UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT

Authors full name : Date of birth Title : :

NURHAFIZATUL AKMAL BT MD YUSOH 15TH SEPTEMBER 1985 DESIGN OF 2.4GHZ POWER AMPLIFIER FOR TELEMEDICINE TRANSMITTER 2007/08

Academic Session:

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(Contains confidential information under the Official Secret Act 1972)* (Contains restricted information as specified by the organisation where research was done)* I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access (full text)

I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows : 1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the purpose of research only. 3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange. Certified by :

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

(NEW IC NO. /PASSPORT NO.) Date : 12 MAY 2008

850915065330

DR. IR ING EKO SUPRIYANTO

NAME OF SUPERVISOR Date : 12 MAY 2008

NOTES :

If the thesis is CONFIDENTIAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from the organisation with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.

I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Electrical (Electronic) Engineering

Signature Name of Supervisor Date

: : Dr. Eko Supriyanto : 12 May 2008

DESIGN OF 2.4GHZ POWER AMPLIFIER FOR TELEMEDICINE TRANSMITTER

NURHAFIZATUL AKMAL BT MD YUSOH

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor in Electrical Engineering (Electronic)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2008

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I declare that this thesis entitled Design of 2.4GHz Power Amplifier for Telemedicine Transmitter is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree

Signature Name Date

: : : NURHAFIZATUL AKMAL BT MD YUSOH 12 MAY 2008

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Specially dedicated to my beloved family who inspires me throughout my journey in education

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Praised be to Allah for His blessings and giving me the strength along the challenging journey of completing the project as well as this thesis writing, for without it, I would not have been able to come this far. First and foremost, I would like to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor of this project, Dr Ing Eko Supriyanto who has relentlessly and tirelessly assisted me in completing this project and has been a good mentor for me, giving me moral supports and patiently guided me throughout the project. My utmost thanks also go to my family who has given me endless support and encouragement throughout my academic years in UTM. My special thanks to these individuals, Mr Teguh, Al Amin and Lindawati who have brought me into the world of telecommunication and ADS which is something that really new to me. I may have stumbled and tripped along the way, however your dedication and patience has made my learning ladder an easier one to climb. To all my friends, especially to Haslinah, Asmida, Norafeezah and Zaharah who have helped and supported me along the way and have willingly offered their help despite their tight schedule, thank you from the bottom of my heart. Finally yet importantly, to those who have, in a way or another contributed to the pleasant months of my final year project. Your presence and your countless effort and support had given me great strength and confidence.

ABSTRACT

Telemedicine transmitter is a very high power transmitter generally designed to take a data, audio and video source like ECG, EEG and EMG, and transmit them for a very long range from the patient home at the remote area to the medical center. Thus, in order to make sure that the transmitter having a very high power and data transmission, power amplifier comes up as the very important part to be considered. Therefore, the main purpose of this project is to design a 2.4GHz power amplifier with ouptput power of 32.0828dbm. This output power was obtained through the propagation equation in ensuring the transmission of data about 40km of distance. The stability and the matching network of the circuit were also taken into account in designing it. ADS is the software that was used to design it and TX-line 2003 calculator was used to measure the size of the stubs. I hope that this thesis is able to give sufficient information to anyone who is interested in learning about designing 2.4GHz power amplifier.

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ABSTRAK

Pemancar telemedik merupakan pemancar berkuasa tinggi yang di rekabentuk untuk mengambil dan memancar data audio atau video seperti ECG, EEG dan EMG, lalu memancarkan data-data tersebut pada suatu jarak yang jauh iaitu dari rumah pesakit di kawasan pedalaman ke hospital atau pusat perubatan. Oleh itu, bagi memastikan bahawa pemancar itu mempunyai kuasa yang cukup tinggi, penguat kuasa muncul sebagai elemen yang penting dan harus dititikberatkan. Jadi, tujuan utama projek ini adalah untuk merekabentuk sebuah penguat kuasa berfrekuensi 2.4GHz dengan kuasa keluaran sebanyak 32.0828dbm. Nilai kuasa keluaran ini didapati melalui persamaan penyebaran untuk memastikan data dapat dipancar sejauh 40km. Kestabilan dan penyesuaian masukan dan keluaran litar turut diambilkira semasa proses merekabentuk penguat

kuasa ini. ADS merupakan perisian yang digunakan untuk merekabentuk litar penguat kuasa ini manakala kalkulator TX-line 2003 digunakan untuk mengira saiz stab. Adalah diharapkan agar tesis ini dapat memberi maklumat dan rujukan kepada sesiapa yang berminat untuk mempelajari tentang cara-cara untuk merekabentuk penguat kuasa berfrekuensi 2.4GHz.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER

TITLE TITLE DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENT LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF APPENDICES INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.2 Problem statement 1.3 Project Objective 1.3 Project Scope METHODOLOGY 2.1 Flow diagram 2.2 Work breakdown 2.2.1 Study 2.2.1.1 Advanced Design System 2.2.2 Report writing 2.3.Gantt chart

PAGE i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x xi 1 1 3 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 9

viii 3 LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Stability 3.3 Matching network 3.4 Stubs 3.4.1 Single stub 3.4.2 Design procedure 3.4.3 Double stub tuner matching 3.4.4 Stub tuners and E-H tuners 3.4.5 Some comments based on feedback 3.5 Microstrip Transmission Line and Design 3.5.1 Microstrip parameters 3.5.2 Some Considerations in the Choice of Microstrip Substrate Material 3.5.2.1 Common substrate materials 3.6 Return loss 3.7 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio 3.8 Free Space Path Loss 4 DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF POWER AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT 4.1 Introduction 4.1.2 Select the transistor (noise, gain and price) 4.1.3 Measure the s-parameter of the transistor from datasheet 4.1.4 Determining the Stability Factor K 4.1.5 The gain and output value (output power of power amplifier) 4.1.6 Computing input and output matching network 4.1.6.1 Computing Input Matching Network 4.2 Analyzing the Transistor with Input and Output Matching 4.3 One Stage Power Amplifier 4.4 Two Stages Power Amplifier 4.5 The Amplifier Inclusion of DC Biasing Circuit RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 5.1 Stability Factor, K 5.2 One Stage Power Amplifier 5.3 Two Stages Power Amplifier 5.4 The Amplifier Inclusion of DC Biasing Circuit CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATION REFERENCES 11 11 21 25 27 27 30 32 33 33 35 37 40 41 44 44 45 46 46 48 49 49 51 53 54 55 57 58 59 60 60 62 65 67 72 73 74

6 7

ix APPENDICES 76

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. 4.1.1 4.2.1

TITLE A part of S-parameter for transistor FLL 351ME Electrical length

PAGE 49 55

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 5.2 Flow Diagram Work Breakdown Gantt Chart Scattering Parameters Analogy Input and Output Matching Network Two Port Network A lossless network matching arbitrary load impedance to a transmission Single-stub tuning circuit shunt stub Single-stub tuning circuit series stub Data Tranmission Simulation of Transistor Simulation Result of the Transistor TXLINE 2003-Microstrip calculator The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (One Stage) The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (Two Stages) The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (With DC biasing) Simulation of Transistor Simulation Result of the Transistor

PAGE 5 6 9 13 19 21 25 29 30 46 50 51 57 58 59 60 61 62

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5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10

The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (One Stage) Stability Factor K Maximum available gain Output power The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (Two Stages) Maximum Gain Output power The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (With DC biasing)

63 64 64 65 67 67 65 68

5.11 5.12 5.13

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Simulation Results Output Power

69 70 71

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

ADS dBm ECG EEG EMG GHz PA PwrGain RF TEM VoltGain VSWR

Advanced Design System Decibel in mili Electrocardiography Electrocephalography Electromyography Gigahertz Power Amplifier Power Gain Radio Frequency Tranverselectromagnetic Voltage Gain Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background

Throughout the decade, there were a number of attempts to develop medical information systems which are reliable, affordable and accessible over the entire hospital and beyond. Telecommunication links are becoming nearly ubiquitous but they do not reach all communities, leaving segment of the population unserved. the signal cannot be sent at further distance. But, most of the data Most of the available transmission is within a restricted distance and restricted frequency so that telemedicine systems are distinctly "low tech" and slow. At present, most teleconferencing is dependent on communication via fiber optic cable connection and satellite. High-speed land lines, such as OC3 fiberoptic cables, are not widely available at this time.Current availability is limited primarily to large urban areas. Unfortunately, patients receiving care in rural hospitals who could benefit most from teleconferencing are not likely to be eligible for these services due to lack of fiber optic infrastructure.

2 Satellite-based telemedicine could rapidly fill the gap now present in the area of high-speed data transmission. Technology Satellite (ACTS), which is capable of a 622-Mb/sec transmission rate, was recently used in an experiment that linked physicians at Phoenix Children's Hospital in Phoenix, Ariz, with consultants at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn. But, the major problem in using satellite is that not all of the rural and urban areas have that facility. So, we are developing a point to point wireless communication to enable the telemedicine to be applied every where. The wireless link is utilized to fulfill the need for patient mobility in a remote area within a specified range of broadcasting and to transmit real-time medical information and warning within an acceptable time limit for critical life cases. Solid-state microwave amplifiers play an important role in communication. Usually, signals provided by the transducers are weak; typically, it is in the order of microvolt (V) or millivolt (mV). It is not easy, and sometimes not possible, to have reliable processing for signals with low levels. For this reason, the need for a signal amplifier arises. In a transceiver circuit, a signal amplifier has different applications, including low noise, high gain, and high power amplifiers. In wireless RF transmitter, RF Power Amplifier (PA) is one of important device that make many influence to the transmitter performance. As the first stage of the transmitter, PA required to have certain power for transmit the signals. The focus of this research has been the design of power amplifier using software and propagation equation to determine the appropriate gain in ensuring the transmission of data.

3 1.2 Problem Statement

Telemedicine transmitter is a very high power transmitter generally designed to take a data, audio and video source like ECG, EEG and EMG, and transmit them for a very long range and in this project, the desired range of transmission is 40km which considered as a very far of distance. Nowadays, most of the data transmission is within a restricted distance and restricted frequency. This is due to the power problem as for the long range data transmission, the system needs a very high power. Thus, in order to make sure that the transmitter having a very high power and data transmission, power amplifier comes up as the very important part to be considered.

1.3

Objectives of the project

To design a 2.4GHz power amplifier for telemedicine transmitter so that the physiological signals such as EMG, ECG and EEG information can be transmitted for a 40km of distance which from the patient home at the remote area towards the medical center.

4 1.4 Scope of the project

The main aim of the project is to design RF BJT Class A Power Amplifier. The transistor chosen for the job is FET FLL351 which comes in SOT-143 package. The maximum IDS sustainable by the transistor is 720mA and VDS = 10 V, with transistion frequency fT = 5GHz, which is more than sufficient for the job. The power ampifier using class A operations and suitable for frequency at 2.4GHz operation.The output power is 33.0282dBm.

CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY

2.1

Flow Diagram

Workflow of this project was divided to some parts like study, design and simulation. The flowchart and Gantt chart of this project as follows:

Figure 2.1 Flow Diagram

6 2.2 Work Breakdown

The process flows and works have been planned were separated according to the duration weeks, types of works, difficulties and importance for the project. For this project, all design and simulation is using Advanced Design System (ADS) software. Figure 2.2 shows the block diagram for work breakdown in this project.

Figure 2.2 Work Breakdown

7 2.2.1 Study There are three important parts should be studied before proceed the project. The parts are telemedicine transmitter, power amplifier, propagation equation also (Advanced Design System) ADS software. All those parts took very long duration weeks because they are ongoing study. Other work like designing and simulation was done as long as study all those parts. Study of telemedicine transmitter scope took around seven weeks. It includes search for telemedicine books, search information from internet and interview. The telemedicine transmitter scope were studied are types of data or signal from that are being transmitted from patient home to the medical center and output power of access point. Study of power amplifier scope took around 4 months. It includes search for characteristics for each type of power amplifier and how to design to design a high power amplifier. The characteristics of power amplifier scope were studied are gain, bandwidth, efficiency, linearity and stability. The design of high power amplifier scope includes measuring the s-parameter, determining the stability factor, computing input and output matching network. The hardest part in this project is study the software where it took around 5 months to determine the appropriate software to be used. I actually had only about 8 weeks to explore the new software (Microwave Office). However, I found that it was not friendly user and I was not able to refer to anybody for any inquiry. I tried out Ansoft Serenade 2000, but I failed to understand it

8 better. I had no reference. Finally, I just made up my mind to try out another software which was ADS (Advanced Design System). I found that it is better software to design power amplifier. The examples in the software library helped me a lots and make my understanding better using stubs in designing power amplifier. The scope were studied are characteristics of the software, how to use the software and how to design the circuit using the software.

2.2.2.1 Advanced Design System Advanced Design System (ADS) is the industry leader in high-frequency design. It supports system and RF design engineers developing all types of RF designs, from simple to the most complex, from RF/microwave modules to integrated MMICs for communications and aerospace/defense applications. With a complete set of simulation technologies ranging from frequency- and time-domain circuit simulation to electromagnetic field simulation, ADS lets designers fully characterize and optimize designs. The single, integrated design environment provides system and circuit simulators, along with schematic capture, layout, and verification capability - eliminating the stops and starts associated with changing design tools in midcycle.

9 2.2.2 Report Writing After completing the project, the report should be done. There were two part of report which is progress report for Final Year Project I and thesis for the whole project. It took about three weeks for every report.

2.3

Gantt Chart

Figure 2.3 Gantt Chart

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CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Introduction

Amplification is one of the most basic and prevalent microwave circuit functions in modern RF and microwave systems. Early microwave amplifiers relied on tubes, such as klystron and traveling-wave tubes, or solid-state reflection amplifiers based on the negative resistance characteristics of the tunnel or varactor diodes. But due to the dramatic improvements and innovations in solid-state technology that have occurred since the 1970s, most RF and amplifiers today use transistor device such as Si or SiGe BJTs, GaAs HBTs, GaAs or InP FETs, or GaAs HEMTs[1]-[4]. Microwave transistor amplifiers are rugged, low cost, reliable and can easily integrated in both hybrid and monolithic integrated circuitry. Transistor can be used at frequencies in excess of 100GHz in a

12 wide range of applications requiring small size, low noise figure, broad bandwidth, and low to medium power capacity. Although microwave tubes are still required for very high power and/or very high frequency applications, continuing improvement in the performance of microwave transistors is steadily reducing the need for microwave tubes. Transistor amplifier design will rely on the terminal characteristics of transistors, as represented by either S parameter or one of the equivalent circuit models. Here is discussed about some general definitions of two port power gains that are useful for amplifier design and subject of stability. These results will be applied to transistor amplifiers, including designs for maximum gain and specified gain. Solid-state microwave amplifiers play an important role in communication where it has different applications, including low noise, high gain, and high power amplifiers. The high gain and low noise The small signal S amplifiers are small signal low power amplifiers and are mostly used in the receiver side where the signal level is low. parameter can be used in designing these low power amplifiers. The high power amplifier is used in the transmitter side where the signal should be at a high level to cross The design procedures for a small signal microwave amplifier consist of selecting the dc bias point for the transistor, measuring the Sparameters of the transistor, studying the stability, designing the input and output matching network to achieve the desired goals, building the amplifier, and performing the measurements. The dc bias point of the transistor should be determined first. The selection of the dc quiescent for the transistor amplifier depends on the particular application

13 A networks behavior at microwave frequencies can be characterized using the scattering parameters (S-parameters). These parameters are defined in terms of travailing waves, relate to the traveling waves that are scattered or reflected when a network is inserted into a transmission line.

Figure 3.1: Scattering Parameters Analogy S-parameters are important in microwave design because they are easier to measure and to work with at high frequencies than other kinds of parameters. They are conceptually simple, analytically convenient, and capable of providing a great insight into a measurement or design problem. The relationship between the S-parameters and the incident and reflected waves can be expressed as follows

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15

16

17

18

19

Figure 3.2: Input and Output Matching Network

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A single stage microwave transistor amplifier can be modeled by the circuit of figure 2 where matching network is used on both sides of the transistor to transform the input and output impedance and load impedance and to the source

. The most useful gain definition for , which accounts for both

amplifier design is the transducer power gain

source and load mismatch. Thus, from the power gain, we can define separate effective gain factors for the input (source) matching network, the transistor itself, and the output (load) matching network as follows:

21 3.2 Stability We now discuss the necessary conditions for the transistor amplifier to be stable. In the circuit in Figure 3.3, oscillation is possible if either the input or output impedance has a negative real part: this would imply that or . Because and depend on the

source and load matching networks, the stability of the amplifier depends on the and as presented by the matching networks.

Figure 3.3: Two Port Network In terms of reflection coefficients, the necessary conditions for unconditional stability at a given frequency are

22 The necessary and sufficient conditions for a two-port network to be unconditional stable are [D. Woods, 1976]

In practice, most of the microwave transistor amplifiers are potentially unstable because of the internal feedback. There are two ways to overcome the stability problem of the transistor amplifier. The first is to use some form of feedback to stabilize the amplifier. The second is to use a graphical analysis to determine the regions where the values of and (source and load reflection coefficients) are less than one, which

means the real parts of ZIN and ZOUT are positive. Substituting the values of for and and in equations (3.7) and (3.8) and solving

result in the stability circles. The radii and centers of the

circles are given by [G. Gonzalez, 1984] Output Stability Circle, Circle, input Stability

23 Then the stability circles need to be plotted in the Smith chart to determine the stable regions or in other words, the regions where values of and produce and . Most of the time, microwave

amplifiers used for narrowband or wideband applications face stability problems at certain frequency ranges. Instability is primarily caused by three phenomena: internal feedback around the transistor, external feedback around the transistor caused by an external circuit, or excess of gain at frequencies outside of the band of operation These are defined by circles, called stability circles, that delimit and on the Smith chart. The radius and center of the

output and input stability circles are derived from the S parameters on pg. 614 of Pozar or pg. 97 of Gonzalez. The concept of instability with varying input or output matching conditions is significant, as we would desire an amplifier to be unconditionally stable under all expected conditions of source and load impedances. The example of input stability circles is shown here.

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If an amplifier is conditionally stable, it can be rendered unconditionally stable by adding resistance to the input and/or output of the amplifier so that the total loop resistance at the input and output is positive. The use of resistive loading or feedback can compromise the noise performance of an amplifier unless accomplished in connection with an analysis of the amplifier noise figure.

25 3.3 Matching network After the stability of the transistor has been determined, and the stable regions for and have been located on the Smith Chart, the is fixed for

input and output matching sections can be designed. Since

given transistor, the overall gain of the amplifier will be controlled by the gains, and , of the matching sections. Maximum gain will be

realized when these sections provide a conjugate match between the amplifier source or load impedance and the transistor. Because most transistors appear as a significant impedance mismatch (large , the resulting frequency response will be narrowband. Matching the impedance of a network to the impedance of a transmission line has two principal advantages. First, all the incident power is delivered to the network. Second, the generator is usually designed to work into impedance close to common transmission line impedances. If it does so it is better behave, the load impedance has no reactive part which can pull the generator frequency, and the VSWR on the line is unity or close to unity so the line length is immaterial and the line connecting the generator to the load is non-resonant. and

Matching network

Load,

Figure 3.4: A lossless network matching arbitrary load impedance to a transmission

26 Impedance matching is often being as a part of the larger design process of microwave component and system. Impedance is placed between a source and a transmission line or between a load and a transmission line. The matching network is ideally lossless, to avoid unnecessary loss of power, and is usually designed so that the impedance seen looking into the matching network . Then reflections are eliminated on the transmission

line to the left of the matching network, although there will be multiple reflections between the matching network and the load. This procedure is also referred to as tuning. Impedance matching or tuning for the following reasons: Maximum power is delivered when the load is matched to the line (assuming the generator is matched), and power loss in the feed lines is minimized. Impedance matching sensitive receiver components (antenna, low noise amplifier, etc) improves the signal-to-ratio of the system. Impedance matching in a power distribution network (such as antenna array feed network) will reduce amplitude and phase errors. As long as the load impedance has some nonzero ea part, a

matching network can always be found. Many choices are available, however, and will discuss the design and performance of several types practical matching network. Factors that may be important in the selection of a particular matching network include the following: Complexity- As with most engineering solutions, the simplest design that satisfies the required specifications generally the most preferable. than a more complex design. Bandwidth-Any type of matching network can ideally give a perfect match (zero reflection) at a single frequency. In many applications, however it is desirable to match a load over a band of frequencies. There are several A simpler matching network is usually cheaper, more reliable, and less loss

27 ways of doing this with, of course, a corresponding increase in complexity. Implementation- Depending on type of transmission line or waveguide being used, one type of matching network may be preferable compared to another. For example, tuning stubs are much easier to implement in waveguide than are multisection quarter wave transformers. Adjustability- In some applications the matching network may require adjustment match variable load impedance. Some types of matching networks are more amenable than others in regard.

3.4 Stubs

Stubs are shorted or open circuit lengths of transmission line intended to produce a pure reactance at the attachment point, for the line frequency of interest. Any value of reactance can be made, as the stub length is varied from zero to half a wavelength.

3.4.1 Single stub

If you look at the smith chart you will find a circle of constant real impedance r=1 which goes through the open circuit point and the centre of the chart. If you plot any arbitrary impedance on the SMITH chart and follow round at constant radius towards the generator, you must cross the r=1 circle somewhere. This transformation at constant radius represents motion along the transmission line towards the generator. One complete

28 circuit of the smith chart represents a travel of one half wavelengths towards the generator. At this intersection point your generalized arbitrary load impedance r + jx has transformed to 1 + jx', so at least the real part of the impedance equals the characteristic impedance of the line. Note x' is different from x in general. At this point you cut the line and add a pure reactance -jx'. The total impedance looking into the sum of the line impedance and -jx' is therefore 1 + jx' -jx' = 1 and the line is matched. Again, look at the SMITH chart and find the outer circle where the modulus of the reflection coefficient is one. On this circle are the SHORT and OPEN points, and all values of positive and negative reactance. The resistance is zero everywhere. To generate a specified reactance, start at a short circuit (or maybe an open) and follow around towards the generator until the desired reactance is obtained. Cut the stub this number of wavelengths long. It is important to keep the total stub length as short as possible, if wider bandwidths are required. Every time you add a half wavelength to the stub length the reactance of the stub comes back to the same value. It is good design practice to make stubs in the range 0 to 0.5 wavelengths long. However, this may require an impractically short stub, so then one can make the stub just a little over 0.5 wavelengths. If one is allowed to use either short or open stubs at will, one can always keep the total stub length in the range 0-0.25 wavelengths. A length of transmission line of 0.25 wavelengths takes us half way round the SMITH chart and transforms an open into a short, or vice versa. On microstrip it is usually easier to leave stubs open circuit, for constructional reasons. On coax line or parallel wire line, a short circuit stub has less

29 radiation from the ends: it is difficult to make a perfect non-radiating open circuit as there are always some end effects on the line.

Open or shorted stub

Figure 3.5: Single-stub tuning circuit shunt stub

30

Open or shorted stub

Figure 3.6: Single-stub tuning circuit series stub

. 3.4.2 Design procedure.

It is told, or find out, the load impedance ZL and the transmission line characteristic impedance Zo. Calculate the normalised impedance z = (ZL/Zo). Plot it on the SMITH chart. You are told the frequency and the velocity factor of the line. Calculate the wavelength in meters. (or cm).

31 Follow the circle of constant radius on the SMITH chart towards the generator until the locus crosses the r=1 circle. Measure the number of wavelengths along the perimeter of the SMITH chart between the z point originally plotted, and the r=1 circle intersection. This tells you how far from the load to place your stub. Read off from the r=1 intersection the reactance x' value. Starting from a short (or open) follow the r=0 circle around the outside of the SMITH chart until you come to a point of reactance -x'. Measure the number of wavelengths this represents from short/open end towards the generator. Cut your stub this long. The stub is placed in series with one of the transmission line conductors. In coax this may be difficult to do technically. One therefore often resorts to shunt stub matching, where the stub and the original transmission line are connected in parallel. It is easier then to work in admittances. We notice that the SMITH chart can be used as an admittance chart merely by rotating it through 180 degrees. Normalised resistance becomes normalised conductance; normalised reactance becomes normalised susceptance. Admittances in parallel add; the short circuit point has infinite admittance and the open circuits point zero admittance. The design procedure is the same as for series stubs.

32 3.4.3 Double stub tuner matching

Suppose that the load impedance changes. Adjusting a single stub tuner is very difficult. One has to remove the stub, remake the line where the break was, and calculate the new stub length and point of attachment. We can use two stubs permanently attached to the line at fixed points of attachment, and tune by altering the stub lengths. Two values have to be matched (r and x) and we have two variables; the length of each stub. As before, the generator-end stub has reactance -jx' and is attached at a point where the line impedance, including the effect of the other stub at its fixed point of attachment, is 1+jx'. Transforming the unit r=1 circle towards the load until one reaches the load-end stub attachment, the circle r=1 transforms to another circle, call it "B", touching the outside of the SMITH chart, and also passing through its centre. The load impedance, when transformed towards the generator up to the load-end stub position, will be a generalised impedance ZL' different from ZL. The effect of the load-end stub is to add reactance x" to ZL' so that the impedance value ZL'+jx" lies on the circle "B" above. We chose the length of the stub to make x" the required value for this to happen. If we write ZL'=r'+jx' then the effect of adding the stub is to move the reactance j(x'+x") along the constant r' curve depending on the size of x".

33 3.4.4 Stub tuners and E-H tuners

It is just possible for the r' curve not to intersect the circle "B", in which case a double stub match is not possible for this value of load impedance, and stub placements. Generalised adjustable tuners are therefore designed with three stubs, which are spaced at unequal intervals. Such a device is called a "Triple Stub Tuner". Sliding shorts are easily arranged in coax or waveguide. In waveguide only, there is a special type of tuner called an E-H tuner. This has shunt and series side arms consisting of sliding shorts, attached at the same point along the guide. There is no equivalent in 2-conductor transmission line for geometrical reasons. An E-H tuner can always match any load impedance.

3.4.5 Some comments based on feedback

Stub matching is only desirable for relatively low fractional bandwidths. For wider bandwidth matching a multi-section quarter wave transformer can be used, or a tapered line. Impedance matching may be carried out using the SMITH chart for calculations and design, and lumped components taking the place of lengths of transmission line. It is possible

34 to make undesirable reflections by using a "wrong" stub match, so care must be taken in applying stub matching in high power (e.g. transmitting) applications. It is always wise to measure the match before applying significant input power. In antenna matching situations significant mismatch can arise from alterations to the near-field environment of the antenna over time. Thus if a new antenna is added to an existing mast, it is always wise to check the matching of the pre-existing antennas. There are practical difficulties at mm wavelengths, eg on microstrip at above 20GHz. Here, the precision of adjustment of the lengths of the stubs needs to be +/- 0.01 wavelengths for good quality matching. At 5mm wavelength this is a precision of +/- 50 microns. There are also practical difficulties at high |gamma| (reflection coefficient magnitude). Here the purpose of the stubs is to generate an equal and opposite reflection to cancel out the reflection from the nearly completely mismatched load. Clearly, to get effective cancellation, the stubs must be very precisely chosen and constructed, and the fringing-field effects become important to the point that they can dominate the design. A standard SMITH chart calculation as in this page is then unlikely to be very effective.

35 3.5 Microstrip Transmission Line and Design A Microstrip transmission line is a "high grade" printed circuit construction, consisting of a track of copper or other conductor on an insulating substrate. There is a "backplane" on the other side of the insulating substrate, formed from a similar conductor. Looked at on end,

there is a "hot" conductor, which is the track on the top, and a "return" conductor, which is the backplane on the bottom. therefore a variant of the two wire transmission line. At frequencies above about 0.5 GHz, sections of microstrip transmission line can be used to synthesize inductors and capacitors. In general, open circuited stubs less than wavelength long behave as capacitors and shorted or series sections less than 1/4 wavelength long are inductors. The lumped element transmission model below helps explain why its a good idea to use high impedance line ( 80 - 90 ohms ) for inductors and low impedance line ( 20 - 30 ohms ) when making capacitors. A microstrip is

36

Given the equation for characteristic impedance of the line, it can be seen that high im pedance lines contain high L and low C - the desired quality for an inductor. Similarly, the model for low impedance line has high values of C and low L. If one solves the electromagnetic equations to find the field distributions in the vicinity of a microstrip, one finds very nearly a completely TEM (transverse electromagnetic) pattern. This means that there are only a few regions in which there is a component of electric or magnetic field in the direction of (as opposed to perpendicular to the direction of) wave propagation. This field pattern is commonly referred to as a Quasi TEM pattern. Since some of the electric energy that is stored in this conductor configuration is in the air, and some is in the dielectric, the effective dielectric constant for the waves on the transmission line will lie somewhere between that of the air and that of the dielectric. Typically, the effective dielectric constant will be 50-85% of the substrate dielectric constant, depending on the geometry of the microstrip. As an example, in (nominally) an air spaced microstrip, the velocity of waves would be c = 3 * 10^8 meters per second. We have to divide this figure by the square root of the effective dielectric constant to find the actual wave velocity for the real microstrip line. At 10 GHz the wavelength on that nominally air spaced microstrip is therefore 3 cm; however, on a substrate with relative dielectric constant of 10, the effective dielectric constant of the microstrip design may be 7, and the wavelength is 3/(sqrt{7}) = 1.13 cm. Thus, for example, the maximum

37 length for a microstrip "stub" to be used in stub impedance matching, which is no more than half a wavelength, will be only 5.6 mm when fabricated using this substrate. A set of detailed design formulae and algorithms for microstrip design is presented in T C Edwards, "Foundations for Microstrip Circuit Design", Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1981. This reference also has a "rough and ready" monogram for calculating the impedance of a microstrip line using the dielectric properties and the geometry in the picture above. The following analysis is developed from that source.

3.5.1 Microstrip parameters

The basic configuration of the microstrip is shown in the picture above. One of the most challenging problems associated with this configuration arises from the fact that the small strip is not immersed in a single dielectric. On one side there is the board dielectric, and on the top is usually air. The technique that has been developed to handle this challenge uses, as was mentioned above, the concept of effective relative dielectric constant, eff This value represents some intermediate value between the relative dielectric constant of the board material, eff, and that of air (assumed equal to 1) that can be used to compute microstrip parameters as though the strip were completely surrounded by material of that effective relative dielectric constant. One obvious advantage of the microstrip structure is the "open" line which makes it very easy to connect components. On the other hand, the configuration doesn't provide the "shielded" signal line advantage of the stripline. Another advantage is that microstrips can be packed together with fairly high density (multiple

38 channels) with only minimal "crosstalk" interference, and therefore lends itself well to RF and microwave IC design. Aside from the difficulty of calculating the value of eff , there is another important effect. It is clear that eff will depend on both W and h. Hence, the phase velocity along the microstrip will depend on these parameters. Assuming the relative permeability of all materials in the line design is well approximated by by: = 1, the phase velocity will be given

up =

c eff

Since the characteristic impedance (Zo) of the line will also depend on these parameters, every time we need to design a microstrip with a new characteristic impedance, we will be faced with the additional complication of having to deal with a change in phase velocity (or delay time) and consequently of the wavelength of waves on that microstrip. Note that this is not a problem with coaxial cable or stripline design. To get an idea of the range of eff, consider the cases of a very wide W and then a very narrow W. For a wide microstrip, nearly all of the electric field lines will be concentrated between the metal planes, similar to the case of a parallel plate capacitor that you studied in physics. Thus:

maximum eff = r

39 On the other extreme, for narrow W the electric field lines will be about equally divided between the air and the board dielectric so that: minimum eff = 1 (r + 1) 2 This gives you a range: 1 (r + 1) eff r 2 Several different equations have been developed for use in calculating characteristic impedance for microstrip design. Probably the most useful Zo = 60 ln 8 h + W W 4h eff -1/2 2 + 1 1 + r 1 + 12 h + 0.04 1 - W for W 1 where eff = r W h h 2 2 or 120 Zo = W eff + 1.393 + 0.667ln W + 1.444 h h -1/2 + 1 1 h r r where eff = + 1 + 12 for W 1 h W 2 2 are the following which are reported to be accurate to within about 1%: Notice that these are relatively straightforward equations for the calculation of characteristic impedance, given W, h, and eff . However, the more useful calculation involves determination of the W/h ratio, given required characteristic impedance. Here, then, is the design challenge since the equations are transcendental (don't have a closed form solution) for the W/h parameter. As you probably guessed, this is a job for MATLAB and its powerful equation solvers. Now, just to make things a bit more challenging, we'll introduce a further "correction" to the above equations which is a consequence of considering the finite thickness (t) of the microstrip. This correction is in the form of an "effective" microstrip width (We), which is used to replace W in those equations:

40
We = W + t 1 + ln 2h for W 1 t h 2 or We = W + t 1 + ln 4 W for W 1 t h 2

These corrections are further subject to the restrictions that both of these restrictions are usually easily satisfied in practice
t h and t < W 2

3.5.2 Some Considerations in the Choice of Microstrip Substrate Materials

Important qualities of the dielectric substrate for microstrip design include:

1. The microwave dielectric constant 2. The frequency dependence of this dielectric constant which gives rise to "material dispersion" in which the wave velocity is frequency-dependent 3. The surface finish and flatness 4. The dielectric loss tangent, or imaginary part of the dielectric constant, which sets the dielectric loss 5. The cost 6. The thermal expansion and conductivity 7. The dimensional stability with time 8. The surface adhesion properties for the conductor coatings 9. The manufacturability (ease of cutting, shaping, and drilling) 10. The porosity (for high vacuum applications we don't want a substrate which continually "outgasses" when pumped)

41 Types of substrate include plastics, sintered ceramics, glasses, and single crystal substrates (single crystals may have anisotropic dielectric constants; "anisotropic" means they are different along the different crystal directions with respect to the crystalline axes.)

3.5.2.1 Common substrate materials

Plastics are cheap, easily manufacturability, have good surface adhesion, but have poor microwave dielectric properties when compared with other choices. They have poor dimensional stability, large thermal expansion coefficients, and poor thermal conductivity. 1. Dielectric constant: 2.2 (fast substrate) or 10.4 (slow substrate) 2. Loss tangent 1/1000 (fast substrate) 3/1000 (slow substrate) 3. Surface roughness about 6 microns (electroplated) 4. Low thermal conductivity, 3/1000 watts per cm2 per degree Ceramics are rigid and hard. They are difficult to shape, cut, and drill. They come in various purity grades and prices, each having domains of application. dispersive. They have low microwave loss and are reasonably nonThey have excellent thermal properties, including good

dimensional stability and high thermal conductivity. They also have very high dielectric strength. They cost more than plastics. In principle, the size is not limited. 1. Dielectric constant 8-10 (depending on purity) so slow substrate 2. Loss tangent 1/10,000 to 1/1,000 depending on purity 3. Surface roughness at best 1/20 micron 4. High thermal conductivity, 0.3 watts per cm2 per degree K

42 Single crystal sapphire is used for demanding applications. It is very hard, needs orientation for the desired dielectric properties which are anisotropic, and is very expensive and can only be made in small sheets. It has a high dielectric constant and so is used for very compact circuits at high frequencies. It has low dielectric loss with excellent thermal properties and surface polish. 1. Dielectric constant 9.4 to 11.6 depending on crystal orientation (slow substrate) 2. Loss tangent 5/100,000 3. Surface roughness 1/100 micron 4. High thermal conductivity 0.4 watts per cm2 per degree K Single crystal Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) and Silicon (Si) are both used for monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs). Dealing with GaAs first we have: 1. Dielectric constant 13 (slow substrate) 2. Loss tangent 6/10,000 (high resistivity GaAs) 3. Surface roughness 1/40 micron 4. Thermal conductivity 0.3 watts per cm2 per degree K (high) GaAs is expensive and piezoelectric; acoustic modes can propagate in the substrate and can couple to the electromagnetic waves on the conductors. Now dealing with Silicon we have: 1. Dielectric constant 12 (slow substrate) 2. Loss tangent 5/1000 (high resistivity) 3. Surface roughness 1/40 micron 4. Thermal conductivity 0.9 watts per cm2 per degree K (high)

43

The dielectric strength of ceramics and of single crystals far exceeds the strength of plastics, and so the power handling abilities are correspondingly higher, and the breakdown of high Q filter structures correspondingly less of a problem. It is also a good idea to have a high dielectric constant substrate and a slow wave propagation velocity. This reduces the radiation loss from the circuits. However, at the higher frequencies the circuits get impossibly small, which restricts their power handling capability. For these applications, one often chooses fused quartz (dielectric constant 3.8).

3.6 Return Loss When the load is mismatched, not all of the available power from

the generator is delivered to the load. This loss is called return loss (RL) and is defined (in dB) as RL = 20log dB ) has a return loss of dB (no reflected So that a matched load line, ( power), whereas the total reflection ( incident power reflected). ) has a return loss of 0dB (all

44
3.7 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

When the load is mismatched, however, the presence of a reflected wave leads to standing waves where the amplitude of the voltage on the line is not constant.

It is seen that SWR is a real number such that SWR=1 implies a matched load.

, where

45

3.8 Free Space Path Loss

Figure 3.7 : Data Tranmission Path loss or path attenuation is the reduction in power density (attenuation) of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space. Path loss is a major component in the analysis and design of the link budget of a telecommunication system. This term commonly used in wireless communication and signal propagation. Path loss may be due to many effects, such as free space path loss, refraction, diffraction, reflection, aperture-medium coupling loss and absorption. Path loss is also influenced by terrain contours, environment, propagation medium, the distance between the transmitter and receiver, and the height and location of antennas.

CHAPTER 4

DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF POWER AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

4.1 Introduction

A design usually starts with a set of specification and selection of the proper transistor. Then a systematic solution, aided by graphical method, is developed to determine the transistor loading the source and load coefficients for particular stability and gain criteria. A complete of designing RF power amplifier is shown below: 1. Determine the gain and output value (output power of power amplifier) 2. 3. 4. Select the transistor (noise, gain and price) Measure the s-parameter of the transistor from datasheet Study the stability

47 5. Design the input and output matching network using

microstriplines 6. Build the power amplifier

4.1.1 Determine the gain and output value (output power of power amplifier)

Calculation of amplifier gain and output power:

48

4.1.2 Select the transistor (noise, gain and price)

FET FLL 351ME was selected as the power amplifier transistor because of its features. Its output power is 35.5dBm.This output power should be high enough to ensure the transmission of data in real time. The gain this transistor is 11.5dB. (For others features can be referred to the FLL 351ME datasheet in Appendix C). Besides that it is available in the market and the transistor is already unconditionally stable. Thus, it is much easier to design the power amplifier. The price is also reasonable as it cost only $7.85.

49
4.1.3 Measure the s-parameter of the transistor from datasheet

Table 4.1: A part of S-parameter for transistor FLL 351ME

4.1.4 Determining the Stability Factor K

From the datasheet transistor FET FLL 351ME (Appendix A), which contained the scattering parameter hat was imported into the working directory of Advanced Design System (ADS) software. An initial simulation of the transistor amplifier at 2.4GHz frequency operation shown in Figure 1 and the result in Figure 2.From calculation used mathematical equation of the stability factor K.

From the calculation, the transistor is unconditionally stable as K>1.

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Figure 4.1: Simulation of Transistor

51

Figure 4.2: Simulation Result of the Transistor

4.1.5 The gain and output value (output power of power amplifier)

Calculation of amplifier gain and output power:

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53
4.1.6 Computing input and output matching network

With the aid of smith chart (Appendix B and Appendix C) and restricted of the series and open circuit lossless element. Approximate transmission length of the element was obtained. The design of the input matching network using simultaneous conjugate match technique. Simultaneously gives the value required for a simultaneous conjugate match. and

54

4.1.6.1 Computing Input Matching Network

The design of input matching network using microstrip lines is illustrated in Appendix B, where the admittance value, is associated with

From circles, is

move towards the generator until reach an admittance unit . A length of series microstrip transmission line is obtained by moving from to (a point on the unit

circle impedance circle) in direction towards the generator. The length of the open circuited stub from point towards load until the is obtained by moving

is reached hence

55
4.1.6.1 Computing Output Matching Network

The design of output matching network using microstrip lines is illustrated in Appendix C, where the admittance value, is associated with

From circles, is

move towards the generator until reach an admittance unit . A length of series microstrip transmission line is obtained by moving from to (a point on the unit

circle impedance circle) in direction towards the generator. The length of the open circuited stub from point towards load until the is obtained by moving

is reached hence

56
4.2 Analyzing the Transistor with Input and Output Matching

After the length in wavelength unit of series microstrip transmission line and open circuited stub for input and output are obtained, the electrical length can be calculated as in the table below: Electrical length T MLIN(input) a MLOC(input) b l MLIN(output) e MLOC(output) 4 TERMINATE . Length() 0.231 0.498 0.212 0.443 0.125 Length(deg) 83.16 179.28 76.32 159.48 45 Length(mm) 15.5995 33.63 14.3164 29.9159 8.44127 Width(mm) 2.97038 2.97038 2.97038 2.97038 2.97038

2.Table 4.2: Electrical length Then TXLINE 2003-Microstrip was used to calculate the conversion from the length to the physical length in mm needed by real life microstrip components or MLIN elements in ADS software. And for the open circuited stub, MLOC elements of ADS software were used. With the substrate properties included, transmission lines characterizes impedance of above. and at 2.4GHz, the physical lengths are as in the table

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Figure 4.3: TXLINE 2003-Microstrip calculator

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4.3 One Stage Power Amplifier

Figure 4.4: The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (One Stage)

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4.4 Two Stages Power Amplifier

Figure 4.5: The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (Two Stages)

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4.5 The Amplifier Inclusion of DC Biasing Circuit

Figure 4.6: The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (With DC biasing)

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

5.1 Stability Factor, K

Figure 5.1: Simulation of Transistor

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Figure 5.2: Simulation Result of the Transistor

63
5.2 One Stage Power Amplifier

Figure 5.3: The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (One Stage)

64

Figure 5.4: Stability Factor K

Figure 5.5: Maximum available gain

65

Figure 5.6: Output power Clearly the design goals do not be met for the gain criterion with a single stage. The output power is not adequate the transmitter to transmit the data for 40km of distance. Therefore, a two-stage design was designed and implemented.

66
5.3 Two Stages Power Amplifier

Figure 5.7: The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (Two Stages)

67

Figure 5.8: Maximum Gain

Figure 5.9: Output power Figure 5.9 indicates that the desired output power is achieved to meet the goal.

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5.4 The Amplifier Inclusion of DC Biasing Circuit

Figure 5.10: The amplifier With Input and Output Matching Network (With DC biasing)

69

Figure 5.11: Voltage Standing Wave Ratio The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is considered to be as a good value because the best value of VSWR for microwave power amplifier should be less than 2.5.

70

Figure 5.12: Simulation Results The simulation results above indicate that a very good return loss (m2) is achieved, as the best value for return loss (RL) should be less than -20dB.The highest stability is at 2.4GHz shows that the power amplifier is really stable at this frequency. However, gain and stability are traditionally the tradeoffs in any microwave amplifier design. Also, the noise figure may be increased, as it depends on the DC resistance configured at the input for DC biasing.

71

Figure 5.13: Output Power

Figure 5.13 indicates that the desired output power is achieved to meet the goal and the value is higher than the power amplifier without DC biasing circuit.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

A two-stage RF PA was designed using FET FLL351 power stage at 2.4 GHz of frequency for wireless transmitter in telemedicine application was successfully designed since it almost meets all the specifications. A large-signal model has been developed and verified for the GaAs device. The desired output power which is 32.0282 dB is successfully achieved. The time spent in studying the design process of a microwave power amplifier served as a great experience and preparation for the future designing endeavors.

CHAPTER 7

RECOMMENDATION

The desired power amplifier was designed successfully. However it has only been proven theoretically and by simulation. Thus, it should be implemented into hardware in the future works to determine its efficiency. It is recommended to use AutoCAD software to convert the layout plot of the power amplifier circuit into layout. After that, the circuit should be etched on the RF4 board. It is hope that this system will be able to provide point-to-point and point-to-multi-point signal transmission through the air over a terrestrial microwave platform, rather than through copper or fiber cables. As a result, telemedicine systems do not require satellite feeds or local phone service and can provide a wireless broadband alternative to cable modem or DSL connections.

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