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Abstract
This section provides guidance in the design and installation of typical piping systems. It is intended for all users of this manual. How to properly size piping systems is discussed, and good layout practices are illustrated. Methods of analyzing piping stresses and providing pipe stops and supports are reviewed. Design and support of small diameter piping are discussed. Considerations for design of buried piping are also given. Contents 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 330 331 332 Pipe and Valve Sizing Economic Line Size Selecting the Nominal Pipe Size Line Sizing Considerations Other Than Economics Items Needing Special Attention Considerations for Various Flow Regimes Economic Valve Sizing Layout and Arrangement Piping and Equipment Layout Development Good Piping Practice Manifolds Pipeways Rotating Equipment Fired Heaters Columns, Vessels and Heat Exchangers Instrumentation Flexibility, Restraint and Support Piping Flexibility and Stress Analysis Pipe Supports and Hangers 300-51 300-22 Page 300-3
Chevron Corporation
300-1
January 1998
Piping Manual
Pipe Restraints Small Diameter Piping General Characteristics and Concerns Pipe, Fittings and Connections Thermal Relief Piping Buried Piping Problems Associated with Buried Piping Corrosion Protection of Buried Piping 300-61 300-57
January 1998
300-2
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Chevron Corporation
300-3
January 1998
Piping Manual
Under special conditions and for short lines, higher pressure drops than the recommended limits given can be tolerated. An example of this would be a very short pipe fixed between two vessels. It is the responsibility of the engineer to assure that his project economic conditions do not alter the line size selected. However, it should be noted that wide variations in costs result in very little change to the economic diameter. This is because the economic diameter is inversely proportional to the 1/6th power of the ratio rF/KS. For example, doubling the installed cost of piping (such as using stainless steel piping) results in only an 11% decrease in economic diameter. This is generally not enough of a change to alter the nominal pipe size selected. Therefore, unless unusual project economics exist, it should not be necessary to correct the economic velocity. If those conditions do occur, Figures 300-1 and 300-2 have been provided as a quick method to correct the suggested economic velocity provided above (10-12 fps for on-plot lines) using actual project cost data. Otherwise, a more rigorous calculation may be performed using the following method.
Fig. 300-1 Economic Velocity Correction Factor for Gases
January 1998
300-4
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Fig. 300-2
(Eq. 300-1)
C = Amortization of investment cost and annual operating cost c = Power costs converted to dollars per hydraulic horsepower D = Internal pipe diameter, in. EDMI = Engineering Department Materials Index
Chevron Corporation
300-5
January 1998
Piping Manual
F = Total installed piping costs, $/dia.in./ft (including painting, steam tracing, and insulation) f = Friction factor (see Fluid Flow Manual) K = Annual cost per hydraulic horsepower for pumps or compressor (including both amortized investment and operating costs), $/hp k = Purchased machinery cost per hydraulic horsepower Current EDMI - for centrifugal pumps = 255 -----------------------------------720 Current EDMI - for compressors = 495 -----------------------------------720
(Eq. 300-3)
L = Group II costs of installed piping, dollars per diameter inch per foot of pipe (Group II costs are material costs plus direct field expenses) Q = Flow rate, gpm r = Payout period (before taxes), years S = Specific gravity (water at 60F = 1.0) T = Temperature, F t = Load factor,%/100 of the year the machinery will operate X = Group 1B costs as a fraction (%/100) of Group II costs (Group 1B costs are indirect field expenses) Y = Multiplier applied to machinery purchase cost to account for installation of complete unit (includes foundation, piping manifold, auxiliary piping, power distribution, Group II and Group 1B costs)
January 1998
300-6
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
changes or corrections. The added advantage of lower operating costs may also suggest selecting the larger size pipe. On the other hand, this is an opportunity to reduce investment costs. Engineering judgement should be used in selecting nominal pipe size. Some problems to consider are: Does going to a smaller line size result in pressure drops in excess of those allowed above? Does going to a smaller size pipe result in an erosion problem for fluids such as DEA? Consult a materials engineer if there is concern. Does added pressure drop in the system caused by going to a smaller size pipe result in increasing the rating of the piping system (i.e., from ANSI Class 150 to Class 300) or increase the design pressure of columns, vessels, and heat exchangers in the system? If the line is steam traced, does going to a smaller line result in fewer tracers? Is there an excessive surge pressure problem caused by quick closing valves shutting off against too high a velocity? See Section 600 and the Fluid Flow Manual. Special consideration should be given to gas velocity. High gas velocities cause noise problems, so velocity should generally be limited to about 100 (V).5 ft/sec, where V is the specific volume in ft3/lbm. However, for most conditions, this limit will not be reached. It should be noted that, for low flow rates (gpm) the economic line sizing calculations will indicate undersized lines. That is, the diameters suggested result in pressure drops which are higher than the suggested limit of 30 psi per 1000 ft for liquids and 15 psi per 1000 ft for gases. As a result, for low flow rates, most process lines should be sized to meet the highest allowable pressure drop. In any circumstance, the pressure drop should always be checked in the Fluid Flow Manual to see that it is under the allowable limit.
Chevron Corporation
300-7
January 1998
Piping Manual
Terminal conditions and their effect on line sizing Energy sources (pumped, compressed, gravity) Pressure drop in equipment and control devices in the system (exchangers, furnaces, control valves, orifices, strainers, etc.) Continuous or intermittent flow. (Smaller pipe is frequently warranted in cases of intermittent flow.) Fluid density Viscosity
In examining the individual system, the engineer may not need to establish all of the above factors precisely before proceeding with line sizing. However, effective prosecution of design work demands that the engineer proceed on the basis of sound judgment along the following lines:
January 1998
300-8
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Container Pressure: Equipment or Utility Supply Headers Fluid Levels: Tank Horizontal Vessel Vertical Vessel Column
Bottom of operating range (usually 2 ft above tank bottom) Bottom gage nozzle or 0.1 diameter above bottom Bottom head-to-shell seam Bottoms: Bottom head-to-shell seam(3) Side draw: Outlet nozzle
Full Full (or to highest(2) point in the system) Full (or to highest(2) point in the system) Feed or reflux nozzle elevations
(1) In circulating systems such as column reflux, the upstream and downstream static pressure are obviously related. (2) In some cases, the minimum and maximum operating levels may differ from these. Consider the circumstances and apply your engineering judgment to each. (3) Assume 10 ft above grade for preliminary calculation when suction lines are overhead.
The importance of accurate definition of these data will depend upon the effect of variations in them on the capacity of the system. High accuracy is usually important only for pump suction with boiling liquids, or high static pressures or elevations compared with system friction losses.
Chevron Corporation
300-9
January 1998
Piping Manual
valves still gives total line loss less than is available. For more information on economic valve sizing, see Section 316. Frequently, where gravity is the source of energy, lines larger than normally economic may be required. In some instances, particularly where lines are long, it may be most economical to install a pump and then employ the smaller piping this makes possible. Where pumps and compressors are the energy source, economic line sizing, followed by pressure drop calculations to assure that proper pressure is supplied by the machine, is required.
January 1998
300-10
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Liquid Traps
Liquid traps, pockets, and dead ends should be avoided in all piping, particularly lines conveying water, caustic acid, materials which may congeal or freeze, fluids which may form a corrosive condensate, and fluids containing solids which may settle out. Where low spots and dead ends cannot be avoided, install a drain valve for system cleanup. To knockout liquids in a vapor line, one option is to create a wide spot in the line. A knockout (K-O) pot or slug-catcher may be used for this purpose. (A knockout pot usually refers to a vessel in a processing facility; a slug-catcher usually refers to a knockout pot in a pipeline or production gathering system.)
Water Hammer
When a valve is suddenly closed against a flow, a very heavy knocking sound may be heard as the entire pipe vibrates. The inertia of the flowing fluid increases the pressure at the valve (surge pressure) and the pressure wave propagates along the pipe, sometimes with enough force to fracture the pipe. This phenomenon is called water hammer, although any fluid may cause this effect. Refer to the Fluid Flow Manual, Section 800 for more information about how to calculate surge pressure. Water hammer may be prevented by using a slow-action control valve. Where a quick-closing valve is necessary, many of the problems associated with water hammer may be circumvented by the use of a surge drum. A surge drum upstream of the control valve will slow down the acceleration and deceleration of the fluid in a piping system subject to constant sudden opening and closing of a control valve.
Pump Suction
Always check NPSH available at the pump unless it is obviously adequate (short lines, large submergence with liquids sub-cooled more than 100F below their boiling points). Always check NPSH at least 10% above maximum flow. Required NPSH increases and available NPSH decreases, both varying about as the square of the flow rate. An inadequate suction line can very effectively choke the capacity of an entire plant. Refer to Section 200 of the Pump Manual. When NPSH is not governing, pump suction lines should be the same size as for the discharge line. When NPSH is governing, suction lines will usually be one size larger, perhaps two. This is particularly true of liquids being pump at or near their boiling point such as: Column bottoms, reboiler, and reflux LPG or other light products stored at their bubble point Boiler feedwater from deaerator or steam condensate from a condenser or flash drum
Chevron Corporation
300-11
January 1998
Piping Manual
Vapor Pressure
Within any line designed for liquid flow, the pressure should not be permitted to fall to the bubble (boiling) point at any locations. Generally, larger fittings or lines are required. Examples of where this may occur are: Column side draws. Loss in entrance (nozzle) and elbow may exceed liquid head in draw-off pan. It may be necessary to increase nozzle and elbow one size and then reduce to line size. Meter runsthrough upstream fittings and below orifice A throttling valveoutlet Syphonsany point upstream Reciprocating pumps with long suction linespulsating pressure may fall below bubble point Pump suction (NPSH)(see foregoing discussion)
Hydraulic Surge
Line sizes for liquids are sometimes influenced by hydraulic surges which occur when the flow is rapidly decelerated, such as in loading lines to trucks and airplanes. The magnitude of such pressure surges is normally inversely proportional to the flow area, so that they can be substantially reduced by use of larger lines. See Section 800 of the Fluid Flow Manual for methods to calculate surge pressure.
Minimum Velocities
Velocity may have to be kept above a certain minimum to keep solids in suspension, keep the line clean, or to minimize temperature drop in a hot line or temperature rise in a cold line, etc.
January 1998
300-12
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Pressure Letdown
Substantial pressure reduction often occurs within a process plant, on products leaving the plant to store, on boiler blowdown, and on condensate letdown to flash drums. As with branched lines mentioned above, they need to be only large enough for maximum capacity and to provide for control. But there are some other things to watch out for: Flashing. When not on the discharge of a pump, the liquid may be at or near its boiling point and start vaporizing upstream, downstream, or within the control valves. In high pressure systems, it is usually best to avoid flashing in upstream piping. The control valve would then be sized for saturated liquid inlet and downstream piping sized for flashing flow. Cavitation Through Control Valves. A control valve produces a pressure drop by reducing the area between the seat and the plug (disk or ball in rotary valves). Process fluid accelerates through the reduced opening. As the fluid accelerates, pressure in the area of acceleration drops, then recovers partially as the fluid enters the valve/piping cavity and decelerates (Bernoullis equation). If the pressure in the area of acceleration drops below the vapor pressure of the process fluid, the process fluid will flash and form vapor bubbles. If the pressure recovers above the vapor pressure of the fluid, the vapor bubbles will collapse (implode) and go back into solution. The implosion of the bubbles generates so much energy that metal is physically washed away from the valve body and the downstream piping. Cavitation is accompanied by noise that can be described as a cement truck with its rotating drum full of gravel, only louder. Severe cavitation can generate noise in excess of 110 dBA. Cavitation can be treated by selecting a valve with a lower pressure recovery coefficient, e.g., a valve where the process fluid is impinged upon itself from opposite sides of a cage (anti-cavitation cage trim) or by taking the pressure drop in several stages. Refer to the Instrumentation and Control Manual, Section 970 Control Valve Problems for additional information. Erosion. Very high velocities (above 100 to 200 ft/sec) in flashing liquid lines can result in erosion of piping if the liquid bombardment destroys or prevents protective coating of corrosion products. As this is dependent on pipe material and the nature of corrosion, consultation with the materials engineer is desirable for such cases. For flashing condensate in carbon steel lines, a limiting momentum has been suggested to minimize erosion at elbows, tees, etc. This is expressed as a maximum reaction force on the fitting (V2/2gV) of 300 lb/ft2 of pipe cross-section area. Erosion can be minimized by using long sweep (5-diameter) bends, or more erosion resistant material. t generally is not a problem except with pure compounds or narrow boiling point mixtures.
Vortices
A vortex is a whirling liquid moving in concentric circles around a vacuum or cavity in the center of the circle. Vortices occur most frequently on bottom outlets of vessels and columns and can inhibit flow.
Chevron Corporation
300-13
January 1998
Piping Manual
A vortex breaker is usually nothing more than a small plate welded above an outlet which disrupts the circular pattern of a forming vortex. A vortex breaker per Standard Drawing GE-C99913 (see the Pressure Vessel Manual) should be provided on the bottom outlet nozzle from each vessel where two phases may be present and/or which provides flow to a pump suction.
Gravity Flow
When there is no pressure difference other than level to cause flow, check the line elevation and pressure gradient at design flow to be sure the upstream level is adequate. The line can usually be made smaller by first dropping through a vertical leg followed by a horizontal line running full, rather than by providing a nearly horizontal run flowing only partly full.
Meter Runs
Occasionally meter runs must be larger than economic lines to provide proper flow element to line diameter ratio. They should be considered when sizing lines in consultation with the instrument engineer.
Headers
When headers are used to distribute flow to a number of similar parallel units, such as heat exchangers, it will usually be cheaper to make the header pressure drop low to avoid the need for individual control on each of the parallel paths. The header pressure drop should be consistent with the tolerable variation in flow.
January 1998
300-14
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Flashing Water
As may be expected, flashing water lines (such as condensate return lines) have capacities far less than a water line that is not flashing. Calculations have shown that the capacity of a flashing water line with line pressures up to 1000 psig at the inlet and atmospheric pressure at the outlet is about 35% of the capacity of the line if it was not flashing. See Section 350 of the Utilities Manual for further discussion of flashing water line sizing. In addition, the program PIPEFLOW-2 can perform flashing calculations.
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300-15
January 1998
Piping Manual
(Eq. 300-4)
January 1998
300-16
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
The critical pressure ratio for isothermal flow (k = 1.0) is: P cr G P 1 V 1 1 2 - --------------------- = ----P1 g P1
(Eq. 300-5)
where: G = mass flow, lb/sec-ft2 Pcr = critical pipe outlet pressure, lb/ft2 P1 = inlet pressure, lb/ft2 P2 = outlet pressure, lb/ft2 V1 = specific volume of gas at inlet, ft3/lb f = friction factor g = 32.2 k = ratio of specific heats for gas L = pipe length, ft D = inside pipe diameter, ft The specific heat ratio, k, is 1.4 for air and diatomic gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen and between 1.0 and 1.4 for more complex gases. Whether it is 1.0 or 1.4 generally causes only minor differences in the pressure drop calculation.
Chevron Corporation
300-17
January 1998
Piping Manual
January 1998
300-18
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Globe and angle valves smaller than line size are generally not economical because of the large pressure loss through these valves. Reduced port plug cocks have a pressure loss equivalent to several velocity heads so it is seldom economical to make such valves smaller than the line. Also, for higher pressure ratings, plug valves cost less than gate valves so that possible investment savings are not as great. The economy of reduced size plug cocks of the full port type can be investigated in the same manner as for gate and ball valves, except the loss in the valve may be somewhat less than in a gate valve, say 0.05 velocity heads. It is generally not economical to provide a reduced size valve if a tee proceeding or following the valve must also be reduced size. Added pressure drop in the reduced size side-outlet tee will economically outweigh the cost savings of the reduced size valve. Where a reduced size valve discharges into the side connection of a tee, the tee should be full line size with two or three diameters of pipe between the reducer and the tee. On the upstream side of a valve, no straight pipe is needed between the tee and reducer. The selection of pipe and valve sizes for steam flow is usually not based on economics. The pressure drop in steam headers must be low so that steam can be delivered throughout a process plant at its rated pressure. As a rule of thumb, pressure drop in steam lines is usually limited to 4 or 5 psi per 1000 feet for 150 psig steam and 1 or 2 psi per 1000 feet for 40 psig steam.
Method of Analysis
As mentioned earlier, the determination of the economic valve size is fundamentally a matter of balancing the investment savings for the smaller valve against the increased cost of power required to overcome the pressure drop through the smaller valve. The incremental investment cost for pump and driver is considered insignificant since the increased pressure drop across the smaller valve will rarely result in a larger pump case. The added investment cost for electrical facilities is considered insignificant. To find the minimum cost, the derivative of the Total Annual Valve Cost (Equation 300-6) is taken and set equal to zero. (Total Annual Valve Cost) -------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0 d
(Eq. 300-6)
The relation can be graphed for various valve diameters using the pipe diameter D as the ordinate and QS1/3 as the abscissa. In order to determine the desirability of using a reduced size valve, comparative costs of valves, flanges, reducers, etc., must be known for the various size valves. The economic valve size is the one whose total comparable annual cost (installed cost plus energy cost) is the lowest. This can be expressed by the following equation. Annual Cost = Amortized Installed Valve Cost + Energy Cost
Chevron Corporation
300-19
January 1998
Piping Manual
where: r = Payout period, yr Costv = Installed cost of valve, flanges, and reducers (if any), $ b = Power demand charge, $/kw-yr Note In some cases the demand charge is included with the rate charge. In these situations, b is not needed. c = Power rate charge, $/kw-hr eff. = Combined efficiency of pump + driver,% PLoss = Power loss due to pressure drop through valves and reducers, hp t = % of year plant is in operation
For Liquids:
0.0011SQ - ( Kv + K e ) P = -------------------------4 d 6.4 10 SQ QP - ( Kv + K e ) - = --------------------------------P Loss = ----------4 1715 d
(Eq. 300-8)
7 3 2
For Gases:
1 M 2 2720 - -------------------- ( K v + K e ) - P = ----------4 100, 000 d MP P Loss = ----------------13750 M 3 1 19782 - ( K v + K e ) ----- -------------------= ------------- 4 2 100, 000 d
(Eq. 300-9)
January 1998
300-20
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
PLoss = Power loss through valve, hp S = Liquid specific gravity Q = Volumetric flow rate, gal/min d = Valve inside diameter, in. M = Mass flow rate, lb/hr = Fluid density, lb/ft3 Kv = Valve velocity head loss coefficient Ke = Enlarger velocity head loss coefficient The effect of viscosity is negligible. The Fluid Flow Manual gives the loss in a fully opened regular gate valve as 0.2 velocity head. Actually, this Kv value varies with valve size and among valve brands. Closer inspection shows that velocity head loss normally ranges from slightly above 0.2 for 4-inch valves to about 0.16 for 12-inch valves. The Kv value then stays fairly constant at 0.14 for sizes above 14 inches. For gate valves, use: Kv = 0.23 0.006 d, for d < 14 in. = 0.14 d, for d 14 in. These are conservative estimates, as most manufactures of good quality gate valves will claim lower head loss coefficients. The higher Kv values were assumed to compensate for biased vendor data and to compensate for discontinuities at the flanges. The head loss in an outlet reducer or taper may be expressed as a fraction of the loss of a sudden, square-corners enlargement. The loss in a sudden enlargement may be derived theoretically and is given by the familiar Borda formula, V1 V2 2 - h = ------------------ 2g
(Eq. 300-10)
where: h = head loss, ft V1 = initial velocity, ft/sec V2 = final velocity, ft/sec g = acceleration of gravity The sudden enlargement is equivalent to an included taper angle of 180 degrees and as this angle is decreased, the head loss first increases by about 20%, then decreases to the Borda formula value for an included angle of 40 degrees and reaches a
Chevron Corporation
300-21
January 1998
Piping Manual
minimum loss for an included angle of about 7 degrees. This minimum loss is about 13% of the Borda formula loss. For most installations, however, a taper with an included angle of 7 degrees either consumes too much space or is too costly. Therefore, some valves are installed with outlet tapers having 12-degree included angles, but most are installed with standard reducer fittings with very large included angles. The velocity head loss coefficient for standard enlarger fittings is charted in the Fluid Flow Manual. An approximation for the curve is: d d - , for --- < 0.8 K E = 1.7 2 --D D d d - > 0.8 - , for --= 0.5 1 -- D D
(Eq. 300-11)
where: Ke = Enlarger velocity head loss coefficient (based on d) d = Valve diameter, in. D = Pipe diameter, in. It should be noted that these Ke values are based on the valve diameter d instead of the pipe diameter D, as were the values for Kv.
January 1998
300-22
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
In some installations there is no distinction between on-plot and off-plot; all facilities are grouped together. Examples include producing gathering stations, water injection plants, and offshore producing platforms where area separation is impossible.
With the exception of power generators and buildings all these areas are interconnected by process or utility piping supported on pipeways.
Pipe Routing
Within a given operating area, on-plot or off-plot, the simplest piping arrangement is usually achieved by placing equipment in sequential positions as determined by process or system flow requirements. Generally, the equipment is placed in rows on one or both sides of a main pipeway. Some equipment may be elevated for process reasons. Elevated pipeways are preferred if space is at a premium. Grade level pipe prevents ready access to equipment. See Figure 300-5 for a typical on-plot process layout. Sequential positioning of equipment is not always possible, especially with large or complex plants, or where more than one facility shares the same site. For example, the following factors can upset the orderly sequence of equipment layout, especially if space is limited:
Chevron Corporation
300-23
January 1998
Piping Manual
Fig. 300-5
Fired heaters and other direct-fired equipment should be grouped together, upwind from equipment with the potential for hydrocarbon leaks and easily accessible for firefighting Equipment requiring periodic cleaning or maintenance such as heat exchangers, fan coolers, and packed columns should be accessible to maintenance equipment Rotating equipment such as pumps, turbines, compressors and motors should be easily accessible for maintenance, often while the facility is in operation Powered equipment such as pumps is sometimes grouped together to save power supply installation costs
The best piping arrangement is seldom accomplished by connecting directly from one piece of equipment to another. Possible exceptions are small, remote or temporary facilities or cases where there is some particular process reason. Routing each line in a straight line creates a confusing and highly impractical arrangement. An important rule is that branch lines serving equipment should always be perpendicular to the pipeway to which they connect. Piping should be arranged to run in definite patterns: from equipment to pipeway to equipment, changing directions with 90-degree turns. The more complex a facility is the more important this becomes. Often plot plan studies of alternative piping arrangements reveal the best plant layout. Once equipment and pipeways are tentatively located using the above guide-
January 1998
300-24
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
lines, the most expensive piping (alloy and/or large diameter) is routed on a preliminary plot plan. This keeps these runs short and economical. The remaining pipe is then routed between equipment, using the pipeway. The pipeway area with the greatest density of pipe is identified in this fashion. This is called the pinch point and, with the addition of space for future lines, it dictates the width of the pipeway. See Section 324, Pipeways. If space is at a premium, it is almost always possible to reduce the pinch point and pipeway width by relocating certain equipment and adding length to some piping. Once a layout is developed, the equipment piping connections, if not already established, can be properly oriented and sized.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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300-25
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Piping Manual
turns are only acceptable in situations where there are very few lines and little possibility of future interference. See Figure 300-6.
Fig. 300-6 Change of Pipeway Sequence
7.
Lateral connections should be made from the top of steam, vapor, and air lines unless condensate drainage is desired. Connections for liquid lines are typically on the bottom, but each case must be evaluated. Install vents and drains. Piping should be designed with a minimum of high points that will trap gases and a minimum of pockets that will trap liquids. Where high and low points do exist, the system is usually provided with NPS (minimum) vent and drain connections. Typical applications and installations for operating, maintenance, and hydrostatic testing will be discussed presently. See also Standard Drawings GD-L31335 and GD-L1057. Do not install dead legs in piping unless it is planned to extend the lines in the future. If support is needed add a dummy pipe extension to the nearest support. Dead legs can accumulate solids and open-ended dummy legs can trap water. Both are susceptible to internal corrosion. See Figure 300-7.
8.
9.
10. Minimize buried piping. Piping should be routed aboveground on supports. Burial may be necessary at road crossings, for protection from freezing or solar heating, and for fire protection. Buried lines may be more expensive, subject to corrosion, difficult to detect leaks in, and prone to future maintenance problems. See Section 350.
January 1998
300-26
Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Fig. 300-7
Dummy Leg
Operability
Operating personnel must be allowed to perform their daily tasks efficiently. Therefore, the most commonly used valves and instruments should be easily accessible, and sufficient space must exist between piped equipment so that personnel can pass quickly and freely through the plant. The following guidelines on clearances and accessibility are expanded and illustrated in the Safety in Designs Manual. Valving. Valves that must be operated several times a day or shift should be accessible from grade. When this is not practical, access must be provided through the use of stiles, ladders and platforms, valve extension handles, or chainwheels. On the other hand, access to little-used drain valves from a kneeling position or vent valves from a ladder is acceptable. Standard Drawing GB-L99961 illustrates the recommended options for mounting valves in almost all situations. Standard Drawing GB-L13963 provides details for fabrication of extension handles for rising stem valves. Valves should not be installed with the stem below horizontal because the bonnet accumulates debris and water, leading to freezing and corrosion. Valve handwheel extensions and chainwheels are used only when no reasonable alternative exists. The mechanisms require maintenance and are subject to corrosion, and such valves are difficult to repack. Chainwheels are a nuisance, may not operate in an emergency, and can be a hazard if the chain is left off its tie-back and hangs in an accessway. NPS 2 valves are the smallest that should be considered for chainwheels. Clearances and Accessibility. For access by operators and ease of maintenance, clear spaces of at least 30 to 36 inches must be provided around all equipment, including attached piping and neighboring facilities, and on platforms and stiles. If available, a clearance of four or five feet is not excessive. Pipe and equipment insulation thickness must also be considered when laying out the facility. Valves should
Chevron Corporation
300-27
January 1998
Piping Manual
be given special care. The handwheel must be accessible (See the Safety in Designs Manual) but the stem should not extend into accessways. Early planning drawings should provide for 4-foot clearances until final layout drawings show that spacing can be decreased. Major access aisles should be reasonably straight and free of random impediments such as pipe stanchions, valve handles, ladders, diagonal bracing, instruments, electrical boxes, chains, etc. Some aisles are used frequently for personnel and emergency access, and four-foot to five-foot widths are not unreasonable. Proximity. Equipment, valves, and instruments that operate in conjunction with each other should be placed near or at least in sight of each other. Level gages should be visible from the associated level control valve and level control valve manifolds should be visible from the related level gage. In general, control valve manifolds should be near their actuating instruments, and any indicating instrument should be visible from any related manually controlled valve.
Safety
Fire Safety. This discussion covers general piping and equipment layout as they are affected by considerations of fire safety. Detailed spacing requirements are covered in the Fire Protection Manual. Fire safety in relation to piping component use and material selection is covered elsewhere in this manual. Fired equipment such as furnaces, boilers, and oil field heater-treaters should be kept separate from lines and equipment handling flammable fluids and upwind of relief valves venting to the atmosphere or other potential hydrocarbon sources. Fuel and snuffing steam block valves for fired heaters should be kept at least 50 feet from the heaters. Pump seal failures are a common cause of fire. Pumps and other equipment handling flammable fluids should not be installed beneath platforms, structures, or pipeways. Overhead instrument or electrical runs should be routed around such equipment. Pipe trenches should be avoided. They collect debris and promote corrosion. If unavoidable, adequate drainage must be provided. Flanges and valves should be minimized in high fire risk areas. Remotely operated or thermal closing valves should be considered for critical service in areas where fire would prevent access. Fire water piping systems in and adjacent to protected facilities should be buried to prevent freezing and ensure operation during a fire. General facility layout considerations are reviewed in detail in the Fire Protection Manual and, in the case of tank fields, the Tank Manual. Fired heater piping is discussed below and in the Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery Manual. Mechanical Safety. Mechanical safety and operability go hand in hand. Valve stems are a common problem. The safest arrangement is to install the valve in a horizontal line with the handwheel at a convenient elevation and the stem vertical.
January 1998
300-28
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When this is not possible the piping should be arranged so the stem does not project either diagonally or horizontally into areas needed for access, especially at head level. Acceptable valve positioning is discussed above in Operability in this section. Clearances and valving around equipment requiring frequent maintenance such as pumps, turbines, and compressors deserve special attention because of the amount of time spent there by maintenance personnel, who need room for tools, spare parts, and machinery component laydown. For mechanical strength the smallest pipe size recommended for all services other than instrumentation is NPS . Some operating centers apply other standards and these are discussed in Sections 700 and 800. Wear plates are recommended at pipe supports if there is frequent line movement due to thermal cycling or vibration, especially on thin wall piping. Insulated lines should have shoes in accordance with Standard Drawing GB-M99653. Relief Systems. Relief valves that discharge into closed piping systems should be installed higher than their downstream piping. To prevent the formation of liquid slugs and for proper drainage, the complete relief system must continuously slope downward to the nearest liquid knockout drum. The minimum slope should be 2 inches per 100 feet to effectively drain low spots created by the normal sag of lines between stanchions. This slope is the same as that recommended in API 521. At times, the main relief header may be quite large in order to handle possible relief loads. This, combined with the slope requirement, can present special layout problems with respect to other plant piping. Lateral pipe must be routed over or under the relief header. The relief header is often the largest line and the highest line on plant pipeways, except for the relief valves that drain into the header. See Figure 300-8. If more than one facility is discharging into a common relief system, each header may be provided with a locked-open block valve and, typically, a liquid knockout drum. In most cases the block valve is a single slide-gate valve with provision for blinding the header on the upstream side of the valve. Horizontal mounting of the valve is required, so that the gate cannot drop inadvertently. No other valves should be allowed in the system unless they can be locked open. Most operating centers have their own established practices. Variations in design practices are discussed in Sections 700 and 800. Sudden extreme changes of temperature and the need to handle liquid slugs during relief have an impact on the support and anchoring of relief systems. Proper sizing of closed pressure relief systems is covered in the Instrumentation and Control Manual. Support and anchoring of piping are covered in Section 330 of this manual. Relief valves that discharge directly to the atmosphere should be downwind of any fired equipment and provided with a vertical discharge line that vents at least 10 feet above any platform within a 25-foot radius.
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Fig. 300-8
Typical Arrangements of Relief Header and Lateral Lines Relief header elevation is determined by slope from PSVs to K-O drum or flare
Ease of Maintenance
The two most significant factors in layout and piping design impacting maintenance are: Sufficient work space and access around equipment Sufficient valves, flanges, and blinds for proper isolation, cleanup, and testing of plant facilities
Where economically justified, permanently piped utility tie-ins can be installed in a facility. Standard Drawing GD-L1012 illustrates such connections for steamout, pumpout, purge, and flushing of piping and equipment. Section 100 of the Utilities Manual discusses the risk factors of such connections. Space and Access. Where possible, equipment requiring periodic disassembly in the field, such as pumps, turbines, and compressors, should have sufficient space around it for tools, parts, and elbow room. Five or more feet is common. Piping should not be routed over equipment unless there is a process reason. Clear overhead access should be provided for equipment handling. If this is not possible the piping should be flanged and removable spools provided. Piping should not interfere with access to process equipment by maintenance equipment, including cranes. For rotating equipment provide access from above and at least one side. For heat exchanger bundle pulling, and fan and coil removal from filters and fan coolers, leave space at one end. For filters, vessels and columns with removable internals or packing leave space at one side. Isolation, Cleanup, and Testing. Although their use should be minimized, flanges are required to remove piping for access to equipment, blind for pressure tests, and
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to expose piping for inspection when necessary. The requirements and methods for these functions vary between operating centers. Hydrostatic testing of lines and equipment can be done against closed valves, but the surest method of achieving a valid test is with plate blanks, or blind flanges. Standard Drawing GF-L99965 provides guidance for the blinding of refinery lines and equipment, but applies equally well to all facilities. Section 250 discusses blinding at flanges. Section 640 and Model Specification PIM-MS-3541 cover pressure testing.
323 Manifolds
A piping manifold is an assembly of pipe, valves and fittings that gathers fluid from one or more sources and redirects it to one or more destinations. The term manifold is also applied to any assemblage of piping and valves grouped at one location for ease and convenience of operation. The latter meaning covers plot limit manifolds where all piping enters and leaves a plant, steam trap and sample draw manifolds, and even an individual control valve manifold with its block valves and bypass. Transfer/blending. Figure 300-9 illustrates a typical oil field manifold installation, common in producing field-gathering stations, water injection stations, and in process plant off-plot product blending areas. Plot Limit. Plot limit manifolds are groupings of isolation valves and blinds in the lines to and from a facility. They are generally located at the plot limit where, often, the main plant overhead pipeway drops into a grade level off-plot pipeway at a waterfall. Manifolds provide quick and safe operator access for plant isolation in the event of a fire or plant upset, and convenience during startup and shutdown. Small facilities may not use manifolds, instead installing block valves at the most convenient locations in the system. See Standard Drawings GF-A1247, GF-A1248, and GF-A1249. Systems for which plant piping does not typically enter a plant at the plot limit manifold are cooling water, potable water, and fire water. These are normally buried for fire and freeze protection and do not shut down with the plant. System connections for washing, steamout, flushing, and purge are normally made at the plot limit manifold. These are shown on Standard Drawing GD-L1012. Manifolds that are used daily are located at grade or accessed with stairs and platforms, depending on local practice or operator preference. Control Valve. Unless specific process conditions govern, control valve manifolds should be located at grade (preferred) or on conveniently located platforms, with sufficient space on at least one side to service the valve and operator. Typical locations are against pipe stanchions and vessels. They should be in sight of instruments or indicators showing the variables they control. Proper selection and sizing of control valves are discussed in the Pump Manual and Instrumentation and Control Manual. Control valves are typically installed with block valves and a globe bypass valve of the same size as the control valve. This allows continued system operation on manual control when the control valve is
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Fig. 300-9
removed for maintenance. Some operating centers prefer to omit the bypass valve in noncritical service. Properly sized control valves are usually one size smaller than the connected piping and are specified with flanges in all sizes for ease of removal. A plugged full-port NPS drain is usually installed between the control valve and the upstream block valve. Allow enough space between the drain and grade for plug removal and rodding the drain valve, which collects scale and debris. Standard Drawing GF-A1250 illustrates typical manifold configurations.
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Small Pipe
It is often convenient to group in one location small operation or maintenance functions that would otherwise be scattered throughout the facility. Examples are steam traps and sample draws. On off-plot pipeways NPS 1 solar thermal relief valves are often manifolded together to a common discharge. Small piping is further discussed in Section 340 of this manual. Steam Trap. Steam traps require periodic servicing and replacement. Routing all condensate lines in a given area from piping and equipment to one location greatly facilitates this. Typical steam trap manifolds are illustrated on Standard Drawing GD-L99596 (see the Utilities Manual). The application of steam tracing is discussed in the Utilities Manual. Sample Draws. Process samples from overhead lines and equipment are often brought to grade and arranged in one location. In addition to operator convenience this allows sample drip disposal at one location and reduces the amount of cooling water piping when hot samples are involved. Typical sample draw configurations are shown on Standard Form PIM-EF-403 and are discussed further in Section 340. If grouping sample draws results in a long run from a sample point, the sample draw should be of the circulating type to ensure a true sample and eliminate the need to discard sample liquid. This requires discharging the sample stream to a point with lower pressure than the sample point. Tank sample draw manifolds are covered in the Tank Manual. Thermal Relief. Multiple thermal relief valves are sometimes manifolded together. These are discussed in Section 340 and the Tank Manual.
324 Pipeways
This discussion is divided into on-plot and off-plot pipeways. The current trend is to place on-plot pipeways overhead and off-plot pipeways at grade. Where real estate is at a premium an elevated pipeway permits use of the space beneath it for access to equipment.
On-plot Pipeways
On-plot elevated pipeways (see Standard Drawing GF-A1242) have advantages over those at grade level: The area under them is cleaner and clear of other plant facilities. Grade level pipeways collect debris, are difficult to clean, and restrict access to equipment and other plant areas The pipeway structure is a support for electrical and instrument distribution systems Stanchions serve as locations for electrical outlets, utility stations, firefighting equipment, first aid stations, and piping manifolds The piping is more easily drained and cleaned during shutdown
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Construction. Typical pipeway stanchions are fabricated of steel. Where fireproofing is required it can be added per Standard Drawing GA-N33336 (in the Insulation and Refractory Manual) or reinforced concrete can be used instead of steel. Concrete stanchions should have imbedded steel bearing plates to support the piping. Pipeway design is covered, with examples of configurations, in the Civil and Structural Manual. Width. Pipeway widths run from a few feet for small facilities to 50 feet with multiple decks for major plants. Establishing pipeway width is discussed in Section 320 under Piping Layout Development. Once the actual space requirements are established it is common practice to add 25% for future changes and additions. A larger figure is used if the pipeway serves future plot area. Although it may not initially be obvious how this space will be used, hard experience has shown it to be necessary in most cases. Elevation. Stanchions must be high enough to accommodate plant maintenance equipment beneath crossbeams, piping, area lighting, etc. Typical clearance for a cherry picker to handle pumps and large valves is 12 feet. Firefighting equipment and commercial vehicles must also be considered. On the other hand, stanchions should be low enough for maintenance on overhead valves, instruments, orifice meters, etc., and to allow all relief valves to drain to the plot limit knockout drum, if there is one. See Section 320. Figure 300-10 illustrates a typical pipeway stanchion elevation and shows that lines should not be placed directly over stanchions so that future decks may be added easily.
Fig. 300-10 Single Deck with Elevated Relief HeaderTypical
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Stanchion Spacing. Stanchion spacing is a question of economics. Spacing is determined by the need for support of the majority of the lines in the pipeway. The smaller piping can be supported from intermediate supports between pipeway edge beams or sometimes from larger low temperature piping. Typical spacing is 20 to 25 feet. Stanchion spacing is covered in the Civil and Structural Manual. Figures 300-11 and 300-12 illustrate typical arrangements.
Fig. 300-11 Stanchion SpacingSmall Pipe Requires Intermediate Support
In naturally corrosive atmospheres such as at coastal refineries and offshore platforms, the use of U-bolts and clamps for small pipe supports is not recommended. Corrosion of the bolt threads and points of contact with the pipe is a continuous problem. Instead, welded supports or brackets that do not clamp the pipe are used.
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Fig. 300-12 Small Pipe Supported from Larger Lines or Intermediate Supports
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Edge Beams. In most plants it is considered good practice to provide overhead edge beams connecting the stanchion columns. Edge beams provide the following benefits: Lateral bracing A continuous support system for electrical conduit and instrument cable racks (except over pumps) Support for lateral lines entering or leaving the pipeway Support for intermediate small pipe supports (already discussed under Stanchion Spacing)
Arrangement of Lines. The heaviest lines are placed near the columns to avoid excessive moments in the stanchion beams. Do not place lines over the columns if a future upper deck is a possibility. The upper practical limit for liquid-filled piping in overhead pipeways is NPS 18. Of course, structures can be built for any line size, but costs increase quickly. Process and utility headers should normally be placed on the pipeway side where most of their lateral connections will be. An exception may be steam headers to turbines, which should be located on the opposite side of the pipeway to allow sufficient flexibility in the lateral steam lines. In plants with equipment on both sides of the pipeway, the utility headers will normally be in the center. If double-deck stanchions are used, the utilities are normally placed on the upper level. Line Spacing. Standard Drawings GC-L88505 and GD-L88506 provide dimensional information for line spacing. Insulated lines require more space. When laying out piping, space can be conserved by staggering flanges. Intersections and Corners. Generally, an elevation change is necessary at intersections and corners. This permits changes in line sequence when necessary and accommodates adding lines in the future. Flat turns at corners are only acceptable if the same line sequence is suitable in both pipeways, and if there is no chance that the corner will become an intersection in the future. See Figure 300-6. Expansion Loops. Steam, condensate and hot process lines need room to expand and contract, and expansion loops are normally used. Expansion joints are not recommended on-plot. See Section 240. Loops should extend over the pipeway, as opposed to the plant area, and be supported from the stanchions. They should be as close as possible to the center of the pipe run. Typically loops are nested. Most pipeways have at least one critical line in terms of temperature, length, size, and (therefore) stress. Lines that undergo greater linear movement than the critical line should be placed inside this line in the loop system, and lines with less movement should be placed outside. Figure 300-13 demonstrates this.
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Anchors and Guides. Additional flanges, dummy legs, guides, or anchor points may be required to restrain or guide the movement of hot lines or prevent transmittal of expansion stresses into equipment nozzles. See Section 330.
Off-plot
Grade level off-plot pipeways are sized and developed in much the same way as onplot. Greater width is often provided to accommodate line movement. Piping should be maintained at least 18 inches above grade on steel sleepers with concrete footings. Designs are discussed in the Civil and Structural Manual. On pipeways that change direction and follow the natural terrain with elevation changes, small piping can be often allowed to snake in the pipeway, reducing the number of expansion loops. Besides expansion loops, off-plot lines sometimes use expansion joints (slip joints). These are not recommended, especially in hydrocarbon service; they require maintenance and, being packed joints, have no fire resistance. See Section 240.
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especially critical with cast iron equipment. Flexibility design methods are explained in Section 330. Any grade level pipe supports should be adjustable and supported on a slab that is integral with the equipment foundation to eliminate differential movement. Suction strainers are used primarily to catch debris especially in the suction piping of newly commissioned or modified systems. In the case of compressors they are especially important because of compressors sensitivity to even the finest scale and grit. Although they are normally purchased, the fabrication of temporary suction strainers is discussed in Section 240.
Centrifugal Pumps
For piping arrangement in congested areas, top suction/discharge pumps are preferred over side and end suction/discharge. Access space around large pumps should be greater than the three-foot minimum; use five to six feet for large multistage pumps. All pumps should be piped with suction and discharge block valves and a check valve mounted at the pump discharge. Standard Drawings GF-L99958 and GF-L99959 demonstrate piping variations for end suction and top suction pumps. All these illustrations demonstrate a major rule: the general mass of pipe, valves, and manifolding is placed in a compact area in front of the pump. Pump piping is usually larger than the pump nozzles. Valving at the pump should be the same size as the nozzles. If pump suction pressure is important, the suction valve should be line size. Pump suction piping should be as short as practicable and have a minimum of bends to reduce turbulence. A good rule is to provide five diameters of straight pipe into the suction nozzle, or two diameters if a reducer is also used. The pipe between the block valve and suction nozzle should have a straight section long enough to accommodate a temporary suction screen. The piping should be designed so the strainer can be installed and removed without springing the pipe or otherwise disturbing pump alignment. Extra flanges and pipe supports may be needed. Double-suction pumps are a special concern. Any right angle bend near the pump suctions should be in the vertical plane to ensure balanced flow to the impeller. If this is not practical, five or more diameters of straight pipe should be installed, or the pump manufacturer consulted. Although not recommended, straightening vanes can be used in restricted areas. Reducers in horizontal suction lines are normally installed with the flat side up to avoid trapping vapor and restricting flow. Flat-side-down reducers are acceptable when the liquid source is elevated and grit and solids could accumulate at the low point. If carried into the suction, these could damage the pump. This arrangement also eliminates the need for a drain connection at the low point.
Reciprocating Pumps
Like centrifugal pumps, positive displacement pumps also require suction and discharge block valves, but not a check valve in the discharge. The piping is usually
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located at grade to allow the better support needed for pulsing flow. Figure 300-14 is a schematic sketch of typical arrangements.
Fig. 300-14 Reciprocating Pump Piping and Valve ArrangementTypical
All positive displacement pumps normally have a pressure relief valve between the discharge nozzle and block valve. The relief valve should discharge to the suction source, usually a tank or accumulator. Relief into the suction line is less desirable, particularly if serious heat buildup can occur during circulation. As with centrifugal pumps, temporary startup strainers are normally used and installed in a spool between the suction valve and nozzle. Suction and discharge pulsation dampeners are often installed to reduce vibration in piping and equipment and to reduce the impact of acceleration head. Considerations of net positive suction head (NPSH) are unique for reciprocating pumps. See the Pump Manual. On large reciprocating pumps, piping and dampener design require rigorous acoustical analysis. Although expensive, such analysis is usually cost-effective if it prevents redesign or lost productivity. See the Compressor Manual and the Pump Manual.
Steam Turbines
This discussion is limited to single and multistage noncondensing turbines. The basic considerations in piping turbines are similar to those for centrifugal pumps, including the use of temporary startup suction strainers. Most turbines have side
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nozzles, with the option of having both suction and discharge on the same side. Some models have vertical inlet nozzles. If the piping is simple, with no discharge pressure relief valve or APS (automatic pump startup, with a control valve in the inlet piping), having both nozzles on one side may be the best choice. Inlet Piping. The inlet header and piping should be well steam-trapped to prevent condensate from entering the machine, especially on startup. This is particularly important for multistage turbines. Figure 300-15 illustrates good piping practice for a turbine with APS.
Fig. 300-15 Steam Turbine with APS, Piping and Valve ArrangementTypical for Single-stage Turbine
Discharge Piping. The discharge valve on most turbines is normally left open when the turbine is not operating, especially when an APS is installed. When the turbine is not operating, condensate collects and drains continuously through a case drain (provided on most turbines). If there is no case drain, piping downstream of the block valve must be steam-trapped. Some installations require a pressure relief valve to protect the turbine case exhaust when the discharge valve is closed. Figure 300-16 shows an acceptable discharge piping configuration. When piping turbines, access must always be kept open to packing glands, lube oil connections and the governor. Acceptable arrangements are shown in Figure 300-17.
Reciprocating Compressors
The typical reciprocating compressor is a horizontal cylinder machine and, depending on pressures, can be single or multistage. The suction nozzle is normally on top of the cylinder but can be on the bottom for air compressors. The discharge is on the opposite side. The American Petroleum Institute does not allow bottom
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Fig. 300-16 Steam Turbine Discharge PipingTypical for Low Pressure Exhaust
Fig. 300-17 Steam Turbine PipingPacking Gland, Lube Oil Connection, Governor Accessibility
suction nozzles on process machines. Primary concerns with compressors are liquid carryover from suction scrubbers and entry of solid contaminants into the machine. Reciprocating compressors are generally elevated to accommodate discharge piping. Larger units have platforms around them for access to the cylinders and suction piping. Although suction piping may be elevated for drainage back to a liquid knockout vessel, piping is kept close to the foundation level because of vibration and for ease of support. Compressors, especially multistage units, have a great deal of auxiliary piping in addition to process piping. This and the need to disassemble cylinders necessitates allowing more space around them than for most other equipment. Typical auxiliary systems to be piped include N2 purge systems for startup and shutdown, cooling water, dry air purge, lube oil circulation, and vent and drain collection. The suction and discharge piping at each unit should have block valves. Suction and discharge piping for each stage should be kept short, have a minimum of bends, and drain away from the cylinder. Piping should be no smaller than the cylinder nozzle
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sizes, and block valves should always be line size. Piping arrangement is further discussed in the Compressor Manual. Suction Piping. Suction piping, including interstage suction piping, should have temporary suction strainers and provision for temporary pressure gages. Piping should not be pocketed and should slope back into upstream liquid knockout vessels. If this is not practical, the line should have a drain to remove any condensate that may collect against the block valve prior to startup. Knockout vessels (scrubbers) should be fitted with mist eliminating pads to prevent carryover of liquid and solids, and located as close as possible to the compressor cylinderwithin a maximum of 50 feet. For most services it is advisable to heat trace and insulate suction and interstage suction piping between the upstream liquid knockout vessel and the cylinder to prevent condensation. This is not usually done for producing equipment. In addition to temporary suction strainers, special precautions are taken in initially cleaning suction and interstage piping systems, including pulsation dampeners, between the liquid knockout vessel and cylinders. Typically an acid pickling procedure is used to remove all scale and grit. This procedure is described in Specification PIM-MS-2411, as well as in Section 600 of this manual. Discharge Piping. Normally, piping from the cylinder outlet to the next stage liquid knockout vessel is mechanically cleaned only. Intercoolers are often installed to enhance condensate removal and to lower gas temperatures for reasons involving personnel safety and piping materials. Pulsation. The pulsing flow, pipe vibration and cyclic movement of reciprocating compressors can be a problem. With smaller units this is usually controlled by rigid support and anchoring of the piping. However, for units larger than 500 HP, or with discharge of more than 1000 psig, or for units operating in parallel it is good practice to make a formal pulsation analysis. Chevron is a member of the Southern Gas Association (SGA) Program which, by arrangement with the Southwest Research Institute (SWRI), provides analysis of piping systems for attenuation of pulsations. This analysis typically results in adjustments to line sizes and lengths, and the evaluation of pulsation dampeners (also called surge bottles, volume bottles, and snubbers) in both suction and discharge piping. The analysis can include a design review of specific pipe and vessel supports and anchors. The Compressor Manual discusses this subject in Section 100 and in the various equipment specifications. Pulsation dampeners are considered pressure vessels, not piping components, and must be installed as close as possible to the cylinder. This is discussed in the Compressor Manual. Figure 300-18 illustrates typical dampener arrangements.
Centrifugal Compressors
These units are similar to multistage centrifugal pumps in principle but operate at speeds as high as 15,000 rpm and pressures to 5000 psig or more. The prime concerns are the same as for reciprocating compressors: liquid and solid carryover.
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In general, centrifugal compressors will tolerate more liquid in mist form than reciprocating machines, but still will not tolerate free liquid. Similarly, they will tolerate carryover of small quantities of solid particles10 microns or smaller without significant erosion. However, temporary suction strainers and liquid knockout vessels are still required. To provide multistep compression, two or more casings are often mounted in series on one set of shafts with the driver. Intercoolers and liquid knockout vessels are installed, as with reciprocating compressors. As with reciprocating machines, ample space is needed for the many auxiliary systems requiring access, and to dismantle the machine and its piping. Figure 300-19 illustrates a schematic piping arrangement for such a two-casing system. The piping nozzles are normally on the same side of the machine and are available face up or face down. Piping requirements are similar to those for reciprocating machines: line size block valves are used and the piping should drain away from the
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compressor. However, volume bottles with additional pipe anchors and supports are not required. On up-connected machines (nozzles on top) flanged breakout spools should be installed to allow removal of the machine for maintenance. For high-pressure, heavy-wall pipe these spools should be fitted in place and welded in the field to ensure proper alignment. Such spools should be fitted with lifting eyes for handling. Prefabricated spools often do not fit and can pull the casing out of alignment when bolted up. Piping arrangement is further discussed in the Compressor Manual. Suction Piping. Liquid knockout vessels should be installed in the suction lines, with mist eliminating pads, and suction piping should be mechanically cleaned and/or air blown. In extreme cases of corrosion or scaling the lines are acid pickled. See Specification PIM-MS-2411. The suction piping between the liquid knockout mist eliminating pad and the suction nozzle is typically heat traced and insulated to prevent condensation. As with centrifugal pumps, the suction lines should have at least five diameters of straight pipe coming into the suction nozzle, with any suction strainer upstream of this pipe. A rigorous analysis of the aerodynamics of suction piping is given in the Elliott Companys Centrifugal Compressor Inlet PipingA Practical Guide, which is included in the Compressor Manual. Piping at the suction nozzle should contain a dropout spool for installation of the temporary startup strainer. Extra care should be taken in the selection of strainers for centrifugal compressors. If the perforated plate of the strainer is too light it is susceptible to rupture from solids buildup or vibration in the high velocity stream. The strainer should be bare perforated plate with no overlay of wire mesh screen.
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Discharge Piping. Piping is installed and cleaned like piping for reciprocating machines. Intercoolers are usually installed for condensate removal. A check valve is added between the nozzle and block valve.
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Ladder runs are limited to 30 feet between platforms. Platform and ladder design and applications are discussed in the Civil and Structural Manual and the Safety in Designs Manual. Piping should not pass through platforms unless the platform is intended to provide blinding access for the piping, in which case maintain 30 inches of clear walkway around the piping. Instrumentation should be accessible from platforms, not from ladders. Place control valves at grade, if possible. See the Instrumentation and Control Manual for other layout considerations.
Heat Exchangers
Shell and Tube. The shell and tubing should be arranged with the channel section away from the plant, and with enough clear space to allow channel and bundle removal. If completed early enough, a review of piping study alternatives generally results in the best location and orientation of nozzles for the fabricator. It can also have an impact on exchanger process design that can benefit piping layout. Figure 300-21 illustrates a simplified piping design resulting from reversing the shell-side flow of an exchanger. Exchangers in series are often stacked and connected with matching flanges coincident with the channel section. Three units high is the practical limit. Standard Drawing GD-L1050 illustrates the use of jack screws and blinds with stacked exchangers. For heat exchangers, it is common piping practice to: Use flanged removable spools at channel sections to allow easy removal of channel and bundle Emphasize the importance of pipe flexibility analysis. Pipe-induced forces on flanges can contribute to body flange leaks Install piping and insulation with sufficient room for wrench clearance at body flanges In exchangers with cooling water (normally on the tube side), mount a flanged nozzle with valve between the cooling water inlet and outlet block valves to
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allow flushing the cooling water side to the atmosphere while the plant is in operation
Fig. 300-21 Heat ExchangerReversal of Shell-Side Flow
Awkward Configuration
Preferred Configuration
Air Coolers. Sometimes called fin-fans, air coolers should be installed to allow free flow of air into the underside of the unit. Typically mounted on legs at grade, they are also installed above pipeways in process areas. They should not be placed over hydrocarbon handling equipment, such as pumps or compressors, with a potential for leaks or fire. See Standard Drawing GF-A1242.
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Air coolers are available with once-through or multipass design with flanged headers on each end. More than one bundle can share the same fan(s), with each bundle having its own inlet and outlet headers. When laying out piping, the expansion and contraction of the tube bundles must be considered. Also, if the connected piping will impose any more than minimal forces on the nozzles, the manufacturers design should be reviewed for adequacy.
328 Instrumentation
This section covers general practices in use of pipe for mounting instruments. Control valve manifolds have been discussed previously, in Section 323. Instrument applications and standard drawings of installation methods are included in the Instrumentation and Control Manual.
General
Piped instrument connections from lines and equipment should be installed with root valves of the same pipe class and material as the line or equipment to which it connects. Consider using stainless steel needle valves in clean service. Connections should be NPS minimum, except for orifice flange connections, which are NPS in ANSI Class 300 through Class 600 flanges and should use -inch tubing. Field instruments should be mounted in positions readily accessible from grade or a platform. The 30-inch minimum clearance requirement should be maintained on platforms.
Flow Instruments
Meter runs should be given as much straight pipe upstream as practicable. Minimum lengths for various installations and services are reviewed in the Instrumentation and Control Manual. The orifice should be located upstream of any associated control valve and preferably be accessible from a platform if elevated. Strainers should be installed upstream of all positive displacement metersat a distance of 10 pipe diameters in the case of turbine meters. The strainer should have a valved blowdown connection and pressure gages to check efficiency. In services subject to two-phase flow, vapor eliminators should also be installed in the line. Refer to the Instrumentation and Control Manual.
Level Instruments
Level instruments are generally mounted directly on vessels and columns. When supplementary instruments such as level gages and alarms are added the assemblies are often mounted on a bridle. Bridles are used to minimize the number of connections on a vessel and provide increased mechanical strength. This is reviewed in detail in the Instrumentation and Control Manual. Typically, level controllers and gages on a vessel are independently mounted to provide independent readings. However, when a horizontal vessel diameter exceeds
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six feet, the recommended method of mounting is as shown in Figure 300-22. This avoids excessively long individual connections. Level instruments should not share common connections with other services, such as fill, drain or pumpout lines, where flow can disturb readings.
Fig. 300-22 Level Instrument MountingHorizontal Vessels Exceeding Six Feet in Diameter
Gage glasses should have dedicated block valves and be fitted with vent and drain valves to allow in-place rodding and cleaning of the glass. Refer to the Instrumentation and Control Manual for specific applications.
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The ratio of displacement versus stress buildup depends on the flexibility of the piping system. A flexible piping system has relatively free movement and little expansion stress buildup. A rigid piping system has very little movement (displacement) and high expansion stress buildup. Unlike sustained stresses, expansion stresses are self-limiting; local yielding of the pipe at points of high stress concentration decreases the stress and stops further yielding. As a result of local yielding, a new equilibrium at the higher temperature and lower expansion stress level is established. When the system cools down the stresses reappear with an opposite sign and may again cause local yielding. A piping system subjected to a temperature cycle will go through a range of stresses commonly referred to as the displacement stress range. Expansion stresses are usually attributable to thermal expansion and, typically, are cyclical. Because they are almost always self-limiting, a single application of the load does not produce a failure; failure is by fatigue after a (usually) high number of load applications. Fatigue failures begin as a small crack at a stress riser or material imperfection on the inner or outer surface of the pipe. Poor or irregular welds are examples of stress risers. Leakage will generally occur before catastrophic failure, although simultaneous corrosion and expansion stress cycling can lead to a very rapid failure. Brittle materials are particularly susceptible to fatigue failure.
where: SA = allowable displacement stress range Sc = basic allowable stress at minimum metal temperature expected during displacement cycle Sh = basic allowable stress at maximum metal temperature expected during displacement cycle f = stress range reduction factor for displacement cycle conditions for the total number of cycles over the expected life When Sh is greater than SL (sum of longitudinal stresses due to sustained loads), the difference between them may be added to the term 0.25 Sh. In that case the formula becomes: SA = [1.25 (Sc + Sh) - SL]
(Eq. 300-13)
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Flexibility Analysis
It is the usual practice to perform piping flexibility analysis for: NPS 3 and larger lines connected to rotating equipment Lines connected to reciprocating compressors Lines with temperatures of 600F and higher
ANSI/ASME B31.3 requires no formal analysis for systems that (1) are duplicates or replacements without significant change of systems with satisfactory service records, (2) can be readily judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed systems, or (3) are of uniform size, have no more than two points of fixation, have no intermediate restraints, and fall within the limitations of the following empirical equation from ANSI/ASME B31.3: DY/(L-U)2 0.03
(Eq. 300-14)
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Y = resultant of total displacement strains to be absorbed by the piping system, in. L = developed length of piping between anchors, ft U = straight line distance between anchors, ft This is the only simple inspection formula that can be offered, and it should be used with caution. ANSI/ASME B31.3 warns that there is no general proof that it will yield accurate or consistently conservative results. It is not applicable to systems used under severe cyclic conditions, and there is no assurance that terminal reactions will be acceptably low. While design of piping for sustained stresses is fairly straightforward, analysis for expansion stresses is very complex. As mentioned previously, thermal expansion will not cause any stresses in pipe that is free to move. The magnitude of expansion stresses is a function of the restraints and of the flexibility of the piping system. Flexibility is obtained using L- or Z-shaped offsets or U-shaped expansion loops. The L or Z offsets are usually part of the normal routing of the piping system. Plant layouts are usually designed to require offsets in piping routing. Expansion loops are introduced when flexibility resulting from normal offsets in the routing is not sufficient. Loop flexibility is obtained from the inherent flexibility of bends or elbows and from bending the straight sections of pipe between two elbows. Piping flexibility and stress analysis can be performed by simplified methods or by computer calculations based on matrix methods: Simplified methods were developed for approximate stress calculations of the most common shapes. Most of these methods are limited to certain sizes and temperature ranges. The common limitation is the inability to calculate terminal loads. Simplified methods of analysis remained in wide use until the early 1980's, mainly because of the cost of computer time and the complexity of input into the matrix computer programs Matrix method flexibility programs for mainframe computers were developed in the 1960's
The development of PC-based piping flexibility programs in the mid-1980's, with user friendly input and graphic display of the piping models, has rendered the simplified methods obsolete. The PC-based CAESAR II piping flexibility program is site licensed to Chevron Corporation. It requires an IBM XT, AT or compatible, with 640K memory, a math coprocessor, and a hard disk. CAESAR II is available from the ETD Technical Standards Division at $500.00 per copy. The program is user friendly, with onscreen graphics for displaying piping models and reviewing the results. The program produces Code check reports for either ANSI/ASME B31.1 or B31.3. The program can model either fixed or gapped restraints, and tied or untied expansion bellows. The program can size and select spring hangers and spring supports. It can produce rotating equipment nozzle load reports. It can also calculate natural frequencies, and stresses caused by dynamic force-spectrum loads.
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Guides
A long pipe under axial compression is a weak column subject to buckling. To prevent buckling, lateral restraint (a guide) is used. Guides should not be placed near directional changes, where they would interfere with the flexibility of the piping.
Anchors
Anchors are rigid devices that prevent translation and rotation of the pipe at one point so that the pipe is fully fixed in all axes. A flanged connection of pipe to a piece of equipment is an anchor. There are very few other anchor points used in piping systems.
Stops
A stop prevents movement in the axial direction, but permits rotation of the pipe. In most cases a stop also acts as a support. Stops are frequently, but mistakenly, referred to as anchors. One needs to keep in mind the definition of anchors given above. After designing anchors and stops, and determining the reaction forces, the piping designer should consult the structural designer about the adequacy of the pipeway structure.
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Chevron Corporation
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Chevron Corporation
Piping Manual
Seal Welding. The primary reason for seal welding valves and threaded joints is to increase safety and mechanical strength. Stress concentration caused by exposed thread runout notches is thereby eliminated. Seal welding also minimizes leakage and accidental thread backoff. Seal welding is normally used in services where: The fluid is flammable (and the fire risk from leakage is high) The fluid is hazardous Vibration or thermal loads exist
Seal welding should cover all exposed threads with weld metal and should blend into the pipe as smoothly as practicable (see Standard Drawing GD-L1057 for details). Threaded joints to be seal welded must be made up dry, without thread compound or Teflon tape, because these materials contaminate the weld and can release toxic vapors. Seal welding requirements vary in the Corporation Piping Specification. Low-pressure water and air services do not require seal welding. In Pipe Classes that require limited seal welding selected joints are seal welded, principally the pressure side of the first valve off equipment or pipe headers. In Pipe Classes that require complete seal welding, all joints (except plugs in valved vents and drains, and instrument and tubing connections) are seal welded. See the Corporation Piping Specification. Bridge Welding. In severe cyclic services the branch root connections should be made with short nipples (but not all-thread nipples) and multiple weld passes built up to the full hub diameter of the valve and for the full length of the nipple. For bridge welding details refer to Standard Drawing GD-L1057. Consider the use of top entry valves so repairs can be made without cutting the valve from the line. Which applications require bridge welding versus seal welding should be given some thought. Bridge welding should be considered for critical services only. The additional field labor required is expensive. Also, special precautions may be necessary to protect valves from heat while welding. This is described on Standard Drawing GD-L1057. Suggested applications for bridge welding of small root valves are: Systems with flange ratings above ANSI Class 900 Steam and boiler feedwater service at 600 psig LPG and H2S services Vibrating service involving reciprocating and rotating equipment
Threaded Connections Versus Socket Welding. Threaded connections for NPS 1 and smaller pipe are usually less expensive than socket welded connections, but have the following disadvantages: Weakness resulting from the notch effect at the root of the thread which localizes the effect of imposed stresses, promoting fatigue failure The decrease in effective wall thickness where threads are cut Susceptibility to thread disengagement by expansion when exposed to fire
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Inability to properly seal weld joints once pipe dope or Teflon tape is used
Where exposed threads are not acceptable, joints should be socket welded or threaded and seal welded. Both are considered the equivalent of butt welded or flanged joints for fire safety. Economics should govern the choice between them. Figure 300-23 shows comparative times to field fabricate and erect NPS 2 and smaller pipe using various methods.
Fig. 300-23 Field Fabrication Methods ComparisonSmall Pipe Joint Type Screwed Screwed & Seal weld Socket weld Butt weld Hours per Linear Foot 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.9
With socket welded construction, vents and drains should use screwed valves or valves with one socket weld connection and one screwed connection. All open ended connections to flammable fluid systems such as drains, vents, unused instrument connections, etc., should be fitted with threaded solid bar stock plugs of the same material as the connection. Bar stock plugs should have a shank equal in length to at least twice their diameter to accommodate pipe wrenches (hex head plugs will not withstand repeated use). Free machining steels (high lead or high sulfur content) should not be used for bar stock plugs because they are subject to corrosion and cannot be seal welded.
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Flanges. Socket weld or butt weld flanges should be used for steam above 150 psig, and LPG, hydrogen, or hazardous services where thermal cycling is anticipated. See Section 250 of this manual for further discussion. Unions. Unions should be specified with metal-to-metal seats. They are most commonly used in low-pressure hydrocarbon and utility services to 150 psig. The standards for malleable iron and carbon steel unions are ANSI B16.39 and MSS SP83, respectively. These standards do not specify seat construction, seat dimensions, or closure nut thread diameter. Each manufacturer sets his own dimensions and thread type for the coupling nut. As a result, union parts from different manufacturers are not interchangeable and any replacements should be done on a unit basis. Used union parts from the same manufacturer should not be reused without lapping the seating surfaces. It is recommended that each operating center standardize on one manufacturer to avoid problems of mismatching or noninterchangeable parts. Because of their brittleness white or gray cast iron unions should not be used; malleable or ductile cast iron should be specified. Forged carbon steel should be used in all hydrocarbon services.
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Piping should not be installed underground when it can reasonably be avoided. Although there is good reason to do so in many instances, it is expensive and introduces problems not encountered with aboveground installations. Underground piping is most often associated with cross country pipelines and marketing operations where security and safety justify burial. Additional applications are fire protection in operating centers, protection of water piping from freezing, mechanical protection of critical lines in operating areas, and road and rail crossings. Refer to the Pipeline Manual.
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operated at higher temperatures are subject to compressive stresses. Adequate coverage and restraint must be provided to prevent buckling or line movement. This is discussed in the Pipeline Manual. Section 350 includes a summary of temperature limitations of coatings.
Once commonly used in general service within the Company, P2 asphalt wrap coatings are no longer recommended. Their performance has been poor compared to other coatings. When small quantities of buried piping require protection, tape wrap is often selected because it is relatively inexpensive and easy to apply in the field. However, it is often the least reliable coating, with poor performance in water- and oil-saturated soils, and in cyclic temperature service. It requires proper pipe surface preparation and is easily applied improperly. Protection for coated pipe at weld joints and tie-ins is provided by field-applied fusion bonded epoxy, shrink sleeves of polyethylene, heat-cured liquid epoxy, or tape wrap. Compatibility of these materials with the various pipe coatings is discussed in the Coatings Manual. Aside from the type of coating selected, proper application of the coating and maintenance of its integrity are required for proper installation of a protected line. Because success or failure cannot be determined for an extended time after installation, usually years, attention should be paid to: Correct surface preparation for the type of coating used Application of the coating to the specified consistency and thickness Care in handling and laying to avoid coating damage Proper cleaning, priming, and field coating of joints and fittings Inspection of coating for any damage and proper repair
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Backfilling and compacting to prevent contact with any material that could damage the coating
These concerns and appropriate procedures are discussed in the Pipeline Manual and the Coatings Manual. Cathodic Protection. Cathodic protection (CP) can be roughly defined as retarding or preventing the corrosion of a metal by imposing an electrical current flowing to the metal through an electrolyte. In the case of buried piping, the pipe is the metal and the soil is the electrolyte. The basic principle of cathodic protection is quite simple, but the applications can be very complex. A thorough discussion of design and application is included in the Corrosion Prevention Manual. Cathodic protection is often used with coatings to protect piping. Regardless of the care used in coating and installing buried lines there will often be small pinholes, or holidays, in the coating. A cathodic protection system can protect against corrosion at these points and significantly extend the life of the piping. Cathodic protection is applied to underground piping as a system. At every location where cathodically protected pipe leaves the soil (or water) it must be electrically isolated from the aboveground continuation of the line if the continuation is not part of the CP system. This is done with an insulating flange kit (or insulating union on small diameter pipe) that uses electrically insulating bolt sleeves, nut washers, and sealing gasket in a conventional flange makeup. Figure 300-25.
Fig. 300-25 Insulating Gasket Set Courtesy of The Flexitallic Group
Producing piping, cross country pipelines, and submarine piping are the principal users of cathodic protection. It is also used to protect steel marine piling, offshore drilling and producing structures, ship hull exteriors, and tanker interiors. With the possible exception of protecting tank bottoms, cathodic protection is seldom used in refineries.
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Care must be taken when designing a CP system to protect coated piping. Excessive current flow can result in cathodic disbondment of the coating from the metal at points where the coating is damaged, resulting in further deterioration of the coating. This phenomenon is discussed in the Coatings Manual and the Corrosion Prevention Manual. Because of excessive power requirements and difficulty in uniform distribution of protection, cathodic protection is rarely applied to bare piping. Casings. Pipe crossings beneath roads and railroad rights-of-way, in addition to being coated, often must be sleeved in a casing. Casings are generally a local requirement of the right-of-way owner or the governing jurisdictional body. The design and installation of casings is discussed in API Recommended Practice 1102, Recommended Practice for Liquid Petroleum Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways, and in the Civil and Structural Manual and the Pipeline Manual. LPG piping through brick or concrete walls and through earth fills, such as road crossings and embankments, should be protected by oil-filled casings treated with protective coatings. The oil-filled casing gives extra protection to the LPG line and allows leakage to be detected by pressure gages on the casing before it reaches the atmosphere.
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Chevron Corporation