Teaching Module 1 CHAPTER 2 CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL ORGANISATION

Cellular components ANIMAL CELLS 1. Plasma membrane 2. Cytoplasm

Characteristics A thin, flexible layer which forms the outer boundary of the cell Consists of a jelly-like matrix in which the cells organelles are suspended Consists of 3 main components: a) nuclear membrane (outer and inner membrane) which separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm b) chromosomes which carries genetic material in the form of DNA (c) A darker and dense region called nucleolus Consists of an extensive folded membranes which form interconnected tubes and sacs in the cytoplasm The outer surface is covered ribosomes Does not have ribosomes

Functions Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cytoplasm. Acts as a medium where biochemical reactions and most living processes occur Control and coordinates all cellular activities

3. Nucleus

4. Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Transport proteins synthesized by the ribosomes to be export out of the cell

5. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

6. Golgi apparatus

Consists of stack of flattened membranous sacs New membrane is continuously added to one end of the Golgi apparatus and buds off as vesicle at the other end Cylindrical-shaped Has its own DNA Contain ATP (adenosine triphosphates) involved in cellular respiration Small, spherical sacs surrounded by a single membrane Contain hydrolytic enzymes (digestive enzymes)

Involved in transport of lipids (within the cell) and cholesterol Carries out detoxification of drugs and metabolic by products Accepts vesicles from the ER, processing, packaging and transport centre of carbohydrates, proteins and phospholipids to other parts of the cell or to the plasma membrane The sites of cellular respiration produces energy as it is the site for aerobic respiration As digestion component in a cell The hydrolytic enzymes digest complex organic molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides and lipids. Sites for proteins synthesis The instruction required for the synthesis of these 2 proteins is stored in the chromatin Form spindle fibres

7. Mitochondrion

8. Lysosomes

9. Ribosomes

Compact spherical organelles Each ribosome is composed of 2 subunits, each consisting of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein A pair of small cylindrical

10. Centrioles

Organelles Found In Animal And Plant Cells Animal and Plant Cells Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and ER Animal Cell Only Lysosome Centrioles Plant Cell Only Cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts

Differences between animal and plant cells Structure Shape C ell walls Chloroplasts Vacuoles Food storage Centrioles Animal cells No fixed shape Do not have cell walls Does not have chloroplasts Do not have vacuoles. If present, vacuoles are usually small and numerous Carbohydrate is stored in the form of glycogen Have centrioles Plant cells Have a fixed shape Has a cellulose cell wall All green plants have chloroplasts Usually has large vacuole Carbohydrate is stored in the form of starch Do not have centrioles

The density of organelles in specific cells Type of cell Sperm cells Function Require energy to propel through the uterus towards the Fallopian tubes so that fertilisation can take place Need a lot of energy to enable movement and fight Require large amount of energy during active cell division to produce new cells Play a centre role in metabolism, regulating a wide range of chemicals in the blood Regulate the amount of sugar released into the bloodstream and detoxification Absorbs light energy during photosynthesis Synthesis and secrete enzymes and hormones Adrenal gland cells Gut epithelium cells Testes cells Ovary cells Phagolytic cells, e.g: macrophages, neutrophils Goblet cells in epithelial cells of intestinal and respiratory tract 2.2 Cell Organisation Living processes in unicellular organisms Unicellular organisms are organisms which consist of single cell. E.g.: protozoa; Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. The survival of a unicellular organism depends largely on its structure and cellular components as it does not have any systems. Draw and label an Amoeba sp. and a Paramecium sp. Habitat: freshwater lakes, ponds and damp soil Habitat: freshwater ponds rich in decaying organic matter. Synthesis some steroid hormones Synthesis lipids from fatty acids and glycerol Synthesis steroid sex hormones: testosterone Synthesis steroid sex hormones: progesterone and estrogen Contain hydrolytic enzymes to break down pathogens; bacteria Synthesis and secretes mucus to trap dusts and bacteria Mitochondria, rough ER, Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Chloroplasts Rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and mitochondria Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Lysosome Golgi apparatus Organelles in high density

Flight muscle cells in insects and birds Cells in the meristems of plants (meristematic cells) Liver cells

Mitochondria

Palisade mesophyll cells of leaf Pancreatic cells

`Amoeba sp. The cytoplasm is enclosed by a plasma membrane. Changes its shape constantly as it meets obstacles and responds to stimuli. The gel-like outer part of the cytoplasm is called ectoplasm while the inner part is called the endoplasm

1. General characteristics:

2. Locomotion:

Paramecium sp. Fixed slipper-like shape The surface of the Paramecium sp. is covered by numerous rows of cilia (short hair-like outgrowths) Has 2 nuclei: Macronucleus controls cellular metabolism of the cell and necessary for asexual reproduction. The micronucleus is required for sexual reproduction

Moves and feeds by using

pseudopodia Moves by cytoplasmic projection by extending its pseudopodia and anchoring the tips onto the ground. This is followed by the flow of cytoplasm into the pseudopodia This form of locomotion is known as ameboid movement.

Moves by means of the rhythmic

beating of the cilia This action enables the Paramecium sp. to move forward while rotating and spiralling along its axis

Feeds on bacteria and diatoms

Engulf food by phagocytosis Amoeba sp. Approaches the food particles Two pseudopodia extend out and enclose the food particles The food particles are packaged in a food vacuole which fuses with a lysosome containing a hydrolytic enzyme called lysozyme The food particles are digested by the lysozyme. The nutrients diffuse into the cytoplasm and are assimilated Undigested material is left behind when Amoeba sp. moves. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs through the plasma membrane by simple diffusion Waste products (carbon dioxide and ammonia) are eliminated by diffusion The contractile vacuole is involved in osmoregulation Water diffuses into the cell of the Amoeba sp. and fills the contractile vacuole.

3. Feeding

4. Respiration

Feeds on microscopic organisms The rhythmic beating of cilia along a mouth-like opening (oral groove) sweeps water and suspended food particles into the cytostome In the cytostome, food vacuoles containing the food particles are formed The food particles in the food vacuoles are digested by hydrolytic enzymes from the cytoplasm Nutrients then dissolve and diffuse into the cytoplasm and are used to generate energy The undigested contents are released through the anal pore

Gaseous exchange occurs by

diffusion through the entire plasma membrane

5. Excretion

Waste products (carbon dioxide) are expelled from the cell by diffusion Control of water balance (osmoregulation) is aided by 2 contractile vacuoles, one at the anterior end and the other at the

When the vacuole is filled to its maximum size, it contracts to expel its contents from time to time 6. Reproduction

Reproduces asexually by binary

fission and by forming spores Where food is abundant, Amoeba sp. reproduces by binary fission. When the environment is not conducive (food is scarce and condition is dry), Amoeba sp. forms spores Respond to food by moving towards them Retreats when exposed to bright light, acidic condition.

posterior end The contractile vacuoles periodically expand, filling with water and then contract to expel their contents to the exterior of the cell Reproduces asexually and sexually In a favourable condition, Paramecium sp. reproduces by binary fission Sexual reproduction known as conjugation takes place when the environment conditions are not favourable Has cilia which function as sensory structures Is sensitive to chemicals, oxygen and carbon dioxide, pH and physical stimuli such as light, contact and temperature Moves in opposite direction when it contact with an adverse stimulus Grows to a certain size by synthesising new cytoplasm

7. Response to stimuli

By synthesizing new cytoplasm 8. Growth

Cell specialisation in multicellular organisms The necessity for cell specialisation and organisation Cell specialisation: complex organisms require various types of tissues, organs and systems to function given the complexity and the millions of cells found in its body. Cell organisation is essential because: a) A group of cells or tissues are able to carry out specific function more efficiently compared to a single cell b) The division of work among cells enables the organisms to carry out the various tasks and functions in a systematic manner. c) All living processes can be carried out more efficiently and this enables them to achieve a higher growth rate d) Organism are able to adapt and survive in diverse habitats and environments Cell organisation in humans and animals Tissues Groups of specialised cells with a common structure and function 1. Epithelial tissues 3. Nerve tissues 2. Muscle tissues 4. Connective tissues

1. Epithelial Tissues a. Consists of one or more layers of cells b. The cells of an epithelium are tightly interconnected with little space between them

c.

They form a continuous layer over body surface (the skin and mouth area) and inner lining cavities (digestive tract and lungs) d. Some form glands (exocrine and endocrine glands) e. Epithelial tissues functions are associated with protection, secretion and absorption. A) The epithelial tissue at the surface of the skin and linings of the mouth and esophagus: Form a protective barrier against infection, mechanical injuries, chemical and dehydration. They also regulate temperature. B) The lining of body cavities, heart, blood vessels and lungs: Epithelial cells which line the alveoli of the lungs and form the walls of lungs They are thin, have moist surface and arranged in a folded form to allow the exchange of gases between the alveoli and the blood capillaries to take place efficiently C) Lining of the small intestine The epithelial cells here absorb nutrients after digestion is completed Epithelial cells may undergo modification to form mucus-secreting goblet cells which secrete mucus into the digestive tract D) Lining of glands, ducts and kidney tubules Certain epithelial tissues are modified to form glands in the skin (sweat glands and sebaceous glands) E) Lining of the trachea Consists of elongated cells with hair-like projection called cilia. They also secrete mucus The mucus traps dust while the cilia remove the impurities away from the lungs 2. Muscle Tissues A) Smooth muscles 1. Found along the walls of the intestine, blood vessels, urinary tract and reproductive tract 2. Function for involuntary body activities of the body. 3. E.g.: smooth muscle contract, food is moved along the digestive tract. Churning action of the stomach and the constriction of the arteries. 4. Smooth muscles contract more slowly than skeletal muscles but remain contracted for a longer period of time. B) Skeletal muscles 1. Are attached to the tendons of the skeleton 2. Responsible for the voluntary movements of the body 3. Contractions of skeletal muscles produce movements of various body parts C) Cardiac muscles 1. Form the wall of the heart 2. Contract to pump blood to all parts of the body 3. Contractions of cardiac muscles are involuntary/myogenic Drawing of : Smooth muscle Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle

3. Nerve Tissues 1. Are composed of neurones or nerve cells 2. Each neurone consists of a cell body and nerve fibres called dendrites and axons 3. 3 types of neurones: afferent neurones, efferent neurones and interneurones 4. Neurones transmit signals called nerve impulses over long distances. 5. Nerve tissues control and coordinate activities of the body 4. Connective tissues 1. Consists of various types of cells and fibres separated by an extracellular matrix 2. The connective tissues which underlies epithelial tissues consists of a network of collagen, capillaries and spaces filled with fluid 3. E.g.: tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bones, lymph and adipose tissue 4. Connective tissues with the exception of blood and lymph are interwoven with fibrous strands called . A) Cartilage tissue 1. When collagen fibres are densely packed, they form tendons and ligaments 2. Tendons attach muscles to bones. Ligaments attach bones to bones 3. Cartilage is a strong yet flexible connective tissue 4. Cartilage provides support to the nose, ears and covers the ends of bones at joints 5. Cartilage also forms discs between vertebrae. This enables them to act as cushions to absorb pressure B) Bone tissue 1. Bones consist of cells embedded in a matrix of collagen hardened by mineral deposits such as calcium. This combination makes the bones harder than cartilage 2. Provides protection to organs in the body and support the body C) Blood tissue 1. Blood consists of red, white blood cells and platelets suspended in a fluid called blood plasma. 2. Blood cells are manufactured in the bone marrow, located at the ends of long bones. 3. Blood transport nutrients and oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide and waste products from the cells 4. It helps distribute heat throughout the body and contains regulatory substances such as hormones and enzymes 5. RBC: transport oxygen; WBC: Fighting infections; Platelets: blood clotting D) Lymph Consists mostly of fluid which leaks out of blood capillaries

E) Adipose tissue Fat cells are tightly packed. They can be found in the dermis of the skin. Adipose tissue stores energy and insulate the body Tissues found in plants In plants, there are 4 types of tissues: 1. Ground/ basic tissue Parenchyma- living cells - forms the bulk of the packing tissue within plants, arranged loosely with many intercellular air spaces to allow exchange of gases to take place between the plant tissue and the external environment - the most important function of the parenchyma cells of roots and stems is the storage of food (starch, proteins, lipids) and water. - when tightly packed and turgid, parenchyma cells give support and shape to herbaceous plants Collenchyma- a simple tissue with living cells - polygonal, elongated and unevenly thickened cell walls () - air spaces between colenchyma cells are very .. and non-existence - collenchyma cells are - provides herbaceous plants with and .. - in young plants, it allow the cells to expand and be stretched and in non-woody plants for growth Sclerenchyma - the main functions are for ..plant parts. - Sclerenchyma cells usually die after maturity, have secondary cell walls that are thickened uniformly and are lignified. - The thickened cell walls are very and to water, solute and gases. - Sclerenchyma fibres are found below the epidermis of the stems or roots, usually with association with xylem and phloem in vascular bundles. 2. Vascular tissue .. (xylem vessels and tracheids) and (sieve tubes and companion cells) 3. Epidermal tissue forms the epidermis of a leaf (may be specialised to create cuticle), the epidermis of the stem (may contain chloroplasts and become guard cells) and the epidermis of root (may have long projections called root hairs) 4. Meristem tissue found at the root tips, shoot tips and cambium; can divide by mitosis to form new cells. Organs 1. Organ is a structure formed by .... 2. Examples of organs in humans include the heart, lungs, skin, kidneys, eyes and ears. 3. Examples of plant organs are leaves, stems, roots and flowers. Skin The skin is an organ which functions to protect the body from infection and water loss. It is made up of epithelial tissues (epidermis, hair, follicle, sweat glands), connective tissues

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(adipose tissue, blood vessels), nerve tissues ( nerve endings) and muscle tissues (erector muscle) Systems System is a .. of several organs that work together to perform a common function. There are 11 major systems in humans and all their functions are coordinated to produce an efficient and harmonious human being. 1. .. Major organs: skin Main functions: a) Protects the body against mechanical injuries, microbial infection and dehydration b) Physically separates the body from the external environment 2. . Major organs/tissues: heart, blood vessels, blood Major functions: a) delivers nutrients, respiratory gases and hormones to body cells b) Transports waste products to excretory organs 3. .. Major organs: glands such as pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas which secrete hormones Main function: coordinates body activities together with the nervous system 4. .. Major organs: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, bone marrow, thymus Main functions: a) Defends the body against infections b) Return excess tissue fluid to the blood 5. . Major organs/tissues: brain, spinal cord, nerves Main functions: a) detect stimuli, formulates responses, transmits nerve impulses and integrates the activities of other system b) Control physiological processes together with the endocrine system 6. . Major organs: mouth, pharynx, stomach, esophagus, liver, pancreas, small intestines, rectum, anus. Major functions: ingest and digest food, absorbs nutrients for use by the body and eliminates undigested material 7. Major organs: skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles Main function: Contraction of muscles enables body movements 8. Major organs: kidneys, lungs, skin, urinary bladder Main function: eliminates metabolic wastes and maintains homeostasis condition of the body 9. . Major organs/tissues: bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments Main function: supports the body, protects the internal organs and sites for muscles attachment 10. .. Major organs: nose, trachea, lungs Main function: provides a means for gaseous exchange, that is oxygen acquisition and carbon dioxide elimination 11. ..

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 a) b)

Major organs/tissues: males: testes, penis female: ovaries, uterus, Fallopian tubes, cervix, vagina Main functions: Provides for the continuation of the species; male produces sperms while female produces egg cells

System in Plants System in plants are not as specialised as those of animals. Plants have fewer organs compared to animals- _______________________________________________. The flowering plants consists of 2 main systems: the root and shoot system. a) The root system is the absorptive system of the plants which absorb water and mineral salts to the main vascular system (xylem) b) The shoot system consists of organs such as stems, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits. - The stems and branches act as a support system for the plant. - The leaves are made up of ground tissue, epidermal tissue and vascular tissue (form the main photosynthetic system) - The reproductive system of plants consists of flowers which produce fruits and seeds. 2.3 Appreciating the Uniqueness Of The Cell 1. Regulating the internal environment Homeostasis: a process of ________________ the _______________________________ in the ______________________________ (interstitial fluid and blood) so that these factors can be ___________________ in a ______________________________ and at an _______________________________________ for the survival of the body cells. Physical factors: temperature, blood pressure, osmotic pressure Chemical factors: salt and sugar content in blood and pH value An optimal internal environment is needed by cells so that: 1. All enzymes and biochemical reactions can react at a maximum rate. This is to ensure optimal cellular activities so that organisms can live in a wider range of habitat. 2. Metabolic and physiological processes can still continue even though the external environment fluctuates substantially 3. Homeostasis occur through a negative feedback mechanism. 4. Any deviation from the normal range will trigger a series of corrective measures to restore the factor back to its normal range

1. 2. 3. 4.

Plants do not have a regulatory system. Plant cells die on maturity and no chemical reaction takes place. Plant cells are not bathed in fluid but surrounded by air. Plant cells do not lyse in hypotonic solutions because they have cell walls Water movement is aided by transpiration pull

2. Maintaining an optimal internal environment A) Body temperature is maintained at 37C through the regulation of the Nervous system: receptors in skin and hypothalamus detect deviation in the body temperature Blood circulatory system: transports and distribute heat evenly Integumentary system: blood capillaries will constrict/dilate; sweat glands will/ will not be activated, erector muscles will contract/relax

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B) Concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the bloodstream/pH level is maintained through the regulation of the Respiratory system: controls breathing rate Circulatory system: transports oxygen from lungs to body cells and carbon dioxide from body cells to lungs Nervous system: detect deviation in the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration in the blood C) Blood glucose level is maintained through the regulation of the Endocrine system: insulin (converts excess glucose to glycogen) and glucagon secreted by pancreas Blood circulatory system: transports the hormones to the liver Digestive system: pancreas involved D) Blood osmotic pressure is maintained through the regulation of the Nervous system: detects deviation in the osmotic pressure Endocrine system: secretes ADH and aldosterone Circulatory system: transports hormones to kidneys 3. Synthesis of extracellular enzymes Every cellular components (organelles) in a cell has its own specific function and work harmoniously for the survival of the cell. E.g.: the nucleus contains information for protein synthesis. This information is relayed to the ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis. After the process of synthesis is completed, the newly synthesised proteins are transported through the membranous space of the rough endoplasmic reticulum The proteins are enclosed in vesicles which bud off from the sides of the rough endoplasmic reticulum as transport vesicles. These vesicles then travel to the Golgi apparatus. The transport vesicles fuse with the membrane of the Golgi apparatus and release the proteins into the Golgi apparatus. The proteins are processed, modified, sorted and repackaged into new vesicles during their travel in the Golgi apparatus. These vesicles bud off from the Golgi apparatus and travel to other parts of the cell or to the plasma membrane to be released to the outside of the cell. The sequence events illustrates how each cellular component carries out its function systematically

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