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Int. J. Production Economics 92 (2004) 267280

Quality tools and techniques: Are they necessary for quality management?
! Tar! Juan Jose *, Vicente Sabater
Department of Business Management, University of Alicante, AP. Correos 99, Alicante 03080, Spain Received 10 February 2003; accepted 21 October 2003

Abstract Total quality management (TQM) has been developed around a number of critical factors. However, TQM is much more than a number of critical factors; it also includes other components, such as tools and techniques for quality improvement. In this paper, we carry out an empirical study in order to verify the importance of these tools and techniques for TQM improvement and their effect upon TQM results. For this purpose, we use the answers provided by the person in charge of quality in 106 ISO-certied rms in Spain. r 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ISO 9000; Quality management; Quality tools

1. Introduction The importance of total quality management (TQM) has considerably increased over the last years, on both a practical and theoretical level. TQM has been developed around a number of critical factors which vary from one author to another, although the core factors are leadership, quality planning, human resources management (training, work teams, employee involvement, etc.), process management, cooperation with customers and suppliers, and continuous improvement. According to the literature, the elements of TQM may be grouped into two dimensions: the management system (leadership, planning, human resources, etc.) and the technical system (TQM tools and techniques) (Evans and Lindsay, 1999);
*Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +34-965903606. E-mail address: jj.tari@ua.es (J.J. Tar! ).

or into the soft and hard parts (Wilkinson et al., 1998). Thus, TQM is much more than a number of critical factors; it also includes other components, such as tools and techniques for quality improve. 2000). In fact, ment (Hellsten and Klefsjo, techniques and tools are vital to support and develop the quality improvement process (Bunney and Dale, 1997; Stephens, 1997). The critical factors of TQM are the elements that may lead to satisfactory performance, as has been proved by other studies (Saraph et al., 1989; Badri et al., 1995; Powell, 1995; Ahire et al., 1996; Adam et al., 1997; Hendricks and Singhal, 1997; Grandzol and Gershon, 1998; Quazi et al., 1998; Das et al., 2000). However, on the one hand, although the data show the existence of connections between the factors of TQM and a rms performance, it cannot be strictly proven that TQM leads to increased performance, but simply

0925-5273/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2003.10.018

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that such relationship exists (Powell, 1995) and also that, as many respondents answered, quality may inuence part of the rms performance. On the other hand, in some cases, the impact of TQM practices on a rms performance is weaker and not always signicant (Sousa and Voss, 2002). Thus, TQM does not always improve performance. In spite of its advantages (Sohal et al., 1991; Kanji, 1998), we can also nd problems in its implementation (Kanji, 1998). Firstly, in order to have a positive performance in a rm, it is necessary to develop its intangible resources (Powell, 1995). Secondly, rms that implement an effective TQM programme improve their operating performance (Hendricks and Singhal, 1997). Thirdly, experience has shown that some rms fail when they implement TQM (Boje and Winsor, 1993; Spector and Beer, 1994) because the implementation of TQM cannot be successful without the use of suitable quality management methods (Sitkin et al., 1994; Wilkinson et al., 1998; Zhang, 2000) such as tools and techniques for quality. According to this view, the management system of TQM may only have a positive effect on performance if a technical system has also been established (Sousa and Voss, 2002). In addition, these techniques, amongst others, are important for business survival and continuation (Zackrisson et al., 1995). What has been missing from the literature is an assessment of how quality tools have affected TQM. In our opinion, the situation makes it necessary to carry out an empirical study in order to verify the importance of these tools and techniques for TQM improvement and their effect upon TQM results. Our study analyzes the relationship between the use of these techniques and tools for TQM improvement and TQM itself, and will attempt to check if those rms with a higher TQM level (higher implementation of critical factors) and best TQM results, do show a higher interest in the use of these tools and techniques. For this purpose, we use the answers provided by the person in charge of quality in 106 ISO-certied rms in Spain. Our results are part of a wider research process, aimed at analyzing quality practices in certied rms by using TQM elements, which identies the factors

and results of these rms, classies them and establishes different TQM levels. This paper will be structured as follows: in the next section, a review is made of the literature, on the one hand, concerning TQM results and critical factors, and on the other, regarding the tools and techniques for quality improvement. The following section reects the methodology used for this paper; this is followed by a presentation and discussion of the results. A number of conclusions will be suggested in the nal section.

2. Literature review 2.1. Critical factors of quality management Quality management theory has been inuenced by the contributions made by quality leaders (Crosby, 1979; Deming, 1982; Ishikawa, 1985; Juran, 1988; Feigenbaum, 1991). The research by all these authors shows both strengths and weaknesses, for none of them offers all the solutions to the problems encountered by rms (Dale, 1999), although some common issues can be observed, such as management leadership, training, employees participation, process management, planning and quality measures for continuous improvement. These ideas have exerted an inuence upon later studies, in such a way that the literature on TQM has progressively developed from these initial contributions, identifying different elements for effective quality management: customer-based approach, leadership, quality planning, fact-based management, continuous improvement, human resource management (involvement of all members in the rm, training, work teams, communication systems), learning, process management, cooperation with suppliers and organizational awareness and concern for the social and environmental context. Alongside these studies, we may mention the development of formal evaluation models, such as the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award model in the USA, the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) model in Europe and the Deming Application Prize model in Japan.

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J.J. Tar! , V. Sabater / Int. J. Production Economics 92 (2004) 267280 Table 1 Empirical research of quality management Authors Saraph et al. (1989) Flynn et al. (1994) Badri et al. (1995) Black and Porter (1995) Ahire et al. (1996) Grandzol and Gershon (1998) Quazi et al. (1998) Rao et al. (1999) Purpose Develop an instrument for measuring critical factors of quality management Develop an instrument based on empirical and practitioner literature Additional assessment of instrument proposed by Saraph, Benson and Schroeder Identify a set of critical factors of TQM Identify constructs of TQM and develop scales for measuring these constructs Develop and test an instrument for use in TQM research Corroborate the results of the study developed by Saraph, Benson and Schroeder Develop a valid instrument for key dimensions of quality management in the international context Critical factors identied 8 factors with 66 items 7 major dimensions with 48 items 8 factors with 66 items 10 factors with 32 items 12 factors with 50 items 7 exogenous factors with 39 items and 6 endogenous factors with 23 items 16 factors with 78 items 13 factors with 62 items 269

Although there are some differences between these models, they have a number of common elements (Ritchie and Dale, 2000). We should also quote here a number of empirical studies leading to a scale for TQM measurement (Table 1). These constructs are all present in the framework used for the national quality awards we have listed. 2.2. Tools and techniques for quality improvement As pointed out above, according to the literature on TQM there are two components in a TQM system: the management system and the technical system, or the soft and hard part. The hard part includes production and work process control techniques, which ensure the correct functioning of such processes (amongst others, process design, the just in time philosophy, the ISO 9000 norm and the seven basic quality control tools) (Evans and Lindsay, 1999; Wilkinson et al., 1998). The two dimensions reect all the issues which a manager must bear in mind for a successful TQM implementation. Researchers have identied a number of tools and techniques for quality improvement. A single tool is a device with a clear function, and is usually applied on its own, whereas a technique has a wider application and is understood as a set of tools (McQuater et al., 1995). Thus, Ishikawa

(1985) and McConnell (1989) have identied a list of seven TQM tools: ow charts, cause and effect diagrams, Pareto charts, histograms, run charts and graphs, X bar and R control charts and scatter diagrams. Also, Imai (1986), Dean and Evans (1994), Goetsch and Davis (1997), Dale (1999), and Evans and Lindsay (1999) have offered a list of tools and techniques for quality improvement. For their part, Dale and McQuater (1998) have identied the tools and techniques most widely used by rms, as shown in Table 2. This review shows, on the one hand, that there have been numerous studies analyzing the critical factors for successful quality management implementation and its inuence upon performance (Saraph et al., 1989; Powell, 1995; Hendricks and Singhal, 1997), and on the other, which techniques and tools might be best suited for quality improvement. In this latter case, there is a major gap in research in this area, because there are few studies which have veried if the use of these techniques and tools improves the TQM level and if it has an inuence upon performance. Thus, considering that: (a) an effective TQM programme has positive effects upon operating performance (Hendricks and Singhal, 1997), (b) the use of these techniques and tools is vital to support and develop the quality improvement . 2000; Bunney and process (Hellsten and Klefsjo,

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Dale, 1997; Stephens, 1997) and (c) companies in which these tools have been developed to a greater extent are likewise the ones which have a greater implementation of work practices, such as employee management, continuous improvement (work teams, suggestion schemes, etc.) (Bayo-Moriones and Merino-D! az, 2001), the following question is empirically researched in this study: do techniques and tools have a positive effect upon a rms TQM level and TQM results? Answering the above question would help managers to realize the importance of techniques and tools in order to improve quality. The hypotheses we have formulated are the following: H1. TQM critical factors are positively related to the tools and techniques for quality improvement. H2. TQM results are positively related to the tools and techniques for quality improvement. These two hypotheses are tested by means of a correlation analysis, the relationship being veried in the two senses: a higher TQM level and higher TQM results imply a greater use of these techniques, and vice versa. In order to further clarify the connections, the following hypotheses are formulated, derived from the two previous ones: H3. Firms with a higher TQM level have implemented to a greater extent the tools and techniques for quality improvement. H4. Firms with better TQM results have implemented to a greater extent the tools and techniques for quality improvement.

carrying out their activity in the Alicante area (eastern Spain) which received the ISO 9000 certicate. Certied rms were chosen because we were interested in rms with some kind of quality system, for the following reasons: (a) these rms had one person engaged, either full time or part-time, in quality tasks and (b) these organizations would be rms which started their path toward quality management by obtaining an ISO 9000 based system, and this is an objective criterion guaranteeing that these rms do possess a quality system. Also, the ISO 9000 quality management system, like the excellence models, is improving the understanding of concepts and practices associated with TQM (Van der Wiele et al., 2000) and implies compliance with certain requirements of total quality, which may help to understand the questions asked, and therefore, to obtain adequate answers. Thus, a list of certied rms in the Alicante area was requested from the organizations in charge of certication in Spain. Although the total population (number of certicates) was 175, our study only includes 154 cases for the following reasons:
*

We eliminated two multinational consultancy rms, which were not included in the study. There were four rms with more than one certicate for each of them (nine altogether), and thus the number of answers received was four. It was detected in some cases that there were various certied rms belonging to the same group, and thus the person responsible for quality issues was the same. This reduced a total of 22 certicates to eight interviews (i.e. eight answers).

3. Methodology 3.1. Sample In order to achieve our objective, and within the wider analysis mentioned in the introduction, we selected as the population for our study those rms

In addition to this, it proved impossible to obtain data from 12 rms, and hence the nal population considered was 142. The number of answers recorded was 108, which represents a response percentage of 76.06%. However, two answers were not regarded as valid due to incomplete data; therefore, the number of cases processed statistically with the SPSS software was 106 rms. The characteristics of these 106 rms are shown in Table 3.

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J.J. Tar! , V. Sabater / Int. J. Production Economics 92 (2004) 267280 Table 2 Commonly used tools and techniques The seven basic quality control tools Cause and effect diagram Check sheet Control chart Graphs Histogram Pareto diagram Scatter diagram The seven management tools Afnity diagram Arrow diagram Matrix diagram Matrix data analysis method Process decision programme chart Relations diagram Systematic diagram Other tools Brainstorming Control plan Flow chart Force eld analysis Questionnaire Sampling Techniques Benchmarking Departmental purpose analysis Design of experiments Failure mode and effects analysis Fault tree analysis Poka yoke Problem solving methodology Quality costing Quality function deployment Quality improvement teams Statistical process control 271

Table 3 Number of certied rms according to number of employees and number of rms per sector Number of employees Small o20 No. of rms Total Total (%) 17 34 32% 2049 17 Medium 5099 27 51 48% 100250 24 Large >250 8 21 20% >500 13 106 106 100% 63 59% 43 41% Total Sector (SICStandard Industrial Classication) Industry Services

One sample-related error is that caused by the lack of response by some rms. Therefore, in order to verify if the lack of response was signicant, we carried out a comparison between the rms that did answer and those which did not. It was seen that there were no signicant differences between them regarding the variable size (p 0:697) and sector (p 0:609). Also, the sampling error was 74.9%. 3.2. Data collection A questionnaire was designed meeting the objectives that had been set. The process of developing the questionnaire nished with a pilot survey, which was used to modify and eliminate a number of variables, until the nal questionnaire was designed. Experts on the subject were consulted, to ensure that the questions were properly phrased, and the suitability of the questionnaire was tested on a sample of rms (Madu, 1998). In

this way, this test consisted in a rst revision of the questionnaire (pre-test) with four people (an academic, a small/medium rm manager and two quality consultants), to ensure a suitable coverage of the domain of each construct, and a second test with the rst ten rms studied, selected at random, which allowed us to modify and delete some variables. The data were collected by means of a structured personal interview, based on a closed questionnaire, plus a set of open questions which allowed us to clarify certain points. We decided to combine the interview with the questionnaire and, due to the need for personal interaction, the participating rms were limited to the Alicante area. Although this could place a limitation on any generalizations, it must be considered that ISO 9000 offers a standard applicable to any rm, region or country. However, ISO 9000 is a cultureindependent system: the standard is written in general terms and may be applicable to any

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organization, but each rm must adapt the standard to its own characteristics. Nevertheless, most obstacles, benets and other issues related to ISO 9000 do not differ to any great degree from one country to another (Ebrahimpour et al., 1997; Withers and Ebrahimpour, 2001). In this way, the process started with a pilot test, which allowed us, as has been discussed before, to modify the initial questionnaire; then we conducted the interviews with 108 rms that agreed to participate. However, only 106 interviews were considered because the other two, as has been mentioned before, yielded incomplete data. The questionnaire was answered by the persons in charge of the quality area, for these reasons: (a) these persons play an active role in the quality strategy; (b) they possess the knowledge required to answer the questionnaire, and given their training and knowledge on the subject, considering that these rms had quality systems, this would allow a better understanding of the questions; and (c) in similar studies, the key person to interview is the quality manager. 3.3. Measures By means of a number of measures we attempted to nd out about the usual practices of rms implementing quality systems. Our intention was to measure TQM (through the critical factors), the results of quality management and the use of tools and techniques of TQM. Critical factors: By means of these measures we intended to analyze the usual practice of those rms implementing quality systems (ISO 9000) through the factors of quality management. In order to identify them, we started from the EFQM model and a review of the literature. We selected eight critical factors considering the enablers dened by the EFQM model and a review of the literature, dening the items from those xed in that model and in the empirical work by Saraph et al. (1989), Badri et al. (1995), Black and Porter (1995), Powell (1995), Ahire et al. (1996), Grandzol and Gershon (1998) and Quazi et al. (1998). Thirty-seven items were used in our nal questionnaire, grouped within these eight critical factors. Each of these items was measured within

a 7-point scale (Table 4). Among these categories, the learning factor is the same as the one used in the work by Grandzol and Gershon (1998), formed by its ve items. Results of TQM: These questions are aimed at discovering which effects quality has had upon results. We measure the results of TQM considering the results of the EFQM model and the work by Powell (1995) and Grandzol and Gershon (1998). Our nal questionnaire contains 15 items, measured within a 7-point scale, grouped into four results (Table 5). We consider the customer satisfaction factor used by Grandzol and Gershon (1998) and the construct of the TQM programme performance used by Powell (1995); however, in both factors we have included in the nal questionnaire one item less than in these studies, such item being dropped in the pilot test. Concerning the performance construct of TQM, the effects of quality on such result may be evaluated by examining unexpected changes in nancial results, for example, in the ve years following the onset of quality management, as described in the nancial results published by rms (Easton and Jarrell, 1998); or in a subjective way, by measuring respondents perceptions, these subjective measurements being widely accepted in organizational research (Powell, 1995), due to the difculty in identifying and obtaining an objective measurement for rms of different sizes and sectors (Saraph et al., 1989). In our case, we chose the second option instead of the sales turnover. Techniques and tools: A question was asked in order to study the most frequent techniques and tools, by means of nominal qualitative variables. We identied 12 tools and techniques, based on the research by Ishikawa (1985), Imai (1986), McConnell (1989), Dean and Evans (1994), Goetsch and Davis (1997), Dale and McQuater (1998), Dale (1999), and Evans and Lindsay (1999). Thus, those responsible for quality were asked whether they were not familiar with, were familiar with, used or regarded as a basic tool any of the following techniques and tools: graphs, statistical process control (SPC), benchmarking, quality costs, internal audits, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), cause and effect diagrams, Pareto diagrams, histograms, scatter diagrams,

Table 4 Elements of the EFQM model and critical factors identied Enablers (EFQM model) Critical factors (Cronbachs alpha) Leadership (a 0:76) No. of items 5 Source

Leadership

Strategic quality management (Black and Porter) Executive commitment (Powell) Leadership (Grandzol and Gershon) EFQM model Role of divisional top management and quality police (Saraph, Benson and Schroeder) Operational quality management (Black and Porter) Corporate quality culture (Black and Porter) Top management commitment (Ahire, Golhar and Waller) EFQM model Training (Saraph, Benson and Schroeder, Powell) Employee relations (Saraph, Benson and Schroeder) People and customer management (Black and Porter) Employee empowerment (Ahire, Golhar and Waller) Employee training (Ahire, Golhar and Waller) EFQM model Supplier quality management (Saraph, Benson and Schroeder, Ahire, Golhar and Waller) Supplier partnership (Black and Porter) Closer to suppliers (Powell) Internal/external cooperation (Grandzol and Gershon) EFQM model People and customer management (Black and Porter) Customer satisfaction orientation (Black and Porter) Closer to customer (Powell) Customer focus (Ahire, Golhar and Waller, Grandzol and Gershon) EFQM model Process management (Saraph, Benson and Schroeder, Grandzol and Gershon) Quality improvement measurement systems (Black and Porter) EFQM model Quality date and reporting (Saraph, Benson and Schroeder) Teamwork structures for process improvement (Black and Porter) Quality improvement measurement systems (Black and Porter) Open organization (Powell) Process improvement (Powell) Continuous improvement (Grandzol and Gershon) EFQM model Learning (Grandzol and Gershon) J.J. Tar! , V. Sabater / Int. J. Production Economics 92 (2004) 267280

Policy and strategy

Quality planning (a 0:77)

People management

Employee management (a 0:72)

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Partnership and resources

Suppliers managementa

Processes

Customer focus (a 0:54)

Process management (a 0:63) Continuous improvement (a 0:76)

4 5

Learningb (a 0:82)

a a 0:52: The minimum advisable level is 0.55 (Van de Ven and Ferry, 1979). Then, the alpha is recalculated after eliminating one item, in order to verify if the scale improves. The new scale is based on two items (a 0:62). b Learning is not one of the ve enablers in the EFQM model. However, it is implied throughout the nine criteria of the model.

273

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274 Table 5 Results of TQM Results (EFQM model) Customer satisfaction People satisfaction Impact on society Business results Results Customer satisfaction Employee satisfaction Impact on society TQM performance No. of items 3 2 3 7 Cronbachs alpha a 0.56
a

J.J. Tar! , V. Sabater / Int. J. Production Economics 92 (2004) 267280

Source Grandzol and Gershon Grandzol and Gershon EFQM model EFQM model Powell

0.65 0.82

a a 0:45: This value is low. However, we can accept it because the literature shows that there are signicant differences in this coefcient, between using a two-category scale and more than two category scales (Churchill and Peter, 1984; Peterson, 1994).

ow charts and problem-solving methodology. These nominal variables were transformed into dichotomic ones (does not use/uses the tool and technique) in order to obtain a summative scale of the 12 tools and techniques. As the measurement level in the original scale did not allow the analyses we intended, we created a summative scale, where 1 indicated the presence of a characteristic (use) and 0 indicated the absence of such characteristic (non-use). The new summative scale reects the presence or absence of a characteristic in each of the items it consists of. Thus, the value of the new scale is a gure between 0 and 12 (in our case, between 1 and 12, because all the rms studied use internal audits), which reects the use of the tools and techniques for quality improvement.

4. Results We shall divide this section into three subsections: (a) a descriptive analysis of the use of tools and techniques; (b) differences among rms according to size and sector; and (c) validation of the four hypotheses. The answers we received show that the most widely used tools and techniques are, mainly, audits and graphs. SPC and ow charts rank third and fourth, but with a great difference compared to the rst two instruments. The least used ones are Pareto curves, cause-effect diagrams and correlation diagrams (Table 6). As expected, all rms carry out quality audits, and 84% of them consider them fundamental for

the development of their systems; such high percentage is due to the fact that this is a requirement of ISO 9000. Similarly, only 18% of rms do not use graphs and 48% have not implemented SPC; however, the interviews suggest a higher percentage because, although we did mention that we were referring to the use of control charts, the answers provided show that many times respondents were actually speaking about statistical data or percentage tables (reecting, for instance, defects or other quality-related issues), without really applying SPC as we understand it. In those rms using them, the employees collect datafor example, concerning product refusaland some manager (the person responsible for production and/or quality) takes measures and prepares statistics with these data. Concerning the graphs, they are usually periodic reports on refused products, statistics, tables, etc. Flow charts are used in 52% of cases, mostly in the system documentation, as a method to describe a specic process. After explaining to respondents that our interest lied in the formal process, 46% of them answered in the afrmative regarding the problem-solving methodology. In this case, we could see that some rms had a formal, written problem-solving procedure different from the methodology used to solve non-conformities. Therefore, in practice, the ow charts are linked with problem solving methods. Regarding quality costs, they are evaluated by 45% of the rms, although very few follow the procedure as described in the literature (prevention costs, assessment, internal faults and external faults), considering that 8% are starting to perform

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J.J. Tar! , V. Sabater / Int. J. Production Economics 92 (2004) 267280 Table 6 Techniques and tools of TQM Techniques and tools Percentage of rms Not familiar with Internal audits Graphics SPC Flow chart Problem solving methodology Quality costs Histograms Benchmarking FMEA Pareto diagrams Cause and effect diagrams Scatter diagram 0.0 2.8 10.4 17.9 21.7 12.3 27.4 21.7 40.6 40.6 31.1 46.3 Familiar with 0.0 16.0 37.7 30.2 32.1 42.5 36.8 46.3 34.0 35.8 47.2 37.7 Not implemented 0.0 18.8 48.1 48.1 53.8 54.8 64.2 68.0 74.6 76.4 78.3 84.0 Used 16 62.3 39.6 42.5 42.5 35.8 31.1 31.1 20.8 17.9 19.8 15.1 Regarded as a basic tool 84.0 18.9 12.3 9.4 3.8 9.4 4.7 0.9 4.6 5.7 1.9 0.9 Implemented 100 81.2 51.9 51.9 46.2 45.2 35.8 32.0 25.4 23.6 21.7 16.0 275

these calculations. Thus, only three rms did calculate the four categories of the total cost of quality. The remaining rms only calculated the costs of non-quality (faults), where they included, amongst others, non-conformities, errors, complaints, goods returned, total or partial repetition of orders, reprocessing, faulty parts, defects due to refusal, lost time and persons involved; this conrms the ndings of other studies (Rayner and Porter, 1991). Therefore, the system ranges from a simple calculation of non-conformities or complaints to the calculation of all the categories of quality costs as dened by the literature, the most common case being a calculation of the cost deriving from faults. Concerning the other techniques, 32% of rms carry out benchmarking activities, although the interviews suggested that this was done in an informal way; for instance, by analyzing products manufactured by other rms. 25% of the rms use FMEA; in fact, after the conversation with the person in charge of quality, it was found that very few rms use it, and therefore in practice the value is even lower, since some of the respondents associated it with the mere fact of reecting nonconformities. Histograms are used by 36% of the rms, Pareto curves in 23% of the cases, causeeffect diagrams in 21% and correlation diagrams in 16% of cases.

In general, the basic tools are those least used by rms, with signicant differences regarding certain tools and techniques depending on the type of rm. In order to analyze the differences between groups of rms (depending on size and sector), we used a chi-square test, considering that each tool and technique takes the values zero and one, as mentioned in the methodology section (not implemented and implemented, respectively). Thus, size results in signicant differences concerning the use of tools and techniques such as cause-effect diagrams, ow charts and problemsolving methods (po0:05), and weaker ones concerning the benchmarking variable (po0:10). In these cases, smaller rms use these four tools and techniques to a lesser extent than larger-sized rms. As regards the remaining tools and techniques, although no signicant differences can be observed regarding use, it can be nevertheless detected that small rms also use them to a lesser extent, with the exception of histograms and correlations, which are seldom used in all groups. Regarding the sector (industry vs. tertiary sector), differences can only be observed in quality costs and ow charts, with a signicance level lower than 0.05, and in the Pareto curve and histograms, although accepting a signicance level of less than 0.10. In this respect, industrial rms usually resort more often to quality improvement

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276 J.J. Tar! , V. Sabater / Int. J. Production Economics 92 (2004) 267280 Table 7 Correlation between critical factor-results of TQM and techniques and tools TQMT TQMF TQMR Leadership Employee management Learning Quality planning Suppliers management Customer focus Process management Continuous improvement po0:001: po0:05: c po0:01: d po0:10:
a b

tools and techniques, except the problem-solving methodology, which is practically the same in the two groups. After these two analyses, and in order to verify Hypotheses 1 and 2, we performed a correlation analysis between the TQM critical factors and the TQM results and the tools and techniques for quality improvement. For this purpose, we created a variable equivalent to the average of the eight critical factors, which we used as the TQM level for a given rm (TQMF) and we created the TQMR variable, as the average of the four TQM results. Such procedure is similar to that used by Powell (1995) and Mart! nez et al. (1998). Similarly, we developed the variable called TQMT, equivalent to the total of the 12 tools and techniques, which was therefore a summative scale whose maximum would be 12. Such procedure is similar to that used by Bayo-Moriones and Merino-D! az (2001). The TQM factors taken together (TQMF) correlate positively and signicantly with the use of tools and techniques (TQMT), and similarly, the TQM results (TQMR) correlate positively and signicantly with TQMT, which conrms Hypotheses 1 and 2 (Table 7). This shows that, when certied rms are more highly committed to a joint implementation of TQM factors, they are likely to use the tools and techniques to a higher extent, which can in turn lead to improved performance. The eight critical factors are all signicantly related to TQMT, except the leadership factor, which may indicate that the management is not committed enough to a wider usage of these tools and techniques among the employees. A higher commitment to each of the TQM factors may lead the rm to use these tools and techniques to a higher extent. This could be due to the fact that a higher interest in TQM factors allows rms to understand the need for these tools and techniques, which are often required to develop these factors. In order to verify Hypotheses 3 and 4, the TQMF and TQMR variables were used. We analyzed the existence of signicant differences concerning the use of these tools and techniques in rms with a higher or lower TQM level and in rms with worse and better TQM results. In this respect, the TQMF variable passes the normality

0.41a 0.40a 0.10 0.38a 0.21b 0.25c 0.18d 0.31a 0.33a 0.47a

Table 8 Normality test TQMF Z (KolmogorovSmirnov) Sig. Mean Median Standard deviation Group 1: weak TQM environment Group 2: strong TQM environment 0.60 0.87 5.24 5.28 0.54 50 (47%) 56 (53%) TQMR 0.66 0.77 4.88 4.86 0.52 56 (53%) 50 (47%)

test, which allows us to use the average to establish two groups of rms. The average value of TQMF is 5.24, which sets the boundary between those rms with a value lower than this and those with a value equal to or higher than 5.24. The two groups express a higher or lower TQM level in the rms studied. The same procedure is applied to the TQMR variable (Table 8). Table 9 shows that those rms with a higher level of implementation of critical factors use the TQM tools and techniques to a higher extent, which has a positive inuence upon TQM results, with signicant differences in both cases. Such results conrm the previous statements, for a higher TQM level means a wider use of quality

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Table 9 Use of the tools and techniques in more and less TQM-advanced rms, and with more and less TQM performance (means) and differences between the two groups TQMF Mean TQMT
a b

TQMR Levenes test F 0.58 T test t 3.83a Mean 4.63 6.08 Levenes test F 0.54 T test t 2.83b

Weak TQM environment Strong TQM environment

4.30 6.21

po0:001: po0:01:

improvement tools and techniques, which in turn allows rms to improve their TQM results. Therefore, Hypotheses 3 and 4 are validated.

5. Discussion The results indicate that TQM tools and techniques are, alongside critical factors, another important component of TQM, which emphasizes their importance for the improvement of TQM levels and results. Therefore, rms must develop both the hard and the soft parts of TQM in order to succeed. This may indicate that TQM is effective, which may lead to market orientation (Lai, 2003) and positive performance (Hendricks and Singhal, 1997). A positive correlation has been found between these tools and techniques and the TQM level and TQM results of rms, and also that those rms with higher TQM levels and better results are those which most widely apply TQM tools and techniques. Therefore, these ndings indicate that tools and techniques for quality improvement are necessary for TQM to succeed; and the management should also consider these tools and techniques in order to advance towards total quality. The results particularly seem to stress two aspects: 1. All rms carry out quality audits, as part of the ISO 9000 norm, and most of them use graphs. However, few rms use the basic tools, which is where most emphasis must be made by managers.

2. There is no signicant relationship between the tools and techniques and the leadership factor. In this respect, the most important factors in the successful implementation of these techniques are full management support and commitment and giving the correct training to the right people at the right time (McQuater et al., 1995; Bunney and Dale, 1997). Therefore, the two main weaknesses detected in certied rms, which their managers must be aware of if they desire to successfully implement quality programmes, are the limited use of basic tools and the low managerial commitment towards the usefulness of these tools. Thus, managers must understand the importance of their commitment in order to spread the use of these tools and techniques and to improve the TQM level and TQM results. However, tools alone cannot provide results by themselves. They must be developed to reect the rms culture (Govers, 2001). Then, managers must use them in an integrated way, connected with the critical factors. Once the management is aware of these two weaknesses, the most important issues that must be addressed for a successful implementation are the following (McQuater et al., 1995; Bunney and Dale, 1997):
*

Ensure managerial understanding of and commitment to these techniques and tools. Training, which should be undertaken just in time and given in such a way that employees can practice what has been taught in a step-bystep manner.

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*

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Using a planned approach for the application and use of tools and techniques. In these last two cases, the results of Table 7 show how personnel management (training, employee recognition and communication) and quality planning, correlate positively and signicantly with the use of TQM tools and techniques.

Considering the results for this study, the respondents opinions and our experience, we believe that techniques and tools can contribute to improving the level of TQM if a climate of managerial commitment is created. This means that techniques and tools are a reliable indicator of a superior level of TQM and therefore, of a superior performing company in terms of quality, cost, etc. Finally, concerning the characteristics of certied rms (size and sector), it can be observed that there are signicant differences as regards the TQMT variable. As a rule, in the secondary sector TQM tools and techniques have a wider application (p 0:018), and smaller rms use the TQM tools and techniques to a lower extent (p 0:015). Therefore, managers of small and service rms should not forget the tools and techniques for quality improvement as an important part of TQM, and should not fail to encourage their use by a higher number of employees. This applies mostly to basic tools and techniques, which, as the results of our study seem to indicate, are the least used and constitute a weakness in these rms.

6. Conclusions The results show that there is a positive correlation, on the one hand, between a rms TQM level and the use of tools and techniques for quality improvement, and on the other, between TQM results and such tools and techniques. When rms have a wider implementation of TQM critical factors, they are more interested in the usage of these tools and techniques, which may improve their TQM results. These results are applicable to certied rms in the Alicante area, because there are no signicant differences between those rms which have been interviewed and those rms

which have not. In this respect, although the results cannot be extrapolated statistically to other rms in Spain or in Europe, a logical extrapolation (i.e. a generalization based on qualitative criteria) can be made, since the factors identied agree with those established in the EFQM model and we have identied commonly used tools and techniques. Therefore, the use of tools and techniques for quality improvement is necessary for quality improvement and, although not included in ISO 9000 and frequently disregarded, it is an important sign of TQM maturity, which managers must implement in their rms in order to improve their TQM level and results. This means that many rms, when they begin their rst steps towards TQM (ISO 9000) can use few tools (audits, graphics), and they may even be used only by quality managers or other managers. When they improve their TQM level, they tend to use other tools to a greater extent. In addition, on the one hand, the weakness of certied rms is a lack of support for and commitment towards the use of tools and techniques for quality improvement, mainly regarding the basic tools; on the other hand, it must also be admitted that there are some companies that have not beneted from and improved their performance by using these techniques and tools. The solution can be found in a higher managerial commitment, promoting their use among all the employees, together with a planning and training process covering teamwork methods and the use of these tools and practices; this would increase the rms TQM maturity level and its TQM results. In other words, managers may encourage a higher number of employees to use these techniques in a way that benets the whole rm. Perhaps the most interesting point of this study lies in the fact that, having focused our attention on a group of certied rms, we have had the opportunity to offer empirical evidence about the importance of techniques and tools of TQM in the quality improvement process. Our work builds on previous studies in this area, and complements other research work which generally focused on techniques and tools of TQM. However, it presents new results evidencing the importance of these techniques and tools for quality management,

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and may be used by managers to discover the potential benets of the use of quality tools and techniques. Finally, these contributions could be suitably complemented by future research work in three directions: studying these aspects in a larger rm sample, analyzing case studies in order to verify the use of these tools and techniques and studying companies which use a range of quality methods but are not certied.

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