1 + 2 1 2 = 2 1
3 i 2 3 , i 2
3 = 1
(6.14)
1 3 = 1 1
(6.15)
The eigenvectors must be combined into the reduction matrix, from which we also need the inverse: 1 2 R = 1 + 2 1
3 i 2 3 i 2
1 + 2 1 2 1
3 i 2 3 i 2
1 1 , 1
R 1
1 6 + 1 = 6
1 i 12 1 i 12
1 6 1 6 +
1 3
1 i 12 1 i 12
1 3
1 3 1 3 1 3
(6.16)
Alexander Pokorny
61
Now we have to reduce one operation per class if only the characters are required. In the case of C3 , we have only 3 classes, each with only one operation, hence 1 + 2 + 1 + Dred (C3 ) = R D(C3 )R = 0 0
1 2 1 Dred (C3 ) = R D(C3 )R = 0 0
3 i 2
0 1 2 0
0 3 i 0 2 1 0 3 i 0 2 1
(6.17)
3 i 2
0 1 2 + 0
(6.18)
Analysing the block structure of the matrices, we nd 3 irreducible representations one being the totally symmetric representation, the others, however, are complex. C3 A 1 E 2 E E 1 1 1
+ C3 1 3 1 2 + i 2 3 1 2 2 i C3 1 3 1 2 i 2 3 1 2 + 2 i
Table 6.5: Character table of C3 .
6.3.5
Hermann symbols
To calculate the partial orders following the method Hermann [44] proposed, it is necessary to nd a non-projective representation, as it is e. g. a 4-dimensional irreducible representation found in the regular representation. A special case is the cubic group in 4-space, where the permutation of the 16 vertices with coordinates 1 gives 384 matrices with one 1 per row and column. This representation is faithful, i. e. each group element is mapped onto a unique linear operator that is dierent from all the other ones. The eigenvalues of the matrices can be used to calculate the partial orders of the operations by multiplying every eigenvalue with itself until it yields 1. For example, the eigenvalues for the reversion e1 e2 e3 e4 are all 1, which gives 4 partial orders of 2, hence the Hermann symbol is 2222. In the example of C3 (see above) we found 3 1 1 the eigenvalues 1, 2 + 2 i, and 2 23 i, the latter being conjugate complex and hence representing the order 3 of a 2-dimensional subspace, and 1 for a 1-dimensional subspace, hence the Hermann symbol is 31. I shall use the 4-dimensional irreducible representations from the regular representation to calculate the Hermann symbols for the cubic group in 4-space (cf. Table 7.3).
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7. Regular Polytopes in R3 and R4
Alexander Pokorny
7 Regular Polytopes in R3 and R4

A convex polytope is the convex hull of a nite set of points, it can also be described as the intersection of a nite set of half spaces [46]. Regular polytope are the generalization fli symbols, usually used as of Platonic bodies in 3-space. It is convenient to use Schla {p, q } to describe a tesselation of regular p-gons, q surrounding each vertex [46], in 4-space we use {p, q, r}, to describe the tesselation of regular polyhedra {p, q }, r surrounding each vertex. In 3-space there are 5 Platonic bodies satisfying the conditions of beeing a convex polytope. In 4-space there are, however, 6 regular polytopes and in all higher dimensional spaces there are only 3 regular polytopes. Polytope Tetrahedron Cube Octahedron Icosahedron Dodecahedron 5-cell1 8-cell2 16-cell3 24-cell 120-cell 600-cell (n + 1)-cell 2n-cell 2n -cell Cell type tetrahedron cube octahedron icosahedron dodecahedron tetrahedra cubes tetrahedra octahedra dodecahedra tetrahedra n-cells (2n 2)-cells n-cells Schl ai s. {3, 3} {4, 3} {3, 4} {3, 5} {5, 3} {3, 3, 3} {4, 3, 3} {3, 3, 4} {3, 4, 3} {5, 3, 3} {3, 3, 5} N0 4 8 6 12 20 5 16 8 24 600 120 n+1 2n 2n N1 6 12 12 30 30 10 32 24 96 1200 720 N2 4 6 8 20 12 10 24 32 96 720 1200 N3 1 1 1 1 1 5 8 16 24 120 600 n+1 2n 2n Duals self dual octa. cube dodeca. icosa. self dual 16-cell 8-cell self dual 600-cell 120-cell self dual 2n -cell 2n-cell
Table 7.1: The regular polytopes in 3,4, and higher dimensional spaces. N0 is the number of vertices, N1 the number of edges, N2 the number of faces, and N3 the number of cells [47].
1 2
The 5-cell is also known as pentatope or simplex in 4-space. The 8-cell has also the names hypercube, tesseract, and measure polytope. 3 The 16-cell is also called cross polytope.
63
64
7. Regular Polytopes in R3 and R4 The quantities N0 . . . N3 satisfy the following condition: N0 N1 + N2 N3 = 0. For a polytope in 4-space with Schl ai symbol {p, q, r} the necessary condition q p r (7.1)
cos
< sin
sin
(7.2)
must hold [46] to be a regular polytope. It can furthermore be shown, that all vertices of a regular polytope lie on a sphere, all dihedral angles are equal, all the vertex gures are regular polygons, all the solid angles are equivalent, and all the vertices are surrounded by the same number of faces [46].
Figure 7.1: The regular tetrahedron, which is self-dual (above), the cube with an inscribed octahedron (left) and an octahedron with its inscribed dual, the cube (left) [29].
Alexander Pokorny
65
Figure 7.2: The icosahedron and its dual, the dodecahedron (left), and a dodecahedron with its inscribed dual, the icosahedron (left) [29].
It is interesting to know, how the regular polytopes or Platonic bodies are constructed. For the cube it is trivial to start with a line in 1-space, then to shift the line orthogonal to its orientation, which yields a square. A shifting orthogonal to the square plane gives a cube and one can imagine the same procedure to get a hypercube when shifting the cube into a 4th dimension. A regular simplex can be constructed in a way suitable for a quite handy parametrization of the group operations by taking the basis axis of (n + 1)-space and then marking the points at 1 on each axis, i. e. (1, . . . 0), (0, 1, . . . 0) and so forth. The gure that joins all these points is the regular simplex in n-space.
7.1
The cubic group
The cubic group is the full symmetry group of the cube in n-space. We shall have a look at the cubic group in 3-space (Oh ), and then in 4-space. The cube is one of the Platonic bodies in R3 , the hypercube or tesseract is its analogon in R4 .
7.1.1
The cubic group Oh in 3-space
Parameters of Oh in R3
Oh 1 e1 e2 e3 e32 e13 e21 e123
Class 1: 1 elements E 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 2: 3 elements C 2x C 2y C 2z 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Alexander Pokorny
66
Oh
+ C31 + C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34

1 e1 e2 e3 e32 e13 e21 e123
Class 3: 8 elements
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 4: 6 elements
+ C4 x + C4 y + C4 z C 4x C4 y C4 z 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0
Class 5: 6 elements C 2a C 2b C 2c C 2d C 2e C 2f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
Class 6: 1 elements i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Class 7: 3 elements Sx Sy Sz 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 8: 8 elements
S61 S62 S63 S64 + S61 + S62 + S63 + S64
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Class 9: 6 elements
S4 x S4 y S4 z + S4 x
0 0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Alexander Pokorny

Oh
+ S4 y + S4 z
67
e2
1 2
1 0 0
e1 0 0
e3 0
1 2
e32 0 0
e13 0 0
e21 0 0
e123
1 2 1 2
Class 10: 6 elements d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
Figure 7.3: The stereographic projection and a perspective view of the operations of the cubic point group Oh in 3-space [31]. Character table of Oh in R3
Oh A1g A2g A1u A2u Eg Eu T1g T2g T1u T2u E 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 C2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 8C 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 6C4 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 6C 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 8 S6 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 S4 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 6 d 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
Multiplication table of Oh in R3 On the next page I shall present the multiplication table of Oh (split up into two pages).
Alexander Pokorny
68
Oh E E E

+ + + + + + + C2x C2y C2z C31 C32 C33 C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 C4 x C4y C4z C4x C4y C4z C2a C2b C2c C2d C2e C2f + + + + + + + C2x C2y C2z C31 C32 C33 C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 C4 x C4y C4z C4x C4y C4z C2a C2b C2c C2d C2e C2f + + + + + + + C33 C32 C31 C32 C31 C34 C33 C4 C2z C2y C34 x C2c C2b C4x C2e C2a C4z C4z C4y C2f C4y C2d + + + + + + + C2x C32 C31 C34 C33 C33 C34 C31 C32 C 2f C 4 y C2a C2d C4y C2b C4z C4z C2e C4x C2c C4x + + + + + + + C33 C34 C31 C32 C34 C33 C32 C31 C 2d C 2e C 4 z C2f C2c C4z C2b C2a C4y C4x C4y C4x + + + C2y C2z C2x C2a C2d C2c C4 z C 4x C 4y C 4y C 2e C 4x C 4z C 2f C 2b + + + C2x C2z C4 z C4x C2e C2a C2f C4y C4y C2c C2d C2b C4x C4z + + + C2y C2b C4 x C4y C4z C2d C2e C2c C4y C2f C4z C4x C2a + + + C4 z C 2f C 4y C 2b C 4x C 2c C 2e C 4y C 4x C 2a C 2d C 4z + + + C4 y C4z C4x C2c C2a C2d C4x C2f C4z C4y C2b C2e + + + C 2e C 2a C 4 x C4y C4z C2f C4x C2d C2b C2c C4z C4y + + + C4 y C2b C2d C2e C4z C4x C2f C4x C2a C4y C4z C2c + + + C 2c C 4 z C2f C4y C2b C4x C2d C4x C4z C2e C2a C4y + + + C33 C32 C31 C33 C34 C2z C32 C 2y + + + C34 C32 C33 C2x C31 C2z C34 C34 + C32 + + C2y C2x C31 C33 C32 C34 + + C32 C34 C31 C2y C33 C 2z + + C31 C34 C2z C33 C2x C32 + + C2x C2y C34 C31 C33 C32 + + C2z C33 C34 C34 C33 + + C32 C32 C31 C31 C32 C2y C33 + C32 + C33 + C31 + C34 C33 C34 C32 C32 C31 C33 C34 C33 C31 C31 C32 C34
C 2x C 2x E C 2z
+ C31 + C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 + C4 x + C4 y + C4 z C4 x C4 y C4 z
C 2y C 2y C 2z E
C 2z C 2y C 2x E
+ C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 + C4 x + C4 y + C4 z C4 x C4 y C4 z + C31 + C34 + C33 C34 C33 C32 C31 C4 x + C34 + C31 + C32 C32 C31 C34 C33 + C33 + C32 + C31 C33 C34 C31 C32
+ + + + C31 C32 C33 C34 C31 C34 C32 C33 E
C 2y E
C 2z C 2x E
+ C31 + C34 + C32 + C33 C4 z C4 x C4 y + C33 + C32 + C34 + C31 + C34 + C31 + C33 + C32 + C 2a C 4 z
C2x C2z C2y E
C2x C2y C2z C2z C2y C2x
C 2x E
C2y C2z E
C2z C2y C2x E

+ C 2e C 4 y C4 z C 2b + C4 x C 4x C 4y C 2c C 2b C 4 z
C 2d
C 2e C 4 y
C 2a C 2b
+ C4 x
C 2f
+ C 2c C 4 y
C 2b C 2a
C4 z + C4 z
C 2a C 2b C 2c C 2d C 2e C 2f i x y z
S61 S62 S63 S64 + S61 + S62 + S63 + S64 S4 x S4 y S4 z + S4 x + S4 y + S 4z
+ C 2a C 4 z C 2b C 4 z C 2c C 4 y
C 2f C 2c C 4 y + C 2c C 2a C 4 z C4 z C2d C2f + C 2d C 4 y C2e + C 2e C 4 z C2a + + C 4z C 4x C 4 x + C 2b C 4x C 4 x
+ C2b C2x C31 C34 E + C2c C31 + C 4z E C2f C34 + C4y C33 + C2e C32 + + C4y C34 C4 x C31 C33 + C34 + C2z C32 C33 C2x + C32 C31 + E C34 + C2x C31 + C2y C33 + C34 C34 C31 C2z + C33 C32 C32 C2y + S 4z S 4 x d 2 S4 x
+ + C2f C2d C4 x C32 C2y C31 C33 E
+ C4 y C 2a C 4 z + C 2d C 4 x
C2e C2b
C4 x
E
C32 C31 C34
C 2d C 2f C 2c C 2f
+ C 2d C 4 y + C 4x C 2e + + C4 z C 4x + C 2e C 4 z
C 2a
C4 x C4 y + C4 x
+ C 2e C 4 y
+ C 2d C 2f C 4 x + C 2e C 4y C 2c C 2f C 2d C 4 x
i x y z
S61 S62 S63 S64 + S61 + S62 + S63 + S64 S4 x S4 y S4 z + S4 x + S4 y + S4 z
x i z y
S62 S61 S64 S63 + S64 + S63 + S62 + S61 + S4 x
y z i x
S63 S64 S61 S62 + S62 + S61 + S64 + S63
z y x i
S64 S63 S62 S61 + S63 + S64 + S61 + S62
C2f C2d C4 x C4 z C2b C2a + C4 y C2c C4y + C2b C4z C4 z + C 2e C 4 y C 2c S61 S62 S63 S64 S63 S62 S62 S61 S64 S63 S64 S61 + + + S61 S64 S62 + + + S63 S62 S64 + + + S64 S61 S63 + + + S62 S63 S61
+ C 2e C 4 y C4y C2c C 2c C 4 y
C2d C2f
C 2b C 4 z + C 4x C 4 x + C4 z C2a + + S62 S63 + + S61 S64 + + S64 S61 + + S63 S62
C 2z
C 2a C 2d
C4 z + S64 + S63 + S62 + S61
C 2a C 2f
C4 y C 2b S64 S61 S63 S62 + S63 + S61 + S62 + S64 + S61 + S62 + S63 + S64
+ C2y C33 C33 C2x + C2z C32 S 4x S 4y + S4 x d3 + d 6 S4 y
C31 + C2y C33 C31 C2z C32 C 2y C33 C 2x + C2x C31 + C31 C33 + C2z C32 + C34 C34 + + S4y S4z
C 2z E
C34 + C34 C33 C32 + C31 C31
+ + C33 C32 E + C32
+ C34 C 2x
C2y C34 + C33 C 2x
C31
+ C31 E
d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6
+ + d 5 d 1 S4 z S 4z S 4y d 6 S 4y d 4
+ + d 1 d 4 S 4 y d2 S4z S4z d5 S4x d3 S4x
+ + + d 4 d 5 S4 z d 6 d 3 S 4z d 2 d 1 S 4y S 4x S 4y S 4x + + + d 1 d 4 d 3 S4 z S4x S4y S4y d5 S4x S4z d6 d2 + + + S4 z S 4x d 5 d 1 d 6 S 4y S 4y d 3 d 4 d 2 S 4x S 4z + + + d 2 S4 x S 4y S 4z d 4 d 5 d 3 S 4y d 6 S 4z S 4x d 1 + + + S4 z d 6 S 4y d 2 S 4x d 3 d 5 S 4y S 4x d 1 d 4 S 4z
i y z x
y i x z
z x i y
x z y i
i x y z
x i z y
y z i x
+ S4 z S4x + S4 y
z y x i
+ + + S61 S63 S64 S62 S4 y S4z S4x d3 d1 d4 S4x d6 S4z S4y d2 d5 + + + S64 S62 S61 S63 d 5 d 1 S4 x S4y S4z d6 S4x d4 d2 d3 S4z S4y + + + S62 S64 S63 S61 S4 y d2 d4 d5 S4z S4x d6 S4x d1 S4y S4z d3 + + + S63 S61 S62 S64 d 3 S4 z d 6 S 4y d 2 S 4x d 4 S 4x S 4z d 5 d 1 S 4y + S61 S64 i + + + S63 S62 S61 S63 S64 z S62 y d 6 d 4 S 4 x S 4y d 5 d 3 + S4 z d 2 S 4z + S 4x S 4x d 6 + d 5 S4 y S4y + S4 y d 3 d 5 + d 3 S4 y S4y + d 4 d 6 S 4 x + d 2 S4 z d1 + S4 x S 4x d 4 + S 4z d 1 S 4 z S61 S64 S62 S63
+ + d 4 d 6 d 3 S4 y d 5 S 4y S 4z d 1 S 4z d 2 x d 3 d 1 S4 z + S 4z d 4 d 6 d 4 S4 y d 5 d 5 S 4z d 1 + S4 z S 4x S 4x + d 2 S4 x S 4x + d 2 S4 x + + S 4x S 4y + S62 S61
+ d 5 S4 y
y
+ S63 S64
d 1 d 2
S4 x d 6 d 3 S4 y
z
S62
+ S63 S62
i
+ S64 S62
d 3 d 1 d4
i
+ S64 S63 S62 S64 + S61
+ S63 x + S61 i S64 x S61 y S63 + S64 S64 + S61 z + S63 S62 + S62 y
+ + + S61 S62 S64 S63 S61 S64
+ d 2 S4 z
i
+ S62 + S61 + S64
d 2 d 1
S4 z
d 4 d 6 d 3
d 6 d 4 S4 y S4 x S4 z
+ S61 z + S62 y + S63
x i z
S63 + S64 S64 + S63
y z i
S62 + S62 S61 + S61
d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6
+ d 1 S 4 z S 4z + d 2 S 4 z + d 3 S 4 y d 5 S 4 y
d 1
S4 y + S4 x + S4 y S4 x
d 5 d 3
d 4 d 6 S4 x
+ d 6 d 4 S4 x
+ d 6 d 4 S 4 x + S 4z d 2 d 1 + S4 y d3 S4y + d 2 S 4z S 4 z d 5 S 4y d 3
d 5
S4 x d 5 S4 z
z
S63
y
+ S63
d 1 d 6
+ S4 y
x
S62
d2
x S61 + S61 S63 z S62 + S64 S64
+ x S61 + S61 S63 S61 y + z S63 + S64 S61 + S63 S64 + S62 S62 + i S62 S62 i + y S64 S63 x
z
+ S62 S63
+ S64 S64
z
+ S62
+ S63 S62 + S64 S63 + S61 S61
y i
S61
+ S63
S64 x + S61
Table 7.2: Multiplication table of Oh (part 1).

Alexander Pokorny

Oh E i i x x i z y
S61 S64 S63 + S64 + S63 + S62 + S61 + S4 x
69
y y z i Sx
S64 S61 S62 + S62 + S61 + S64 + S63
z z y x i
S63 S62 S61 + S63 + S64 + S61 + S62
+ + + + + + + S61 S62 S63 S64 S61 S62 S63 S64 S4 x S 4y S 4z S 4x S 4y S 4z d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6 + + + + + + + S61 S62 S63 S64 S61 S62 S63 S64 S4 x S 4y S 4z S 4x S 4y S 4z d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6 + + + + + + + S64 S63 S62 S61 S62 S61 S64 S63 S4 x d 3 d 2 S 4x d 5 d 1 S 4z S 4z S 4y d 6 S 4y d 4 + + + + + + + S62 S61 S64 S63 S63 S64 S61 S62 d 6 S4 y d 1 d 4 S 4y d 2 S 4z S 4z d 5 S 4x d 3 S 4x + + + + + + + S63 S64 S61 S62 S64 S63 S62 S61 d 4 d 5 S4 z d 6 d 3 S 4z d 2 d 1 S 4y S 4x S 4y S 4x + + + d 1 d 4 d 3 S4 z S 4x S 4y S 4y d 5 S 4x S 4z d 6 d 2 + + + S4 z S 4x d 5 d 1 d 6 S 4y S 4y d 3 d 4 d 2 S 4x S 4z + + + d 2 S4 x S 4y S 4z d 4 d 5 d 3 S 4y d 6 S 4z S 4x d 1 + + + S4 z d 6 S 4y d 2 S 4x d 3 d 5 S 4y S 4x d 1 d 4 S 4z + + + S4 y S 4z S 4x d 3 d 1 d 4 S 4x d 6 S 4z S 4y d 2 d 5 + + + d 5 d 1 S 4 x S 4y S 4z d 6 S 4x d 4 d 2 d 3 S 4z S 4y + + + S4 y d 2 d 4 d 5 S 4z S 4x d 6 S 4x d 1 S 4y S 4z d 3 + + + d 3 S4 z d 6 S 4y d 2 S 4x d 4 S 4x S 4z d 5 d 1 S 4y + S61 S64 i S62 + + + S63 S62 S61 S63 S64 z S64 S62 S63 x S63 S62 y + S64 S64 + S61 S63 i
C 2x x C 2y y C 2z
+ C31 + C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 + C 4x + C4 y + C 4z C4 x C4 y C4 z
z
S62 S63 S64 + S61 + S62 + S63 + S64 S4 x S4 y S4 z + S4 x + S4 y + S4 z
+ + + + S61 S62 S63 S64 S61 S64 S62 S63 i + S63 + S64 + S62 + S62 + S61 + S63 + S64 + S63 + S61 + S61 + S62 + S64
y i x z
S63 S62 S64 S61
z x i y
x z y i
S62 S63 S61 S64
y z x
i x y z
x i z y
d 4
+ d 5 S4 y
d 1 d 2
S4 x
d 6
d 3 S4 y
d 2 d 1
+ S4 z S4 z
C 2a C 2b C 2c C 2d C 2e C 2f i x y z
S61 S62 S63 S64 + S61 + S62 + S63 + S64 S4 x S 4y S4 z + S4 x + S4 y + S4 z
d 1 S4 z + d 2 S4 z + d 3 S4 y
+ d 6 d 3 S4 y d 3 d 1 S4 z + S4 z d 4 d 6 d 4 S 4 y d 5 d 5 S4 z d 1 + S 4z S 4x S 4 x + d 2 S 4x S 4 x
y z S61 z y S64 i x S62 x i S63 + d 5 S 4y S 4 z + + S4 z d 2 S 4x + + S4 x S 4x S 4y + S 4y d 3 d 1 + d 2 S4 z d 4 d 4 S4 y S 4x d 5 S4 z S 4x d 5 S4 z
S64 S61 S63 S62 d 1 S4 z S4 y + S4 z S4 x
d 2 x
d3 S61 S 4z i + d6 S64 + S4y S63 d5 S62 S4y S64 + + S4 x S61
+ d 6 d 4 S4 x S62 y
+ S61 z + S62 S63
d 5 d 2
+ S4 x
+ S63 S64
z
+ S63 S62
+ S64 S62
i
+ S61 S63
y
+ S62 S61
i
+ S61 + S64
+ S61 y
d 4 d 6 d 3 d 5 S4 y
+ S62 i
+ S64 S61 z + S62 + S63
x i z
+ S64 S64 + S63
d6
+ S4 y
d 3
d 1
+ S4 x + S4 y S4 x
d 5 S4 y
d 4 d 6 S4 x d 5 S 4y d 3 + d 6 d 4 S4 x

+ C34 + C33 + C32 + C31 C33 C34 C31 C32
C 2x E
C 2y C 2z E
+ C31 + C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 + C4 x + C4 y + C4 z C4 x C4 y C4 z + C32 + C31 + C34 + C33 C34 C33 C32 C31 C4 x + C33 + C34 + C31 + C32 C32 C31 C34 C33
C 2z C 2y C 2x E
+ d 6 d 4 S4 x + S4 z d 2 d 1 + S4 y d 3 S 4y + d 2 S 4z S 4 z d 5 S4 y d3 + + + C31 C32 C33 + + + C34 C33 C32 + + + C32 C31 C34 + + + C33 C34 C31 C31 C34 C32 C33 C32 C34 C34 C31 C33 C32 C33 C31
+ d 3 S4 y
d 4 d 6
+ d 2 S4 z + S 4x S 4 x S4 z d 1 C32 C33 C31 C34 C34 C31 C33 C32
z
S63 S62 + C4 y
d 1 y
+ S4 z z C34 C33 C32 C31 + C4 x C4 x
d 1 d 6
+ S4 y d 2 + C34 + C31 + C33 + C32 C33 C31 C32 C34 C31 C32 C33 C34
+ d4 S63 x
C 2c
x S61 y S63 + S64 S64 + S61 z + S63 S62 + S62 y + C4 z C4x + C 2b C 4 x
y x
x
S61
S61 S63
+ S63 z S62 + S64 S64 C 4y C 4 z
+ x S61 + S64 S61 S64 z + y S64 + z S63 + i S62 S62 i + S62 S62 S61 y + S61 S63
z
+ S62
+ S63 x
+ S61 S63 S62 + S64 S64 S63 + S62 S61 S61 + S62 y + S63 S64
i x
x
+ S61
+ S64 i
S61 i
C2a C2b C2c C2d C2e C2f
+ + C 2e C 2a C 4 z C4z C4y C2f C4y C2d
+ + + C 2f C 4 y C2a C2d C4y C2b C4z C4z C2e C4x C2c C4x + + + C 2d C 2e C 4 z C2f C2c C4z C2b C2a C4y C4x C4y C4x
+ + + C2y C2z C2x C2a C2d C2c C4 z C4x C4y C4y C2e C4x C4z C2f C2b + + + C2x C2z C4 z C4x C2e C2a C2f C4y C4y C2c C2d C2b C4x C4z + + + C2y C2b C4 x C4y C4z C2d C2e C2c C4y C2f C4z C4x C2a + + + C4 z C2f C4y C2b C4x C2c C2e C4y C4x C2a C2d C4z
C 2y E
C 2z C 2x E
C2x C2z C2y E
+ + + + + + + C2x C2y C2z C31 C33 C34 C32 C4 y C4z C4x C2c C2a C2d C4x C2f C4z C4y C2b C2e + + + + + + + C2z C2y C34 C32 C31 C33 C 2e C 2a C 4 x C4y C4z C2f C4x C2d C2b C2c C4z C4y + + + + + + + C2x C32 C34 C33 C31 C4 y C2b C2d C2e C4z C4x C2f C4x C2a C4y C4z C2c + + + + + + + C33 C31 C32 C34 C 2c C 4 z C2f C4y C2b C4x C2d C4x C4z C2e C2a C4y + + + C33 C32 C31 C33 C34 C2z C32 C 2y + C 2f C 2d C 4 x + C 4y C 2e C 2c + C4 z C 2b C 4z + C 4x C 4x C 2f + C 2e C 4 y C 4y C4 y C 2c C 2e + C 2c C 4 y C 4y C 2d C 2f C 4 x C 2b C 4 z C 2a + C4 x C 4x C 2d + C 4z C 2a C 4 z C32 + C31 + C2y C31 C33 C2z + C34 C33 + E C32 C32 E C31 C 2x C34 C 2y + C2z C34 + C33 C31 + C2x C33 + C32 C32 C33 + C32 + + + C34 C32 C33 C2x C31 C2z C34
C 2x E
C 2y C 2z E
C 2z C 2y C 2x E
C4 z + C4 x C4 y
+ + + C 2d C 2f C 2c C 4 y C2e C4y C4z C2a C4z C2b C2x C31 C34 E + C 2c C 2a C 4 z C 4z C 2d C 2f + C 2d C 4 y C 2e + C 2e C 4 z C 2a + + C4 C z 4x C 4x + C 2b C 4 x C 4x C 2b C 4 x C 4x C 4 y
C 2e C 4 y
C 2a C 2b
+ C4 x C 2f + C 2c C 4 y
C 2c C 2a C 2d
E
C34 + C33 + C32 + C34 C31
C 2b C 4 z
C 2b C 2a
+ C4 z
C 2d C 2f C 2c
+ C 2f C 2d C 4 y + C4 x + C4 z
d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6
+ C 2a C 4 z C 4z C 2b C 4 z C 2c C 4 y
C 2a
+ C4 y C4 x C4 y + C4 x
C 2e C 2c
+ C 2d C 2f C 4 x + C 2e C 4 y C 2f C 2d C 4 x
C 2f C 2d C 4 x C 4z C 2b C 2a + C4 y C 2c C 4y + C 2b C 4z C 4 z + C 2e C 4y C 2c
C 2e
+ C4 x + C 2e C 4 z
C 2y
C33
C 2a C 2f
C4 y
C 2b
C 2z
C34 + C2x C32 C31 C2y + C34 C31 + C31 C32 + C33 C33 C34 C2x + C2z C31 C32 C2z + C2y C34
+ + C2y C2x C31 C33 C32 C34
+ + C31 C32 C34 C31 C2y C33 C 2z + + + C33 C31 C34 C2z C33 C2x C32 + + C2z C2x C2y C34 C31 C33 C32 + + C2z C33 C34 C34 C33 + + C32 C32 C31 C31 C32 C2y C33 + C34 C 2x C31
C 2y E
+ C31 C33 + C32 C34 + C33 C34 + C34 C33
C 2x C 2z E
+ C32 C32 + C31 C31
+ C32 E C2y C34 + C33 C2x
E
+ C31
Table 7.2: Multiplication table of Oh (part 2).

Alexander Pokorny
70
7.1.2
The group of the hypercube G8-c in 4-space
Parameters of the hypercubic group G8-c in R4

G8-c 1 e1 e2 e3 e4 e32 e13 e21 e14 e24 e34 e123 e234 e134 e124 e1234
Class 1: 1 elements, order: 1
C 2x C 2y C 2z P0021 P0023 P0026

+ C31 + C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
P0002 P0003 P0004 P0005 P0006 P0007 P0008 P0009 P0028 P0029 P0031 P0032 P0034 P0035 P0037 P0038 P0053 P0054 P0056 P0057 P0059 P0060 P0063
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Alexander Pokorny

G8-c P0064
+ C4 x + C4 y + C4 z C4 x C4 y C4 z
71
e13 1 2 0
1 2
1 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e1 0
e2 0
e3 0
e4 0
e32 0
1 2
e21 0
e14 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
e24 0
e34
1 2
e123 0
e234 0
e134 0
e124 0
e1234 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
P0108 P0121 P0132 P0145 P0174 P0186
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0 0
0 0
C 2a C 2b C 2c C 2d C 2e C 2f P0109 P0111 P0120 P0123 P0133 P0134 P0144 P0146 P0156 P0157 P0160 P0163 P0164 P0166 P0172 P0173 P0184 P0185
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0
1 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
i I0264 I0265
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 0
Alexander Pokorny
72
G8-c I0266 1 0 e1 0 e2 0 e3 0 e4 0 e32 0 e13 0 e21 0 e14

e24 0 e34 0 e123 0 e234 1 e134 0 e124 0 e1234 0
x y z I0267
S61 S62 S63 S64 + S61 + S62 + S63 + S64
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 1 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ADD I0001 I0052 I0070 I0194 I0195 I0197 I0198 I0218 I0219 I0225 I0227 I0242 I0243 I0244 I0247 I0289 I0290 I0293 I0295 I0313 I0314 I0317 I0319
S4 x S4 y S4 z + S4 x + S4 y
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0
Alexander Pokorny

G8-c
+ S4 z
73
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e123
1 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e1 0 0
1 2 1 2
e2 0
1 2
e3
1 2
e4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e234 0
1 2
e134 0 0
1 2
e124 0 0 0
1 2
e1234 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I0096 I0099 I0205 I0207 I0228 I0231 I0252 I0254 I0278 I0279 I0281 I0282 I0285 I0287 I0304 I0305 I0328 I0329
0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6 I0097 I0206 I0230 I0255 I0307 I0331
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0
0 0
I0010 I0011 I0055 I0071 I0192 I0193 I0196 I0199 I0216 I0217 I0224
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 2
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
0 0 1 2 1 2 0
0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2
Alexander Pokorny
74
G8-c I0226 I0240 I0241 I0245 I0246 I0268 I0269 I0270 I0271 I0272 I0273 I0274 I0275 I0288 I0291 I0292 I0294 I0312 I0315 I0316 I0318 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e1 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e2
1 2

e3 0 0 0 1 2
1 2
e4 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e123
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e234 1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e134 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e124 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e1234 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 2
0 0
0 0
P0012 P0013 P0014 P0015 P0016 P0017 P0018 P0019 P0030 P0033 P0036 P0039 P0040 P0041 P0042 P0043 P0058 P0061 P0062 P0065 P0066 P0067 P0068
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Alexander Pokorny

G8-c P0069 P0072 P0073 P0074 P0075 P0092 P0093 P0094 P0095 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
75
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e21 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e14 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0
1 2
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e32 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e24 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e34 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e234 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2
e134 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
e124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e1234
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
I0020 I0022 I0024 I0025 I0200 I0201 I0202 I0203 I0220 I0221 I0222 I0223 I0248 I0249 I0250 I0251 I0296 I0297 I0298 I0299 I0320 I0321 I0322 I0323
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 1 2 0
1 2
0 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 1 2 0
1 2 1 2
0 1 2
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2
0 1 2 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2
0 1 2 0
1 2 1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 0
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 2 0
1 2
0 1 2 0
1 2 1 2
0
1 2 1 2
0 1 2 0 0
1 2
0 0 1 2 1 2 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0 1 2
1 2
0 1 2 0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2
0
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 1 2 1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2
1 2
0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0
0 0
P0027
0 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0
0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
P0044 P0047 P0049 P0050 P0076 P0078 P0080 P0082
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Alexander Pokorny
76
G8-c P0086 P0087 P0090 P0091 1 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

e1 0 0 0 0 e2 0 0 0 0 e3 0 0 0 0 e4 0 0 0 0 e32 0 0 0 0 e13
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e21 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
e14 0 0 0 0
e24 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e34 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e123 0 0 0 0
e234 0 0 0 0
e134 0 0 0 0
e124 0 0 0 0
e1234 0 0 0 0 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
P0045 P0046 P0048 P0051 P0077 P0079 P0081 P0083 P0084 P0085 P0088 P0089
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
I0098 I0204 I0229 I0253 I0276 I0277 I0280 I0283 I0284 I0286 I0306 I0330
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 4 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 4 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2
0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0
2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 42
0 0
2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 42
Class 18: 48 elements, order: 4 2 I0100 0 42 4 2 2 I0101 0 4 4 2 I0102 0 42 4 2 2 I0103 0 4 4 2 2 I0104 0 4 4 2 2 I0105 0 4 4 2 2 I0106 0 4 4 2 I0107 0 42 4 2 2 I0208 0 4 4 2 I0209 0 42 4 2 2 I0210 0 4 4 2 I0211 0 42 4 2 2 I0212 0 4 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 42
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Alexander Pokorny

G8-c I0213 I0214 I0215 I0232 I0233 I0234 I0235 I0236 I0237 I0238 I0239 I0256 I0257 I0258 I0259 I0260 I0261 I0262 I0263 I0300 I0301 I0302 I0303 I0308 I0309 I0310 I0311 I0324 I0325 I0326 I0327 I0332 I0333 I0334 I0335 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e1 e2 42 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e3 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
77
e21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e123 e234
2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4
42 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4
e134 42 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42
e124
e1234 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
P0110 P0122 P0135 P0147 P0158 P0159 P0161 P0162 P0165
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
Alexander Pokorny
78
G8-c P0167 P0175 P0187 1 0 0 0 e1 0 0 0 e2 0 0 0 e3 0 0 0 e4 0 0 0 e32 0
1 2 1 2

e13 0 0 0
2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42
e21 0 0 0
2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4
e14 0 0 0
e24
1 2
e34 0 0 0
2 4 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
e123 0 0 0
e234 0 0 0
e134 0 0 0
e124 0 0 0
e1234
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4
Class 20: 48 elements, order: 8 2 P0112 0 4 2 P0113 4 0 0 P0114 42 2 0 P0115 4 P0116 42 0 2 0 P0117 4 P0118 42 0 2 P0119 4 0 2 P0124 0 4 2 P0125 0 4 2 P0126 0 4 2 P0127 4 0 2 P0128 0 4 P0129 42 0 2 P0130 0 4 P0131 42 0 P0136 42 0 2 P0137 0 4 2 P0138 0 4 2 P0139 0 4 2 P0140 0 4 2 P0141 0 4 2 P0142 0 4 2 P0143 0 4 2 P0148 0 4 2 P0149 0 4 2 P0150 0 4 P0151 42 0 2 P0152 0 4 P0153 42 0 2 P0154 0 4 P0155 42 0 2 P0168 4 0 2 P0169 0 4 2 P0170 0 4 P0171 42 0 2 P0176 0 4 P0177 42 0 2 P0178 0 4 2 P0179 0 4 2 P0180 4 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42
2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 2 4 42 2 4 42 42 42
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4 2 4
Alexander Pokorny

G8-c P0181 P0182 P0183 P0188 P0189 P0190 P0191 1
2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4
79
e13 e21 e14
2 4 2 4 42 2 4 42 2 4 2 4
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e32 42 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 2 4
42 42 42 42 2 4 2 4 2 4
42 2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4
e24 42 2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 42 42 42
e34
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e234 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e134 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e1234
2 4 42 42 42 42 2 4 42
In the case of 4-space no common nomenclature is known. Hence, I named all proper operations, i. e. those with only even Cliord parameters (1, eij and e1234 ), Px , where x is just a counter. Similarly all improper operations, i. e. those with odd Cliord parameters (ei and eijk ), Ix , x being the counter. In a similar way the classes are just numbered and then denoted as Clx , such as also the irreducible representations are denotetd as x . Class structure of G8-c in R4
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Hermann symbol 1111 2211 311 411 2211 2111 2221 321 421 2221 621 622 421 2222 2211 44 2111 421 422 8
elements 1 6 32 12 24 4 4 32 24 12 32 32 24 1 12 12 12 48 12 48
proper/improper p p p p p i i i i i i p i p p p i i p p
Table 7.3: Class structure of G8-c in 4-space.
Alexander Pokorny
80 Character table of G8-c in R4
G8-c Cl1 Cl2 Cl3 Cl4 Cl5 Cl6 Cl7 Cl8 Cl9 Cl10 Cl11 Cl12 Cl13 Cl14 Cl15 Cl16 Cl17 Cl18 Cl19 Cl20 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2 1 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 6 2 2 1 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 7 3 3 0 1 1 3 3 0 1 1 0 0 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 3 3 0 1 1 3 3 0 1 1 0 0 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 3 3 0 1 1 3 3 0 1 1 0 0 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 3 3 0 1 1 3 3 0 1 1 0 0 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 4 0 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 2 1 1 0 4 0 0 2 0 2 0 12 4 0 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 2 1 1 0 4 0 0 2 0 2 0 13 4 0 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 2 1 1 0 4 0 0 2 0 2 0 14 4 0 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 2 1 1 0 4 0 0 2 0 2 0 15 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 6 2 2 2 0 0 0 16 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 6 2 2 2 0 0 0 17 6 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 2 0 0 2 0 18 6 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 2 0 0 2 0 19 8 0 1 0 0 4 4 1 0 0 1 1 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 8 0 1 0 0 4 4 1 0 0 1 1 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 7.4: Character table of G8-c in 4-space, which has already been given by Littlewood [48] and Judd and Lister [26].
The tesseract projected into the 2-dimensional space We can imagine the hypercube in 3-space and then draw a projection into 2-space on the paper plane. This will look as follows:
Figure 7.4: The hypercube in a projection into 2-space. The black lines indicate the shifting of the cube in 3-space (blue) into the 4th dimension.
Alexander Pokorny
81
Figure 7.5: The hypercube has eight 3-dimensional cubes as boundaries, as the cube is bounded by six 2-dimensional cubes (squares).
7.2
The group of the regular simplex
The simplex (or tetrahedron in 3-space) is one of the Platonic bodies in R3 , the simplex or pentatope is the corresponding body in R4 . We shall have a short look at the tetrahedral group Td in R3 , rst.
7.2.1
The group of the tetrahedron Td in 3-space
Parameters of Td in R3
Td 1 e1 e2 e3 e3 e2 e13 e21 e123
Class 1: 1 elements E 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 2: 3 elements
Alexander Pokorny
82
Td C 2x C 2y C 2z
+ C31 + C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34

1 0 0 0 e1 0 0 0 e2 0 0 0 e3 0 0 0 e3 e2 1 0 0 e13 0 1 0 e21 0 0 1 e123 0 0 0
Class 3: 8 elements
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 4: 6 elements
S4 x S4 y S4 z + S4 x + S4 y + S4 z
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2
0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Class 5: 6 elements d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2
0
1 2
0
1 2
Figure 7.6: The stereographic projection and a perspective view of the operations of the tetrahedral point group Td in 3-space [31].
Alexander Pokorny
7. Regular Polytopes in R3 and R4 Multiplication table of Td in R3

Td E E E
83
+ + + + + + + C2x C2y C2z C31 C32 C33 C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 S4 x S4y S4z S4x S4y S4z d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 + + + + + + + C2x C2y C2z C31 C32 C33 C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 S4 x S 4y S 4z S 4x S 4y S 4z d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6 + + + + + + + C2z C2y C34 C33 C32 C31 C32 C31 C34 C33 S4 x d 3 d 2 S 4x d 5 d 1 S 4z S 4z S 4y d 6 S 4y d 4 + + + + + + + C2x C32 C31 C34 C33 C33 C34 C31 C32 d 6 S4 y d 1 d 4 S 4y d 2 S 4z S 4z d 5 S 4x d 3 S 4x + + + + + + + C33 C34 C31 C32 C34 C33 C32 C31 d 4 d 5 S4 z d 6 d 3 S 4z d 2 d 1 S 4y S 4x S 4y S 4x C31 C34 C32 C33 E C34 C32 C31 C33 C33 C31 C32 C34 + + + C2y C2z C2x d1 d4 d3 S4 z S4x S4y S4y d5 S4x S4z d6 d2 + + + C2x C2z S4 z S 4x d 5 d 1 d 6 S 4y S 4y d 3 d 4 d 2 S 4x S 4z + + + C2y d2 S4 x S 4y S 4z d 4 d 5 d 3 S 4y d 6 S 4z S 4x d 1 + + + S4 z d 6 S 4y d 2 S 4x d 3 d 5 S 4y S 4x d 1 d 4 S 4z + + + S4 y S 4z S 4x d 3 d 1 d 4 S 4x d 6 S 4z S 4y d 2 d 5 + + + d 5 d 1 S4 x S 4y S 4z d 6 S 4x d 4 d 2 d 3 S 4z S 4y + + + S4 y d 2 d 4 d 5 S 4z S 4x d 6 S 4x d 1 S 4y S 4z d 3 + + + d 3 S4 z d 6 S 4y d 2 S 4x d 4 S 4x S 4z d 5 d 1 S 4y + + + C33 C32 C31 C33 C34 C2z C32 C 2y C32 + C31 + C2y C31 C33 C2z + C34 C33 + E C32 C32 E C31 C 2x C34 C 2y + C2z C34 + C33 C31 + C2x C33 + C32 C32 C33 + C32 + + + C34 C32 C33 C2x C31 C2z C34 + C32 + C33 + C31 + C34 C33 C32 C34 C31 C 2y E + C34 + C33 + C32 + C31 C33 C34 C31 C32
C 2x C 2x E C 2z
+ C31 + C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 S4 x S4 y S4 z + S4 x + S4 y + S4 z
C 2y C 2y C 2z E
+ C31 + C32 + C33 + C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 S4 x S4 y S4 z + S4 x + S4 y + S4 z + C32 + C31 + C34 + C33 C34 C33 C32 C31 + S4 x + C33 + C34 + C31 + C32 C32 C31 C34 C33
C 2z C 2y C 2x E
C 2z C 2x E
+ C31 + C34 + C32 + C33 + S4 z + S4 x + S4 y + C34 + C31 + C33 + C32 d 1 S4 z + C33 + C32 + C34 + C31
C2x C2z C2y E
C 2x E
C 2y C 2z E
C 2z C 2y C 2x E
+ S4 z S 4x + S4 y
+ d 4 d 6 d 3 S4 y d 5 S 4y d 3 d 1 S4 z + S 4z d 4 d 6 d 4 S 4 y d 5 d 5 S4 z d 1 + S4 S z 4x S 4x + d 2 S 4x S 4 x S4 y + S4 x + S4 y S4 x + S4 z + S4 y
+ d2 C2x C31 C34 E
+ d 5 S4 y
d 2
+ S4 x
d 1 d 2
S4 x
d 6
d 3 d 1 d 4
d 3 S4 y
+ d 2 S4 z
d 2 d 1
+ S4 z S4 z
d 4 d 6 d 3 d6
d 4 S4 y S4 x d 5 S4 z S 4x d 5 S4 z
d 1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d 5 d 6
d 1 S4 z + d 2 S4 z + d 3 S4 y
+ d 1 d 6 d 4 S4 x
d 5
d 2 d 1
d 4 d 6 S4 x d 5 S 4y d 3 + d 6 d 4 S4 x
d 3 S 4 y + d 2 S 4z S 4 z d 5 S4 d 3 y
d 1 d 6
+ S4 y
d 2
d 6 d 4 S4 x S 4y d 5 d 3 + S4 z d 2 S 4z + S 4x S 4x d 6 + d 5 S4 y S 4y + S 4y d 3 d 5 + d 3 S4 y S 4y + d 4 d 6 S4 x + d 2 S 4z d 1 + S4 x S 4x d 4 + S 4z d 1 S 4 z
E
C34 + C33 + C32 + C34 C31
C 2y
C33
C 2z
C34 + C2x C32 C31 C2y + C34 C31 + C31 C32 + C33 C33 C34 C2x + C2z C31 C32 C2z + C2y C34
E
C31 + C33
+ + C2y C2x C31 C33 C32 C34 + + C32 C34 C31 C2y C33 C 2z + + C31 C34 C2z C33 C2x C32 + + C2z C33 C34 C34 C33 + + C32 C32 C31 C31 + C32 C32 + C31 C31 C32 C2y C33
+ + C2z C2x C2y C34 C31 C33 C32
C 2y E
+ C31 C33 + C32 C34 + C33 C34 + C34 C33
C 2x C 2z E
E
+ C32
+ C34 C 2x
C2y C34 + C33 C2x
E
+ C31
C31
Table 7.5: Multiplication table of Td . Character table of Td in R3

Td A1 A2 E T1 T2 E 1 1 2 3 3 3C2 1 1 2 1 1 8C 3 1 1 1 0 0 6 S4 1 1 0 1 1 6 d 1 1 0 1 1
7.2.2
The group of the pentatope G5-c in 4-space
As mentioned on p. 65, the easiest way of constructing a simplex in R4 is to mark all positive unity points on the basis axes of 5-space and then to join these points to get the regular pentatope, hence it is likely that the group will contain a 5-fold rotation. To generate the group I assume that a 4-fold rotation will occur, which will be sucient as generator together with a mirror plane.
Alexander Pokorny
84 Parameters of the group of the pentatope in R4
The parameters of this group contain a number of values that are too big to show them in an analytical form in the following table, hence I use the following variables: Variable r1 r2 r3 Value cos 5 sin 10
5+1 8
Variable r4 r5 r6
Value
5 1 8 3+ 5 8 3 5 8
Table 7.6: Variables used in the parameter table of the group of the pentatope in 4-space.
Td
e1
e2
e3
e4
e32
e13
e21
e14
e24
e34
e123
e234
e134
e124
e1234
Class 1: 1 elements, order: 1 E 1 0 1 4

1 4 1 2 1 4 1 4
0
5 4 45
0
1 4 1 4
0
1 4 1 4 1 4 5 4 1 4
0 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 r6 1 4 r6
1 4 1 4 1 4
0
5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4
0 1 4 1 4 r5
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4
0 1 4 1 4 r6
1 4 1 4
Class 2: 30 elements, order: 4 C4 I0006 I0014 I0026 I0034 I0042 I0045 I0053 I0065 I0070 I0074 I0076 I0079 I0084 I0090 I0092 I0094 I0096 I0098 I0099 I0100 I0101 I0102 I0105 I0107 I0113 I0114 I0115 I0116 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r4
45 45 45 45 1 4 1 4
r3 1 4 1 4 r4 1 4
5 4 45
1 4
0 1 4 0
1 4 1 4 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 4 1 2
r 3 1 4 r 3
1 4 1 4 1 4
45 45 45
r5 1 4 r5
1 4 1 4
r4
r4 r3 r3
1 4 1 4
r3 1 4 1 4 1 4
5 4 1 4
0 0
5 4
r5 r6 r6
1 4 1 4
r6 1 4
1 4 1 4
r4 r4 5 4 r3 r 4
5 4 1 4 1 4
r5 r 5
1 4
r4
r 6 r5 1 4 1 4 1 4 r6 r5 1 4 r5 1 4 1 4 r 5 r 6
1 4
0
5 4
r5 1 4 1 4 r6 r6 r5 1 4 1 4 1 4 r6 1 4
1 4
0
1 4 1 2 1 2 1 2
r3 1 4 r4 r4 1 4 r3
1 4
r6 1 4 r5 r5 1 4 r6 1 4 r6 r5 1 4 r6
1 4 1 4 1 4
r3 r3
5 4 1 4 1 4 5 4 1 4 5 4
0 0 0
45
r4
r3
45
0 1 4 1 2 0 1 4 1 2 1 2 1 4 1 2
r4
r3 r4 1 4 r3 1 4 1 4 1 4
r3
5 4 1 4
r4
0
5 4
r4 r3
1 4
0
5 4
r4
r5
1 4
r4
r3
r6
r5
Alexander Pokorny

Td I0117 1 0 e1 0 e2 r 4 e3 r3 e4
5 4
85
e13 0 e21 0 e14 0 e24 0 e34 0 e123 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e234 0 e134 r5 e124 r6 e1234 0
e32 0
Class 3: 10 elements, order: 2 S I0013 I0028 I0049 I0052 I0067 I0069 I0078 I0082 I0083 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 r 1 r 2 0 0 r 2 r 1 r2 1 2 r 1
0 r2 0 r1 r1 r1 r2 0 r2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 r1 r2 r2 1 2 0 r1 r1 r2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 2 1 2
0 0
Class 4: 15 elements, order: 2 P0001 P0015 P0027 P0035 P0043 P0066 P0077 P0091 P0093 P0095 P0097 P0103 P0104 P0106 P0108 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 r 3 1 4 3 4 r3 0 r4 r 5 r6 0
3 4 1 4
r4 r3 r3 r4 r2
1 4 5 4
r3
5 4 1 4
r 4 r 6 r 3 r4 0
3 4 1 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 4 5 4 45 5 4 45 45 5 4 5 4 5 4 45 5 4 45 5 4 5 4 45 5 4
r4 r4
1 4 1 2
r5 r4 3 4 0 r3 r6 1 4 0 r4 r5 r6 1 4 0 r3 1 4 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 4 1 2 r3 1 4 r3
1 4
r3 r1 r4 r4 r3 r2 1 4 5 4 r4 r3
1 2
r3
r3
5 4
r4
1 2
r5 0 r 3 r 6
1 4
r1 r4 r4 r3 5 4 r3
5 4
r 3 r 3
5 4
r5 r6 0 r4
1 4
r 4 r1 1 4 1 4 r3
1 4
r5 0
3 4
r2
r4 1 4 r4
1 4
Class 5: 24 elements, order: 5 P0002 P0003 P0004 P0005 P0016 P0017 P0018 P0019 P0029 P0030 P0031 P0032 P0059 P0060 P0061 P0062 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 r3
1 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r4 1 4 r 4
1 4
5 4
r3
1 4
r4
1 4
r 3 1 4 r 3 1 4 r3 r4 1 4 r 4
1 4 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 4
5 4
r 4
1 4
r3
1 4
r4
1 4
5 4
r4 1 2
1 4 1 2 1 4
r3 r4
1 4
0 r3 1 4 r3
1 4
r4
5 4 5 4
r4 1 4
r3 1 4 r3
1 4
r4
1 4
r 3
1 4
r4
1 4
5 4
r4 1 4
r 3 1 4
r4 1 4
5 4
Alexander Pokorny
86
Td P0086 P0087 P0088 P0089 P0109 P0110 P0111 P0112 1
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4

e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 4
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e32 r3 1 4 r3
1 4 1 4 1 2 1 4 1 2
e13
e21 r4 1 4 r4
1 4 1 4
e14 r3 1 4 r3
1 4 45 45
e24
1 2 1 4 1 2 1 4 1 4
e34 r4
1 4
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e234 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e134 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 4
e124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e1234
5 4 45 5 4 45 45 45 5 4 45
5 4
r4 1 4
1 4
5 4 1 4
r4
1 4
r3 1 4 r3
r 4
1 4
r3
1 4
r4
r4
r3
Class 6: 20 elements, order: 6 I0007 I0010 I0020 I0023 I0033 I0036 I0039 I0044 I0046 I0050 I0051 I0056 I0063 I0064 I0068 I0071 I0075 I0080 I0081 I0085 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0
1 4 1 4
r4 0 0 1 4 1 4 r3 r3 r3 0 r3 0 r4 r3 r4 r3 r4 0 r4 r4 0
r3 r3 r3 r4 r4 r4 r4 r4 0 r4 0 0 1 4 0 1 4 0 r3 r3 0 r3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r3 r3 r3 r4 r4 r4 r4 r4
1 2
r4 r 4 r 3 r3 0 0 0 0 0 0 r3 r 4 r 3 r 4 r 3 r 4 1 4 r3 r 4
45 45
r4
1 2 1 2 3 4 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r4 r 4 r3 r3
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 0 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 4 0
1 4
0
45 45 45 45
r3 r3 r3
1 2
r4
1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2
r3
1 2
45 45
r3 r 4 r3 r4 r 3 r4
3 4
r4 r3 r4 r3 r4
1 2
0 1 4 1 4 0
1 4 1 4
r3 r3
1 2
45 45
r3
5 4 5 4
r4 r4
1 2
r 3 r4
Class 7: 20 elements, order: 3 P0008 P0009 P0011 P0012 P0021 P0022 P0024 P0025 P0037 P0038 P0040 P0041 P0047 P0048 P0054 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 r5 r 5 r 5 r5 0 0 r6 r 6 r 6 r6 1 2 1 2 0 r 1 r1
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4
0 0 r3 r3 r3 r3 r2 r2 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 0 0 r1
r2 r2 r4 r4 r4 r4 r1 r1 r 3 r3 r 3 r3 0 0 0
0 0
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4
0 0 r6 r6 r6 r6 0 0
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 r4 r4 r4 r4 0 0 r2
0 0 r 5 r5 r5 r5
1 2 1 2
Alexander Pokorny

Td P0055 P0057 P0058 P0072 P0073 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 e1 0 0 0 0 0 e2 0 0 0 0 0 e3 0 0 0 0 0 e4 0 0 0 0 0 e32 0 1 4
1 4 1 4 1 4
87
e13 r2 r3 r 3 r3 r 3 e21 r1 r4 r4 r4 r4 e14 0
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4
e24 0 r 6 r6 r6 r 6
e34 0 r5 r5 r5 r5
e123 0 0 0 0 0
e234 0 0 0 0 0
e134 0 0 0 0 0
e124 0 0 0 0 0
e1234 0 0 0 0 0
Class structure of G5-c in R4 No. Hermann symbols 1 1111 2 421 3 2111 4 2211 5 5 6 321 7 311 elements 1 30 10 15 24 20 20 proper/improper p i i p p i p
Table 7.7: Class structure of G5-c in 4-space.
Character table of the group of the pentatope in R4

G5-c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cl1 1 1 4 4 5 5 6 Cl2 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Cl3 1 1 2 2 1 1 0 Cl4 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 Cl5 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 Cl6 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Cl7 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Table 7.8: Character table of G5-c in 4-space.
The pentatope as a projection into 2-space As with the hypercube, it is possible to imagine the 5-cell with a 2-dimensional projection in the paper plane.
Alexander Pokorny
88
Figure 7.7: The Pentatope (5-cell), the simplex in 4-space. The blue tetrahedron is the Platonic body in 3-space. The red lines link the 4 vertices of 3-space to the new vertex in 4-space.
Figure 7.8: The simplex in 3-space is bounded by 4 equilateral triangles, the 5-cell is similarly bounded by 4 equilateral tetrahedra.
Alexander Pokorny
8 Tables of Results
In this chapter some selected results from my calculations not mentioned until now will be shown. The main aspect of this work was to provide a method for calculation of groups in spaces of any dimension, of course also in R3 . All crystallographic point groups in 3-space have been calculated with group based on the the parameters taken from [31], but here only a few examples will be shown. In the charactertables, a parameter is used to keep the tables as small as possible, c1 = e2i/3 = 1 + 23 i. 2
8.1
8.1.1
Groups in R3
Cn
C2 E C2 1 1 0 e1 0 0 e2 0 0 e3 0 0 e3 e2 0 0 e13 0 0 e21 0 1 e123 0 0
C2 E C2
E E
C2 C2
C2 E C2 A B 1 1 1 1
C2 E
Table 8.1: Parameters, multiplication table and character table of the group C2 .
C3 E
+ C3 C3
1 1
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0
e21
3 2 23
e123 0 0 0
C3 E
+ C3 C3
E E
+ C3 C3
+ C3 C3 + C3 C3 C3
+ C3 E C3 C3
A
1E 2E
1 1 1
1 c 1 c1
1 c1 c 1
E
+ C3
89
90
8. Tables of Results
C4 E C2
+ C4 C4
1 1 0
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0
e21 0 1
1 2 1 2
e123 0 0 0 0
C4 E C2
+ C4 C4
E E C2
C4
C2 C2 E
+ C4
+ C4 C4 + C4 C4 C4 + C4
+ + C4 E C2 C4 C4
A B
1E 2E
1 1
1 i i
1 i i
1 1 1
+ C4 C4 C2
E C2
1 1 1 1
C6 E C2
+ C3 C3 + C6 C6
1 1 0
1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0
e21 0
3 2 23 1 2 1 2
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ C6 C6
C6 E C2
+ C3 C3 + C6 C6
E E C2
C3 + C6 C6
C2 C2 E
+ C6 C3 + C3
+ + C3 C3 C6 C6 + C3 C6 C3 C3 + C6 + C6 C3 C6 + C3 + C6
C6 A B
1E 1 2E 1 1E 2 2E 2
+ E C 2 C3 C3
1 1 c 1 c1 c 1 c1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ C3 C6
E
+ C3 C6
C2
C6 + C3
c1 c1 c 1
c 1 c1 c1
E C2
+ C6
C2 E
C3
c1 c 1
c1 c 1
c 1 c1
C2
Alexander Pokorny
91
8.1.2
Cnv
C2v E C2 x y
1 1 0 0 0
e1 0 0 1 0
e2 0 0 0 1
e3 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0
e21 0 1 0 0
e123 0 0 0 0
Class 1: 1 elements, order: 1 Class 2: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 3: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 4: 1 elements, order: 2
C2v E C2 x y
E E
C 2 x y C 2 x y y x C2
C2v E C2 x y A1 A2 B1 B2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C2 E
x y E
1 1 1 1 1
y x C 2 E
Table 8.5: Parameters, multiplication table and character table of the group C2v .
C3v E
+ C3 C3
1 1
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2
e2 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0
e21 0
3 2 23
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 1: 1 elements, order: 1 Class 2: 2 elements, order: 3
Class 3: 3 elements, order: 2 v 1 v 2 v 3 0 0 0

3 2 23
0 0 0
C3v E
+ C3 C3
E E
+ C3 C3
+ C3 C3 v 1 v 2 v 3 + C3 C3 v 1 v 2 v 3 C3 E
v3 v1 v2
+ C3 C3
C3v E 2C3 3v A1 A2 E 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0
+ C3 v 2 v 3 v 1 C3 + C3 + C3
v 1 v 2 v 3
v 1 v 2 v 3 E v 2 v 3 v 1 v 3 v 1 v 2
C3 E
Alexander Pokorny
92
C4v E C2
+ C4 C4
1 1 0
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0
e21 0 1
1 2 1 2
e123 0 0 0 0
Class 1: 1 elements, order: 1 Class 2: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 3: 2 elements, order: 4
Class 4: 2 elements, order: 2 v 1 v 2 d 1 d 2 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 2 1 2
0 1
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
C4v E C2
+ C4 C4
E E C2
C2 C2 E
+ C4 C4 v 1 v 2 d 1 d 2 + C4 C4 v 1 v 2 d 1 d 2 + C4 C4 v 2 v 1 d 2 d 1
C4v E C2 2C4 2v 2d A1 A2 B1 B2 E 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
+ C4 C4 C2 + C4 C4 E
E C2
d1 d2 v2 v1 d 2 d 1 v 1 v 2 C2 E
+ C4 C4 + C4 C4
v 1 v 2 d1 d2
v 1 v 2 d 2 d 1 E v 2 v 1 d 1 d 2 C 2
+ d 1 d 2 v 1 v 2 C 4 C4 E + d 2 d 1 v 2 v 1 C 4 C4 C2
C2 E
2 2
Alexander Pokorny
93
C6v E C2
+ C3 C3
1 1 0
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e21 0 1
3 2 23
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

+ C6 C6 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 2
Class 5: 3 elements, order: 2 d 1 d 2 d 3 v 1 v 2 v 3 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 2 23
0 0 0 0 0 0

3 2 3 2
1 1 2 1 2
C6v E C2
+ C3 C3 + C6 C6
E E C2
+ C3 C3 + C6 C6
C2 C2 E
C6 + C6 C3 + C3
+ + C3 C3 C6 C6 d 1 d 2 d 3 v 1 v 2 v 3 + + C3 C3 C6 C6 d 1 d 2 d 3 v 1 v 2 v 3 + + C6 C6 C3 C3 v 1 v 2 v 3 d 1 d 2 d 3 C3 E + C6 d 3 d 1 d 2 v 3 v 1 v 2
C2
C6 + C3
C6v E C2 2C3 2C6 3d 3v A1 A2 B1 B2 E1 E2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
E C2
+ C3 C6
C2 E
d 2 d 3 d 1 v 2 v 3 v 1 v2 v3 v1 d2 d3 d1
+ C3 C3 C2 C3 C6 + C6 C6 + C6 C6 C6 + C6 + C3 C3
+ C6 C2
C3 v 3 v 1 v 2 d 3 d 1 d 2 + + C3 C6 C2
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
d 1 d 2 d 3 v 1 v 2 v 3
d 1 v 1 d 2 d 3 v 3 v 2 E d 3 v 3 d 1 d 2 v 2 v 1
+ C3
d 2 v 2 d 3 d 1 v 1 v 3 C 3 E
C2
C3 + C3
v 1 d 1 v 2 v 3 d 3 d 2 C 2 v 3 d 3 v 1 v 2 d 2 d 1
C6
+ C6 E + C3
+ v 2 d 2 v 3 v 1 d 1 d 3 C 6 C2
C6 C3 E
C2
Alexander Pokorny
94
8.1.3
Cnh
C2h E C2 h i 1 1 0 0 0 e1 0 0 0 0 e2 0 0 0 0 e3 0 0 1 0 e3 e2 0 0 0 0 e13 0 0 0 0 e21 0 1 0 0 e123 0 0 0 1
C2h E C2 h i
E E
C 2 h i C 2 h i i E h C2
C2h Ag Bg Au Bu
E 1 1 1 1
C2 1 1 1 1
i 1 1 1 1
h 1 1 1 1
C2 E h i i
h C2 E
Table 8.9: Parameters, multiplication table and character table of the group C2h .
C3h E
+ C3
1 1
1 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 1 1 2
1 2
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ C3 C3
e21 0
3 2 3 2
e123 0 0 0 0
3 2

C3 1 2
Class 4: 1 elements, order: 2 h

+ S3
0 0 0
+ C3 C3 h + C3 C3 h C3
0 0 0

S3
3 2
C3h E
+ C3 C3
E E
+ C3 C3
+ S3 S3 + S3 S3 S3 h + S3 C3
C3h A
1E 2E
E 1 1 1 1 1 1
h 1 1 1 1 1
+ S3
S3
1 c 1 c1 1 c 1 c1
1 c1 c 1 1 c1 c 1
1 c 1 c1 1 c 1
1 c1 c 1 1 c1
E
+ C3 S3
E
+ S3 S3
+ S3 S3
h
+ C3 C3
h
+ S3 S3
h
+ S3 S3
E
+ C3 C3
A
1E 2E
h
+ S3
E
+ C3
1 c 1 c 1
Alexander Pokorny
95
C4h E C2
+ C4
1 1 0
1 2
e1 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0
e21 0 1
1 2
e123 0 0 0

C4 1 2
Class 5: 1 elements, order: 2 h i

+ S4
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0
1
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1
1 2

2

S4
1 2
1 2
C4h E C2
+ C4 C4
E E C2
C4
C2 C2 E
+ C4
+ C4 C4 h + C4 h C4 C4 + C4
i i h
+ S4
+ S4 S4 + S4 S4 + S4 S4
C4h Ag Bg
1E g 2E g
E 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ C4
C4
h 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ S4
S4
1 1 i i 1 1 i i
1 1 i i 1 1 i i
1 1 i i 1 1 i i
1 1 i i 1 1 i i
i
S4
+ C4 C4 C2
E C2
S4 + S4
+ S4 S4 i
h i
C4 + C4
E
+ S4 S4
h
+ C4 C4
h i
+ S4 S4
h i
i h
E C2
C2 E
Au Bu
1E u 2E u
+ S4 S4 i + S4 S4 h
h i
+ C4 C4 C2 + C4 C4 E
E C2
C6h E C2
+ C3
1 1 0
1 2
e1 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0
e21 0 1
3 2
e123 0 0 0 0
Class 1: 1 elements, order: 1 Class 2: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 3: 1 elements, order: 3 0 0 Class 4: 1 elements, order: 3
C3 1 2
3 2
Table 8.12: Parameters (part 1) of the group C6h .
Alexander Pokorny
96
C6h
+ C6
1
3 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 1 0 1 2
1 2 3 2 3 2
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e21
1 2
e123 0 0 0 1
3 2

C6 3 2
1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 7: 1 elements, order: 2 h i

+ S3
0 0 0 0 0 0
S3
3 2

+ S6
1 2

S6
1 2
C6h E C2
+ C3 C3 + C6 C6
E E C2
C3 + C6 C6
C2 C2 E
+ C6 C3 + C3
+ + C3 C3 C6 C6 h + C3 C6 C3 C3 + C6 + C6 C3 C6 + C3 + C6
i i h
+ S6 S3 + S3
+ + S3 S3 S6 S6 + + S3 S3 S6 S6 + + S6 S6 S3 S3 + S6
h i
S3 + S6 S6
+ C3 C6
E
+ C3 C6
C2
C6 + C3
+ S3 S6 S3 h
i
S6 + S3
E C2
C2 E
C3 + S3 + S6
h i
+ S3 S6
i h
S3
+ C6 C2 S6 S3 + S6
E
S3
+ S6 i
h i
+ S3 S3 + S6 S6
h i
+ S3 S3 + S6 S6
i h
S6 + S6 S3 + S3
+ + S3 S3 S6 S6 E
C2 E
C6 + C6 C3 + C3
+ + C3 C3 C6 C6 + + C6 C6 C3 C3 C3 E + C6
C2
+ C3 C3 + C6 C6
h
+ S3 S6
i
S6 + S3
C2
C6 + C3
h i
i h
S3
E C2
+ C3 C6
C2 E
C3
+ S6 i
h
+ C6
+ C6 C2
E
S3
C6h Ag Bg
1E 1g 2E 1g 1E 2g 2E 2g
E 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ C3
C3
C6
h 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i 1 1
+ S3
+ S6
S6
1 1 c 1 c1 c 1 c1 1 1 c 1 c1 c 1 c1
1 1 c1 c1 c 1 1 1 c1 c1 c 1
1 1
1 1 c1 c 1 c1 1 1 c1 c 1 c1
1 1
1 1 c1 c1 c 1 1 1 c1 c1
1 1 c1 c 1 c1 c 1 1 1
1 1 c 1 c1 c 1 c1 1 1 c1 c1
c1 c 1 c1 c 1 1 1
1 c 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 c 1 c1 1 1 c 1 c1 c 1
c 1 c1
1 c 1 c 1
Au Bu
1E 1u 2E 1u 1E 2u 2E 2u
c1 c 1 c1 c 1
c1 c 1 c1 c 1
c 1 c1
c 1 c1
1 c 1 c 1 c1
Table 8.12: Parameters (part 2), multiplication table and character table of the group C6h .
Alexander Pokorny
97
8.1.4
Dn
D2 E C 2x C 2y C 2z
1 1 0 0 0
e1 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 1 0 0
e13 0 0 1 0
e21 0 0 0 1
e123 0 0 0 0
D2 E C 2x C 2y C 2z
E E
C2x C2y C2z C2x C2y C2z C2z C2y C 2x
D2 E C2x C2y C2z A B1 B2 B3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C 2x E
C 2y C 2z E
C 2z C 2y C 2x E
Table 8.13: Parameters, multiplication table and character table of the group D2 .
D3 E
+ C3 C3
1 1
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2
e13 0 0 0 0
e21 0
3 2 23
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 3: 3 elements, order: 2 C21 C22 C23 D3 E

+ C3 C3
0 0 0
3 2 23
0 0 0
E E
+ C3 C3
+ C3 C3 C21 C22 C23 + C3 C3 C21 C22 C23 C3 E
C23 C21 C22

+ C3 C3 + C3
D3 E 2C3 3C2 A1 A2 E 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0
+ C3 C22 C23 C21
C21 C22 C23
C21 C22 C23 E
C22 C23 C21 C3 E
+ C23 C21 C22 C3 C3 E
Alexander Pokorny
98
D4 E C2
+ C4 C4
1 1 0
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0
e21 0 1
1 2 1 2
e123 0 0 0 0
Class 4: 2 elements, order: 2 C21 C22 C21 C22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 2 1 2
0 1
1 2 1 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
D4 E C2
+ C4 C4
E E C2
C2 C2 E
+ C4 C4 C21 C22 C21 C22 + C4 C21 C22 C21 C22 C4 + C4 C4 C22 C21 C22 C21
D4 E C2 2C4 2C2 2C2 A1 A2 B1 B2 E 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
+ C4 C4 C2 + C4 C4 E
E C2
C21 C22 C22 C21 C22 C21 C21 C22 C2 E

+ C4 C4 + C4 C4
C21 C22 C21 C22
C21 C22 C22 C21 E C22 C21 C21 C22 C2
+ C21 C22 C21 C22 C4 C4 E + C22 C21 C22 C21 C4 C4 C2
C2 E
2 2
Alexander Pokorny
99
D6 E C2
+ C3 C3
1 1 0
1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 0
e13 0 0
e21 0 1
3 2 23
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 1: 1 elements, order: 1 Class 2: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 3: 2 elements, order: 3 0 0 0 0 0

+ C6 C6 1 2 1 2
Class 5: 3 elements, order: 2 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 D6 E C2

+ C3 C3 + C6 C6
0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 23
0 0 0 0 0 0

3 2 3 2
1 1 2 1 2
E E C2
+ C3 C3 + C6 C6
C2 C2 E
C6 + C6 C3 + C3
+ + C3 C3 C6 C6 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 + + C3 C6 C6 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C3 + + C6 C6 C3 C3 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C3 E + C6 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22
C2
C6 + C3
D6 E C2 2C3 2C6 3C2 3C2 A1 A2 B1 B2 E1 E2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
E C2
+ C3 C6
C2 E
C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21
+ C3 C3 C2 + C6 C6
+ C6 C2
C3 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C3 + C3 + C3 + C6 C6 C6
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23
C21 C21 C22 C23 C23 C22 E C22 C22 C23 C21 C21 C23 C23 C23 C21 C22 C22 C21
C2
C3 E
+ C6 C2 + C3 C3 + C3
C21 C21 C22 C23 C23 C22 C2
+ C6 C6 E
+ C22 C22 C23 C21 C21 C23 C6 C2
C6 C3 E
+ C23 C23 C21 C22 C22 C21 C6 C6 C2
+ C3 C3 E
Alexander Pokorny
100
8.1.5
Dnh
D2h E C2z C2y C2x i z y x 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 e3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 e3 e2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 e13 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 e21 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 e123 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Class 1: 1 elements, order: 1 Class 2: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 3: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 4: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 5: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 6: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 7: 1 elements, order: 2 Class 8: 1 elements, order: 2
D2h E C 2z C 2y C 2x i z y x
E E
C2z C2y C2x i C2z C2y C2x i C2x C2y z C2z y x E x y z i
z z i x y
y y x i z
x x y z i
D2h Ag B1g B2g B3g Au B1u B2u B3u
E 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C2x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C 2y 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C 2z 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
z 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C 2z E
C 2y C 2x E i z y x z i x y y x i z
C 2x C 2y C 2z E
C2z C2y C2x C2x C2y C2z
C 2z E
C 2y C 2x E
C 2x C 2y C 2z E
Table 8.17: Parameters, multiplication table and character table of the group D2h .
Alexander Pokorny
101
D3h E
+ C3 C3
1 1
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
1 2
e3 e2 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
S3 S3
e13 0 0 0 0
e21 0
3 2 23
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 3 2
Class 3: 3 elements, order: 2 C21 C22 C23

+ S3 S3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 23
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 4: 2 elements, order: 6 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class 5: 1 elements, order: 2 h v 1 v 2 v 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Class 6: 3 elements, order: 2 23 3 2
D3h E
+ C3 C3
E E
+ C3 C3
+ + C3 C3 C21 C22 C23 S3 + + C3 C3 C21 C22 C23 S3 C3 S3
h h
+ S3 S3
v 1 v 2 v 3 v 1 v 2 v 3 v 3 v 1 v 2 v 2 v 3 v 1
+ S3 S3 + S3
C23 C21 C22
h
+ S3
+ C3 C22 C23 C21 h
C21 C22 C23

+ S3 S3
C21 C22 C23 E C23 C21 C22

+ S3 S3 S3 + C3
+ C3 C3 v 2 v 3 v 1 h + C3 v 3 v 1 v 2 S3 C3 + S3
C22 C23 C21 C3 E
h
S3
v 1 v 2 v 3
h
+ S3 S3
v 3 v 1 v 2 C 3 E
+ C3 C23 C21 C22
h
+ S3
v 2 v 3 v 1 E
+ S3 S3 + S3
+ C3 C3 C22 C23 C21
h v 1 v 2 v 3
+ v 1 v 2 v 3 C 3 C3 E S3 + S3
C21 C22 C23

+ C3 C3 C3 + C3
v 1 v 2 v 3 h v 2 v 3 v 1 v 3 v 1 v 2
C22 C23 C21 E C23 C21 C22 C21 C22 C23 2 S3 1 1 1 1 1 1 h 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 v 1 1 0 1 1 0
h
S3
E
C3
+ C3
D3h A1 A2 E A1 A2 E
E 1 1 2 1 1 2
2C3 1 1 1 1 1 1
3C 2 1 1 0 1 1 0
Table 8.18: Parameters, multiplication table and character table of the group D3h .
Alexander Pokorny
102
D4h E
+ C4 C4
1 1
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0
e21 0
1 2 1 2
e123 0 0 0
Class 3: 1 elements, order: 2 C2 C21 C22 C21 C22 i

+ S4 S4
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 2 1 2
0 0 1
1 2 1 2
1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
Class 6: 1 elements, order: 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1
1 2 1 2

2 1 2
Class 8: 1 elements, order: 2 h v 1 v 2 d 1 d 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 2 1 2
0 0 1
1 2 1 2
1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
D4h E
+ C4 C4
E E
+ C4 C4 C2 + C4 C4
C21 C22 C21 C22 i C21 C22 C21 C22 i
+ S4 + S4
S4 S4
h h
+ S4 S4
v 1 v 2 d 1 d 2 v 1 v 2 d 1 d 2 d 1 d 2 v 2 v 1 d 2 d 1 v 1 v 2 v 2 v 1 d 2 d 1 h i
+ S4 S4 + S4 S4 S4 + S4
C2
+ C4 C2 C4 E C4
E C2
+ C4
C4 C21 C22 C22 C21 S4 + + C4 C22 C21 C21 C22 S4
i h
S4
h i
+ S4
C2 C21 C22 C21 C22 i

+ S4 S4
C2
C22 C21 C22 C21 h C2 E

+ C4 + C4 C4
C21 C22 C21 C22 E C22 C21 C22 C21 C2 C22 C22 C21 C21 i
+ S4 S4 S4 + S4 C4
+ C4 C4 v 1 d 1 d 2 v 2 i
v 2 d 2 d 1 v 1 h
d 1 v 2 v 1 d 2 S4
+ C21 C21 C22 C22 C4 C4 E
C2 E
i h
h i
C2
d 2 v 1 v 2 d 1
+ C4 C4 C2
+ S4
h
S4 + S4
v 1 v 2 d 1 d 2 E
C21 C22 C21 C22
i h
+ S4
h i
S4
d 2 d 1 v 1 v 2 C 4 C2 + d 1 d 2 v 2 v 1 C 4 E + C4
E C2
C4
+ C4 C22 C21 C21 C22 C4 C21 C22 C22 C21
h v 1 v 2 d 1 d 2
v 2 v 1 d 2 d 1 C 2 h i
+ S4 S4 + S4 S4 S4 + S4
C22 C21 C22 C21 C2 E

+ C4 + C4 C4 + C4 C4
v 1 d 2 d 1 v 2 i v 2 d 1 d 2 v 1 h
d 1 v 1 v 2 d 2 S4
C21 C21 C22 C22 E C22 C22 C21 C21 C2 C22 C21 C22 C21
C4
i h
h i
+ C21 C22 C21 C22 C4 C4 E
C2 E
d 2 v 2 v 1 d 1
+ S4
C2
Table 8.19: Parameters and multiplication table of the group D4h .
Alexander Pokorny
D4h A1g A2g B 1g B 2g Eg A1u A2u B 1u B 2u Eu E 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2C 4 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 C2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2C2 2C 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 i 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 S4 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 h 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 v 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 2d 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
103
Table 8.20: Character table of the group D4h .
D6h E C2
+ C3 C3
1 1 0
1 2 1 2
e1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
1 2
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 0
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e21 0 1
3 2 23
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
3 2 3 2

+ C6 C6 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 2
Class 5: 3 elements, order: 2 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 i

+ S3 S3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 23
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 3 2
Class 7: 1 elements, order: 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Class 8: 2 elements, order: 6

+ S6 S6
3 2 3 2
1 2 1 2
Class 10: 1 elements, order: 2 h 1 0
Table 8.21: Parameters of the group D6h (part 1).
Alexander Pokorny
104
D6h v 1 v 2 v 3 d 1 d 2 d 3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
e1 0
e2 1 1 2 1 2 0
e3 0 0 0 0 0 0
e3 e2 0 0 0 0 0 0
e13 0 0 0 0 0 0
e21 0 0 0 0 0 0
e123 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 2 3 2
Class 12: 3 elements, order: 2 1 1 2 1 2

3 2 23
E E C2 + C3 C3 + C6 C6 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 i + S3 S3 + S6 S6 h v 1 v 2 v 3 d 1 d 2 d 3
C2 C2 E C6 + C6 C3 + C3 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 h S6 + S6 S3 + S3 i d 1 d 2 d 3 v 1 v 2 v 3
+ C3 + C3 C6 C3 E C2 + C6 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 S6 S3 h i + S6 + S3 v 2 v 3 v 1 d2 d3 d1
C3 C3 + C6 E + C3 C6 C2 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 + S6 h + S3 S6 i S3 v 3 v 1 v 2 d 3 d 1 d 2
+ C6 + C6 C3 C2 C6 + C3 E C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 S3 i S6 + S3 h + S6 d 3 d 1 d 2 v 3 v 1 v 2
C6 C6 + C3 + C6 C2 E C3 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 + S3 + S6 i h S3 S6 d2 d3 d1 v 2 v 3 v 1
C21 C21 C21 C23 C22 C22 C23 E C3 + C3 C2 + C6 C6 d1 v 3 v2 d2 d3 v 1 h S3 + S3 i + S6 S6 C2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
C22 C22 C22 C21 C23 C23 C21 + C3 E C3 C6 C2 + C6 d 2 v 1 v 3 d 3 d 1 v 2 + S3 h S3 S6 i + S6
C23 C23 C23 C22 C21 C21 C22 C3 + C3 E + C6 C6 C2 d 3 v 2 v 1 d 1 d 2 v 3 S3 + S3 h + S6 S6 i
C21 C21 C21 C23 C22 C22 C23 C2 + C6 C6 E C3 + C3 v 1 d3 d2 v 2 v 3 d1 i + S6 S6 h S3 + S3
C22 C22 C22 C21 C23 C23 C21 C6 C2 + C6 + C3 E C3 v 2 d 1 d 3 v 3 v 1 d 2 S6 i + S6 + S3 h S3
C23 C23 C23 C22 C21 C21 C22 + C6 C6 C2 C3 + C3 E v 3 d 2 d 1 v 1 v 2 d 3 + S6 S6 i S3 + S3 h
i i h S6 + S6 S3 + S3 d1 d2 d3 v 1 v 2 v 3 E C6 + C6 C3 + C3 C2 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 i 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
+ S3 + S3 S6 S3 h i + S6 v 2 v 3 v 1 d2 d3 d1 C6 C3 E C2 + C6 + C3 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21
S3 S3 + S6 h + S3 S6 i v 3 v 1 v 2 d 3 d 1 d 2 + C6 E + C3 C6 C2 C3 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22
+ S6 + S6 S3 i S6 + S3 h d 3 d 1 d 2 v 3 v 1 v 2 C3 C2 C6 + C3 E + C6 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21 C22
S6 S6 + S3 + S6 i h S3 d2 d3 d1 v 2 v 3 v 1 + C3 + C6 C2 E C3 C6 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 C21
h h i + S3 S3 + S6 S6 v 1 v 2 v 3 d 1 d 2 d 3 C2 + C3 C3 + C6 C6 E C21 C22 C23 C21 C22 C23 3v 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
v 1 v 1 d1 v 3 v 2 d 2 d 3 h S3 + S3 i + S6 S6 C21 C23 C22 C22 C23 C21 E C3 + C3 C2 + C6 C6
v 2 v 2 d 2 v 1 v 3 d 3 d 1 + S3 h S3 S6 i + S6 C22 C21 C23 C23 C21 C22 + C3 E C3 C6 C2 + C6
v 3 v 3 d3 v 2 v 1 d1 d2 S3 + S3 h + S6 S6 i C23 C22 C21 C21 C22 C23 C3 + C3 E + C6 C6 C2
d 1 d 1 v 1 d 3 d 2 v 2 v 3 i + S6 S6 h S3 + S3 C21 C23 C22 C22 C23 C21 C2 + C6 C6 E C3 + C3
d 2 d 2 v 2 d 1 d 3 v 3 v 1 S6 i + S6 + S3 h S3 C22 C21 C23 C23 C21 C22 C6 C2 + C6 + C3 E C3
d 3 d 3 v 3 d 2 d 1 v 1 v 2 + S6 S6 i S3 + S3 h C23 C22 C21 C21 C22 C23 + C6 C6 C2 C3 + C3 E
D6h A1g A2g B 1g B 2g E1g E2g A1u A2u B 1u B 2u E1u E2u
E 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
2C 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 C6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3C2 3C 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
2 S3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2S6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
h 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
3 d 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
Table 8.21: Parameters (part 2), multiplication table and character table of the group D 6h .
Alexander Pokorny
Notation and Conventions

Group notation
G = {g1 . . . gn } G = g1 ord G = |G| G<H G H Group with elements {g1 . . . gn }, represented by a set. gn Group represented by the sum of its elements g1 . . . gn . Order of a group. G is a subgroup of H . G is invariant subgroup of H . {M nn | M = M 1 } (general linear group). allA GL(n, F), det A = 1 (special linear group). allA GL(n, R), det A > 1 allA GL(n, R), AT = A1 (orthogonal group). allA O(n), det A = 1 (special orthogonal group). allA GL(n, C), A+ = A1 (unitary group). allA U (n), det A = 1 (special unitary group). allA GL(n, C), AT = A1 (complex orthogonal group). allA O(n, C), det A = 1 (special complex orthogonal group).
GL(n, F) SL(n, F) GL+ (n, R) O(n) SO(n) U (n) SU (n) O(n, C) SO(n, C)
Quaternion notation
, Quaternion notation.
Cliord notation
e1 . . . en Cliord notation.
105
106
Notations and Conventions
Alexander Pokorny
Bibliography
[1] Bronstein, Ilja N. and Semendjajew; Teubner-Taschenbuch der Mathematik ; volume 1; B. G. Teubner, 1996; 6th edition [2] Bronstein, Ilja N. and Semendjajew; Teubner-Taschenbuch der Mathematik.; volume 2; B. G. Teubner, 1995; 6th edition [3] Schikin, Jewgeni; Lineare R aume und Abbildungen ; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 1994; 1st edition 33 [4] Potter, Michael D.; Mengentheorie ; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 1994; 1st edition [5] Hlawka, Edmund; Binder, Christa; and Schmitt, Peter; Grundbegrie der Mathematik ; Prugg Verlag Wien, 1979; 1st edition [6] Bartel, Hans-Georg; Mathematische Methoden in der Chemie ; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 1996; 1st edition [7] Kettle, Sidney F. A.; Symmetrie und Struktur ; B. G. Teubner, 1994; 1st edition [8] Atkins, P. W.; Molecular Quantum Mechanics ; Oxford University Press, 1994; 2nd edition 27, 28 [9] Dirac, P. A. M.; The Principles of Quantum Mechanics ; Clarendon Press, 1993; 4th edition [10] Kowol, G. and Mitsch, H.; Algebra I ; Prugg Verlag, Eisenstadt, 1982 7, 8, 10, 13, 15 [11] Kowol, G. and Mitsch, H.; Algebra II ; Prugg Verlag, Eisenstadt, 1984 [12] Van der Waerden, B. L.; Hamiltons Entdeckung der Quaternionen. (Erweiterte Fassung eines Vortrags, gehalten in Hamburg vor der Joachim Jungius-Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften am 26. Juni 1973) 1 [13] Weinberger, Peter; Gruppentheoretische Methoden in der Festk orperquantenmechanik. (Beitrag zum Seminar Quantenchemie der Festk orper . Wien, 1971) [14] Altmann, Simon L.; Band Theory of Solids. An Introduction from the Point of View of Symmetry ; Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995
107
108
Bibliography
[15] Altmann, Simon L.; Rotations, Quaternions and Double Groups ; Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986 [16] Neutsch, Wolfram; Koordinaten. Theorie und Anwendung ; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg, 1995 44 [17] Snygg, John; Cliord Algebra. A Computational Tool for Physicists ; Oxford University Press, New York, 1997 [18] Ablamowicz, Rafal; Spinor Representations of Cliord Algebras: A Symbolic Appraoch ; Elsevier Preprint 35 [19] Altmann, Simon L.; Cliord Algebra, Symmetries, and Vectors ; Int. J. Quantum Chem.; 60: (1996), pp. 359372 3 [20] Hurley, A. C.; Finite Rotation Groups and Crystal Classes in Four Dimensions ; Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.; 47: (1951), pp. 650661 vi, 3 [21] Talman, James D.; Special Functions. A Group Theoretical Approach ; Benjamin, New York, 1968. Based on Lectures by Eugene P. Wigner [22] Zassenhaus, H.; The Theory of Groups ; Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, G ottingen, 1958 [23] Goursat, M. E.; Sur les substitutions orthogonales et les divisions r eguli` eres de norm. sup.; 3: (1889), pp. 9102 lespace ; Ann. sci. Ec. [24] Wulfman, Carl E.; Dynamical Groups in Atomic and Molecular Physics ; volume 2; Academic Press, New York, 1971; pp. 150152 [25] Herzig, Peter; Clebsch-Gordan Coecients for the Group Chains O T D2 and Td T D2 by the Method of Projective Representations ; Int. J. Quantum Chem.; XXVI: (1984), pp. 297312 [26] Judd, B. R. and Lister, G. M. S.; Complementary groups in the quark model of the atom ; J. Phys. A: Math. Gen.; 25: (1992), pp. 26152630 80 [27] Judd, B. R.; The Quark Model of Atomic Shells ; At. Mol. Phys.; 30: (1994), pp. 27 35 [28] Smith, F. D.; What are Cliord Algebra and Spinors. Online article on F. D. Smiths Homepage URL http://www.innerx.net/personal/tsmith/clfpq.html [29] Banchoff, T. F.; Dimensionen. Figuren und K orper in geometrischen R aumen ; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg, 1991 64, 65 [30] Porteous, I. R.; Cliord Algebras and the Classical Groups ; Cambridge University Press, 1955
Alexander Pokorny
Bibliography
109
[31] Altmann, Simon L. and Herzig, Peter; Point-Group Theory Tables ; Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1994 v, vi, 15, 49, 67, 82, 89 [32] Grassmann, Hermann; Ausdehnungslehre ; Leipzig, 1844 1 [33] Hamilton, William R.; Lectures on Quaternions ; Hodges & Smith, Dublin, 1853 1, 3, 36 [34] Clifford, William Kingdon; Applications of Grassmanns Extensive Algebra ; Am. J. Math.; 1: (1878), pp. 350358 2 [35] Gwinn, Robert P.; Norton, Peter B.; and Goetz, Philip W. (eds.); Encyclopdia Britannica ; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1990 2 [36] Riesz, M.; Cliord Numbers and Spinors ; Institute for Fluid Dynamics and Applied Mathematics, MD, Baltimore, 1958. Lectures Series No. 38 3 [37] Hestens, David; Space-Time Algebra ; Gordon and Breach, New York, 1966 3 [38] Hestens, David and Sobczyk, G.; Cliord Algebra to Geometric Calculus. A unied Language for Mathematics and Physics ; Reidel, Dordrecht, 1984 3 [39] Bourbaki, N.; Alg` ebre ; Hermann, Paris, 1971 [40] Kurzweil, Hans and Stellmacher, Bernhard; Theorie der endlichen Gruppen ; Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1998 7, 15 [41] Hamermesh, Morton; Group Theory and its Application to Physical Problems ; Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1989; reprint, 1 edition 7, 8, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 [42] Fulton, William and Harris, Joe; Representation Theory ; Springer-Verlag, New York, 1991 24 [43] Keller, Jaime and Rodr iguez-Romo, S.; Multivector Representations of Lie Groups ; Int. J. Theor. Phys.; 30: (1991), pp. 185196 34 [44] Hermann, Carl; Kristallographie in R aumen beliebiger Dimensionszahl. I. Die Symmetrieoperationen ; Acta Cryst.; 2: (1949), pp. 139145 41, 61 [45] Euler, Leonard; Du mouvement de rotation des corps solids autour dun axe variable ; M emoires de lAcad emie de Sciences de Berlin ; 14 43 [46] Weisstein, Eric W.; CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics ; CRC Press, 1999 63, 64 [47] Ross, Kelly L.; Platonic and Archimedian Polyhedra. Online article on Kelly L. Rosss Homepage, url = http://www.friesian.com/polyhedr.htm, 63 [48] Littlewood, D. E.; The Theory of Group Characters and Matrix Representations of Groups ; Oxford University Press, 1950 80
Alexander Pokorny
110
Bibliography
Alexander Pokorny
Curriculum Vitae
1973 197983 198391 1991 1991 1991/92 1992 1993 1995 1997 1999 2000 30. M arz Geburt in Wien als Sohn von Renate und Hans Pokorny, aufgewachsen in W ahring (1180 Wien) Private Volksschule mit Oentlichkeitsrecht (der Schulbr uder W ahring), Schopenhauerstrae 44-46 Oentliches Gymnasium der Stiftung Theresianische Akademie (neusprachlich), Favoritenstrae 15, 1040 Wien Reifepr ufung an der Theresianischen Akademie mit ausgezeichnetem Erfolg abgelegt Immatrikulation und Inskription an der Universit at Wien (Chemie, A420) Ableistung der ordentlichen Zivildienstes bei Jugend am Werk, Herzmanskystrae 22-24, 1140 Wien Nach Ende des Zivildienstes Beginn der Studient atigkeit Inskription des Studiums der Mathematik (A405) an der Universit at Wien Abschluss des ersten Studienabschnittes der Chemie mit Auszeichnung Inskription des Studiums der Philosphie und Sprachwissenschaft (A296/327) an der Universit at Wien Abschluss der Studiums der Chemie an der Universit at Wien, Inskription des Doktoratsstudiums an der Universit at Wien Zuerkennung eines Doktorandenstipendiums der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien
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89 . 89 . 89 . 91 . 94 . 97 . 100 105 107

Notation and Conventions Bibliography

William Kingdon Cliord

About rotations and vectors and their parametrization

Dimensions higher than 3

2. Group Theory and Algebra

2 Group Theory and Algebra

6 Structure Semigroup Monoid Group Abelian Group Ring Field

Table 2.1: Fundamental algebraic structures that will be important.

Groups and their properties

2. Group Theory and Algebra

2. Group Theory and Algebra

Subgroups and generating systems

2. Group Theory and Algebra

Theorem 2.2. Any subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic itself. [10]

A special group Q = {1, 1, i, i, j, j, k, k }, which will be of further importance later. Q 1 1 i i j j k k 1 1 1 i i j j k k 1 1 1 i i j j k k i i i 1 1 k k j j i i i 1 1 k k j j j j j k k 1 1 i i j j j k k 1 1 i i k k k j j i i 1 1 k k k j j i i 1 1

2. Group Theory and Algebra

Complex products and conjugation

2. Group Theory and Algebra

Cosets or residue classes

2. Group Theory and Algebra

Lagranges Theorem and conjugacy classes

2. Group Theory and Algebra

2. Group Theory and Algebra

G its normal divisors. We dene G}

as the (inner) direct product of normal divisors Ni

x1 e11 e21 x2 e12 e22 e ei xe = . . i = E x = (e1 . . . e2 ) . . . . . . . xn en1 en2

. . . en1 x1 . . . en2 x2 . . . .. . . . . . . . . enn xn

For we know that

we can rewrite it as a matrix formula xe = Axf or xf = A1 xe (3.5)

Special linear spaces, norms

(x, x), with x V (R).

the scalar product is

or in matrix form (x, y ) = (xe )T y e

and according to our denitions we get

or in matrix form (x, y ) = (xe )+ y e

The elements R ej can be written as linear combinations of the basis vectors:

Substituting the corresponding term in (3.10), we get

Comparing this result with (3.1) yields the formula

If we want to transform to a given base F , we know that F = EA, i. e.

Additionally, with ji A1 , we can dene

Now we apply R on f i and get

e ek Dkj = n e Dkj k=1 n n e lk Dkj ji k=1 j =1 l=1

= = We can hence write,

or in matrix form Df (R ) = A1 De (R )A (3.21)

3. Representation Theory Let us consider a linear space V with the subspaces Wi , i. e.

Axial and polar vectors

or in matrix form D g V = A1 D g W A (3.23)

r )Dli ( Dik ( g )Dkl (h g) =

)D( D(h g )XD( g 1 ) )D( 1 )D(h ) D(h g )XD( g 1 )D(h

g g ). D(h )XD({h }1 ) D(h

Criteria for reducibility

and hence for the characters a similar relationship is valid: i =

(3.38) gi and sum over i, we

where a are simple positive integers. If we multiply now by i get i

Substituting now (3.48), we get the important formula [41] n2 = g.

Now we calculate B (x, y ) and get

where B e = (ij ) is called the matrix of the bilinear form.

Constructing the Cliord Algebra

Some Cliord Algebras

4. Multilinear Algebra Theorem 4.3. 1 , 1 2 , 2 = 1 2 1 2 , 1 2 + 2 1 + 1 2

Table 4.2: Representation matrices for the quaternion group.

Symmetry operations in 2-space

40 Symmetry operation Sch onies-symbol Rotations Cn Reections x , y Inversion1 i C2

5. Symmetry Operations International symbol n, n = 2, 3, 4, . . . 2 12