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DIET AND NUTRITION

FROM FISH OIL TO MICROALGAE OIL . . . A WIN-WIN SHIFT FOR HUMANS AND OUR HABITAT
David Cannon, MD
ish oil has been a vital source of essential nutrients in the human diet, and there is growing evidence of its benet in many of the bodys organ systems. An expanding human population is placing an increasing demand on an already severely depleted supply of sh; therefore, alternative sources of these essential nutrients and creation of sustainable shing practices are urgently needed to ensure a healthy balance into our future. Vitamin F was a term used in the early 1900s for omega-3 fatty acids, the polyunsaturated fatty acids that humans cannot synthesize and must be consumed in the diet. Fish oils were considered necessary for a balanced diet even though the scientic rationale behind this practice had not been dened. We now know that consumption of both omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids is essential for human health, and although the exact ratio is still debated, it is now believed that the ideal human diet should have approximately three parts omega-6 to one part omega-3 essential fatty acids for optimum balance.1 Linoleic acid is the main omega-6 precursor in the diet for the production of arachidonic acid (AA), the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that promotes inammatory processes in the body. Omega-6 essential fatty acids are found in meats, poultry, nuts, and vegetable oils (cottonseed, sunower, safower, and corn), and they initiate inammatory processes essential for ghting infection, repairing wounds, and aiding various metabolic functions such as the production of thyroid hormone. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is the essential omega-3 fatty acids found in canola oil, walnuts, axseed, and leafy plants; it is a source of energy calories for humans and is the precursor for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids that provide the anti-inammatory balance to the omega-6s in the body. Fish, sh oils, and other seafoods are excellent sources of preformed EPA and DHA, the bioactive omega-3s in the human diet. Both omega-6 and omega-3 long chain fatty acids are important structural components of cell membranes and receptor sites, especially in the brain and nervous system; DHA is an absolutely essential nutrient for the developing fetal brain and is also crucial for optimal retinal function in infants.2 At the other end of the life continuum, controlled trials of sh oil compared with a placebo of olive oil have shown improvement in mood parameters and cognitive performance in healthy adults,3 and several studies have shown that a higher intake of sh (and specically DHA) reduced the development of Alzheimers disease.4 Omega-3s play a crucial role in the circulatory system, with the sufcient intake necessary for exibility and strength of arterial walls. An overabundance of omega-6 fatty acids with a deciency of omega-3 fatty acids is believed to contribute to hardening of arterial walls, in addition to creating tendencies toward inammation in joints and inammatory processes in the nervous system and gastrointestinal organs. With the gradual evolution of the American diet favoring fast convenient foods, the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 essential fatty acids is now estimated to be roughly 10:1 or more, with consequences of increased inammatory diseases, accelerated aging of tissues and organs, and increased incidence of some cancers.5 Many authorities suggest that correcting the imbalance requires a signicant reduction in omega-6 intake (vegetable oils, animal fats, dairy products), but this is not enough because it merely reduces the imbalance from 20:1 down to perhaps 8:1 or 6:1. It is also necessary to add more omega-3 essential fatty acids to the diet so that the 3:1 omega-6 to omega-3 ratio can be achieved. Other experts question the relative impact of lowering omega-6 intake, since experimental data has not always shown this to reduce cardiac events. On the contrary, prospective studies have shown that a higher intake of omega-6 fatty acids in the form of linoleic acid consumption reduced cardiac events.6 The difculties interpreting the signicance of the omega-6/omega-3 ratio are reviewed by Harris7 and relate to the unobvious complexities involved in this seemingly simple ratio. There are several different omega-6s with different carbon chain lengths and therefore differing metabolic properties included within the omega-6 category, and the same applies to omega-3 fatty acids with varying carbon chain lengths. Additionally, the various fatty acids within each broad category are interconverted by cellular metabolism based on multiple factors and the bodys needs; ALA (the plant source omega-3 precursor) can be upgraded by adding two extra carbons to make EPA, and then adding two more carbons to EPA makes DHA. However, both omega-6 and omega-3 essential fatty acids must compete for processing in the cell because they both go through the same enzyme pathway (delta-6 desaturase) for these conversions (see Figure 1). In other words, this ratio is quite dynamic in both the numerator and denominator and therefore not quite as simplistic as it may seem. Although the evidence is ambiguous about the effects of reducing omega-6s in the diet, there is consistent and reproducible evidence that increasing the omega-3 intake with dietary EPA and DHA unequivocally reduces cardiovascular disease8 and improves neurological function. This is most efciently done by consuming cold water sh or sh oil supplements, since these sources directly supply the ingredients DHA and EPA, the active omega-3 fatty acids that are utilized in cellular reactions and used as structural com-

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Figure 1. High consumption of LA in the average American diet inhibits metabolism of ALA to EPA and DHA, making dietary sources of preformed longer-chain omega 3 EFAs essential for a healthy omega 6/omega 3 balance.

ponents of cell membranes. Plant sources of omega-3s usually supply ALA, which must be metabolized in the body to the bioactive forms EPA and DHA. This upgrade is very inefcient because of our overall diet, with recent studies showing very little conversion to EPA (less than 5%-10%) and virtually none (2%-5%) to DHA,9 so that plant sources of omega-3 essential fatty acids generally do not meet the bodys needs. Vegetarians have frequently been found to have signicant deciencies in red blood cell membrane content and brain cell membrane decits of DHA felt to be related to the difculty of upgrading vegetarian sources of ALA to DHA.10 The consequences of this decit and advantages of increased consumption of longer chain polyunsaturated fatty acids have been documented in many organ systems. A recently published meta-analysis of prospective studies using omega-3 supplements of sh oils has shown a 25% to 45% reduction of heart attack or stroke in patients consuming 500 to 1000 mg of omega-3 fatty acids daily.11 In asthma studies in children, omega-3 fatty acids compete with the omega-6 AA and prevent production of inammatory leukotrienes, reducing asthma symptoms and increasing responses to acetylcholine.12 A Swedish prospective 30-year study showed that nonsh eaters had a twofold to three-

fold higher incidence of prostate cancer compared with men who ate at least moderate amounts of sh.13 Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimers disease, other dementias, and memory loss of aging appear to correlate with a low level of DHA consumption,14 and there are ongoing prospective studies evaluating the benets of DHA supplementation in dementia. Depression15 and attention-decit disorders have been improved by DHA and EPA supplements.16 Fairly high-dose supplements of omega-3 fatty acids in rheumatoid arthritis patients have shown inhibition of inammatory cytokine production through the omega-3 effects on inammatory pathways.17 Increased consumption of sh and sh oil supplements is supported by these and other studies, and this advice is routinely given by cardiologists to prevent heart disease and arrhythmias, by neurologists to improve memory and prevent neurological diseases, and by rheumatologists to prevent arthritis. Primary care physicians are using this advice to help prevent diseases and promote wellness in an increasingly aging population with more chronic illness, in part related to a generally proinammatory diet and lifestyle. However, these recommendations are putting an ever increasing worldwide demand on the marketplace for sh and sh oil products,

and there are some very serious concerns about being able to supply these demands into even the near future. Our current practice of relying on sh as our primary source of omega-3 fatty acids has two major problems: safety/toxicity and sustainability. Our oceans and waterways have become more contaminated with human and industrial waste in recent times, so that mercury and polychlorinated biphenyl levels in sh are often unacceptable for certain consumers,18 especially children and pregnant women. The developing nervous system of the fetus is very susceptible to even low levels of these contaminants, so that many sh species are to be avoided in these subsets of the population.19 This is especially precarious because DHA is extremely important to the developing nervous system of the fetus in the third trimester, and the easiest-toobtain sources of DHA (sh) may not be safe due to toxic contaminants. The larger predatory sh such as swordsh and marlin, in their position at the top of the marine food chain, are the most contaminated with these toxins, as can be tuna and salmon, which are more commonly relied upon to supply omega-3s to the human diet.20 Extracting sh oil from the sh helps reduce toxin exposure since extracting the oil removes much of the contamination, but there is still concern that ingestion of even small amounts of mercury over long periods of supplementation could lead to signicant accumulation in the body and ultimately to toxicity. Although safety and toxicity are serious concerns, they are dwarfed in comparison to the sustainability issues. The industrialization of the shing industry worldwide has led to an alarming decline in the sh populations in many parts of the world due to overshing, and many species have been shed almost to extinction. A seminal article written by several of the worlds leading marine scientists, published in Science in November 2006, has ominous implications for not only sh but for our oceans and planetary balance.21 Worm et al21 are examining the impact of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystems and coastal communities. By using sophisticated research methods that pool large numbers of regional research projects and decades of global shery data, they were able to derive very accurate assessments of the current status of ocean habitats as well as

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prediction of what may occur in our oceans unless signicant changes in human behaviors are enacted. Many species have been overshed in certain locations with disastrous consequences to humans. Overshing the cod species in Newfoundland led to the collapse of that industry in 1992, resulting in the loss of 40,000 jobs (about 10,000 shermen), and the cod species has not been able to recover in that location even to this day.22 The aggregate worlds shing eets are estimated to be 2.5 times greater than what our oceans can sustainably support,23 so we are on course to eliminate the worlds supply of sh. Unless major changes are enacted now, the timetable predicted in the Science article is for the global collapse of all taxa currently shed by the mid-21st centuryto 100% in the year 2048. Fish species are not the only casualties in this trend. Fish losses create biodiversity loss that weakens coastal ecosystems and directly inuences human lives. Nursery habitats such as wetlands and sea grass beds can be damaged or destroyed, and ltering and detoxication services provided by suspension feeders can be lost. This contributes to declining water quality, harmful algal blooms, increasing coastal ooding through destruction of wetland natural barriers, and declining ability of regional ecosystems to support humans. Fish, our currently most complete and reliable dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids, does not appear to be a sustainable option. When factoring in the steady increase in the worlds population, and thus the increased competition for sh and sh oils, the outlook appears even worse for both sh and humans. Part of a sustainable solution to this impasse stems from the fact that sh themselves do not make omega-3 fatty acids but rather consume them, primarily from cold water algae in their diet.24 These microalgae of varying species synthesize the essential fatty acids and therefore are a vegetarian source even lower on the food chain for omega-3 oils. Some algae species such as blue-green algae have been found to contain neurotoxins that may contribute to neurodegenerative diseases in humans,25 so the choice of suitable algae species requires careful scrutiny. Differing species also produce differing amounts and percentages of DHA and EPA, so that species selection can optimize desirable blends of these components for supplementation.26

These alternative oils have been tested in humans and are now available on a relatively small scale for human use. There is currently data in the scientic literature concerning the Schizochytrium microalgae strain that produces a DHA-rich oil with small amounts of EPA and almost no AA, a particularly benecial mix. Schizochytrium is not related to known toxic algal forms, and members of this group (thraustochytrid of the kingdom Chromista) are present along coastal areas as part of the food chain for shellsh. Therefore, their components have been safely consumed by humans over long periods of time. These DHA-rich oils have shown no allergic reactions in human usage, and there have been no contaminants of mercury or polychlorinated biphenyls in contrast to what can be found in sh oil supplements. Efcacy in clinical trials of these microalgae oils has been similar to results in studies of sh-derived oils. When DHA-rich Schizochytrium oil and sh oil were used in cell viability and proliferation tests with human colon adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cells, tests showed no differences between algal and sh oil, indicating safety and potency.27 So it appears that this may be a sustainable alternative to the continued exploitation of sh. Completed clinical trials have been encouraging, especially in vegetarian populations, which have repeatedly been found to have deciencies in omega-3 long chain fatty acids due to almost no intake of these substances in the vegetarian diet. A double-blind study of DHA-rich microalgal oil versus placebo vegetable oil showed a threefold increase in DHA content of both serum and platelets. In addition, it provided increases of about 12% EPA (through retroconversion of DHA to EPA) and lowered cholesterol ratios, both the total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio and the LDL-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio. This study also showed a decrease in AA levels in serum and platelets and a decrease in triglyceride levels of DHA-rich, oiltreated subjects, with all of these changes being recognized as favorably reducing the risk of developing heart disease.28 Another double-blind placebo controlled trial using a lower dose of DHA-rich oil from a different species (Ulkenia sp) showed decreased triglyceride values, and also lowered TG/HDL ratios, but did not change LDL/HDL ratio or total cholesterol/

HDL-cholesterol ratio. These results showing improvement in certain risk factors but not in others require further investigation, but there were no unwanted physiologic effects, safety concerns, allergic reactions, or adverse hemostatic factors observed in the treated group.29 Currently, there are other clinical trials of microalgal oils for cardiovascular disease, as well as trials for Alzheimers disease prevention and treatment, that are ongoing.30 The accumulating evidence from these studies suggests that microalgae oils are effective and probably safer than sh oils in meeting human needs for the bioactive long chain omega-3s. Although this does not supply all the nutritional value found in sh (ie, high-quality protein plus antioxidant variety), it does provide a sustainable source of the critically important omega-3 long chain fatty acids. These products, through controlled cultivation and harvesting technologies, will avoid the mercury and pollutant problems of sh oils and will be safer for children and pregnant women. They also will be safer for adults who may now be at risk for exposure to small amounts of toxins over long periods, and they provide the DHA for vegetarians who have shown inability to metabolize ALA and EPA to DHA in necessary amounts. Another subgroup to benet from this option will be those patients with signicant sh and seafood allergies who may be susceptible to harmful reactions from exposure to even slight amounts of sh antigenic material in sh oil distillates. Because our current practices of obtaining omega-3 oils from sh and sh oil products are not sustainable, we need strategies to transition toward alternatives such as the microalgae oils. This should include funding for further research to nd the best algae oils or combinations of algal oils to supply the best balance of EPA and DHA for human use. There are currently microalgae products available, such as lifes DHA by Martek, so that pregnant women and vegetarians already have a suitable alternative to sh oil. There is a European product called V-Pure, which is a microalgae oil containing both DHA and a small amount of EPA, and it is now available in the United States.31 Although these products may currently be more expensive (mg per mg) than sh oils, with increasing market demand the cost would

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likely become more competitive. A strategy to consider now for increasing microalgae oil usage (demand) could be for adults to consume daily a small amount of microalgae oil with a slightly lower intake of their current sh oil supplements. For example, to meet the American Heart Association goal (for primary prevention) of 500 mg of EPA and DHA combined for an adult without known heart disease,32 one could consume one microalgae capsule and one standard sh oil capsule and achieve the recommended intake. Patients with known heart disease (secondary prevention) are instructed to take 1000 mg daily of DHA and EPA combined, so that one or two capsules of microalgae oil could be substituted for sh oil to meet the 1000-mg goal. This change would reduce toxin exposure over time and could gradually shift to a higher reliance on microalgae oils as their availability increases and cost decreases. It is advisable for patients, especially those on blood thinners, to discuss omega-3 supplementation with their physician. Until microalgae oils are more widely in use, we will need to learn which sh oils are produced by companies who employ sustainable shing practices and who take extra precautions like molecular distillation to minimize mercury and other toxins in their products, such as Nordic Naturals from Norway.33 We should applaud (and encourage on a larger scale) the creation of eco-labeling of sh and sh oil products as has been done by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC).34 This organization has been eco-certifying sh for some time but recently awarded their certication MSC eco-label to a sh oil product, Sockeye Salmon Oil Dietary Supplement by Vital Choice Seafood, since it met their strict standards of being a high-quality product produced with minimal negative impact on the environment.34 These cleaner products are often competitively priced and are produced without damage to marine ecosystems, a standard we can help to ensure by voting with our purchases! The Environmental Defense Fund produces a compact Pocket Seafood Selector that has information on seafood choices with regard to their relative omega-3 content (heart healthiness) and their potential for contamination (www.edf.org). Becoming informed about sustainable shing practices and ocean ecosystem is-

sues is now a possibility for the average person through Web sites such as www.marinebio. org, www.lighthouse-foundation.org, and www.mbari.org, and being more proactive in marine conservation issues can make a difference for our future. The evidence is quite clear that omega-3 fatty acids (in particular the long chain omega-3s EPA and DHA) are vital to human health, and our current source of these essential nutrients is not sustainable. Consumption of the current American diet does not permit sufcient DHA to be synthesized. We must move quickly to achieve a supply of safe products that protect the balance of our marine ecosystems, and we are going to need new technologies that can provide safe, affordable alternative sources of these oils. This will further support the health and balance of humans and their habitat, because a sustainable future for either will require careful nurturing of both!

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9. Davis BC, Kris-Etherton PM. Achieving optimal essential fatty acid status in vegetarians: current knowledge and practical implications. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78 (suppl):640S-646S. 10. Kornsteiner M, Singer I, Elmadfa I. Very low n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status in Austrian vegetarians and vegans. Ann Nutr Metab. 2008;52:37-47. 11. Lee JH, OKeefe JH, Lavie CJ, Marchioli R, Harris WS. Omega-3 fatty acids for cardioprotection. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008;83:324-332. 12. Nagakura T, Matsuda S, Shichijyo K, Sugimoto H, Hata K. Dietary supplementation with sh oil rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with bronchial asthma. Eur Respir J. 2000;16:861-865. 13. Terry P, Lichtenstein P, Feychting M, Ahlbom A, Wolk A. Fatty sh consumption and risk of prostate cancer. Lancet. 2001;357: 1764-1766. 14. Conquer JA, Tierney MC, Zecevic J, Bettger WJ, Fisher RH. Fatty acid analysis of blood plasma of patients with Alzheimers disease, other types of dementia, and cognitive impairment. Lipids. 2000;35:13051312. 15. Hibbeln JR, Salem N. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: when cholesterol does not satisfy. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;62:1-9. 16. Stevens LJ, Zentall SS, Deck JL, Abate ML, Watkins BA, Lipp SR, Burgess JR. Essential fatty acid metabolism in boys with attention-decit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;62:761-768. 17. James MJ, Gibson RA, Cleland LG. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inammatory mediator production. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71 (1 suppl):343S-348S. 18. Yin X, Sun L, Zhu R, Liu X, Ruan D, Wang Y. Mercury-selenium association in Antarctic seal hairs and animal excrements over the past 1500 years. Env Tox Chem. 2007; 26:381-386. 19. Budtz-Jorgensen E, Grandjean P, Weihe P. Separation of risks and benets of seafood intake. Environ Health Perspect. 2007;115:323327. 20. Debruyn AM, Trudel M, Eyding N, Harding J, McNally H, Mountain R, Orr C, Urban D, Verenitch S, Mazumder A. Ecosystemic effects of salmon farming increase mercury contamination in wild sh. Environ Sci Technol. 2006;40:3489-3493. 21. Worm B, Barbier EB, Beaumont N, Duffy JE, Folke C, Halpern BS, Jackson JBC, Lotze HK, Micheli F, Palumbi SR, Sala E, Selkoe KA, Stachowicz JJ, Watson R. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science. 2006;314:787-790. 22. Myers RA, Hutchings JA, Barrowman NJ. Why do sh stocks collapse? The example

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lected risk factors for heart disease in vegetarian subjects. J Nutr. 1996;126:30323039. Geppert J, Kraft V, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B. Docosahexaenoic Acid supplememtation in vegetarians effectively increases omega-3 index: a randomized trial. Lipids. 2005;40:807-814. Memory Improvement with Docosahexaenoic Acid Study (MIDAS). Available at: http:// www.martek.com/Healthcare-Professionals/ Clinical-Research/Marteks-Clinical-Trials. aspx. Accessed March 30, 2009. Why V-Pure? Available at: http://www.v-pure. com. Accessed March 30, 2009. Albert CM. Dietary n-3 fatty acid intake and risk of sudden death and coronary artery disease. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2007;9:71-77. Why Nordic Naturals? Nordic Naturals Web site. Available at: http://www.nordic naturals.com/en/About_Nordic_Naturals/ Why_Nordic_Naturals/86/. Accessed March 30, 2009.

34. The MSC eco-label-its not just for the seafood case anymore! Marine Stewardship Council Web site. July 15, 2004. Available at: http://www.msc.org/newsroom/press_ releases/archive-2004/the-msc-eco-label-itsnot-just-for-the-seafood/?searchterm sh% 200il%20supplements. Accessed March 30, 2009.

David Cannon, MD, is a board certied general internist practicing primary care internal medicine with Medical Associates of Central Virginia, Lynchburg, Virginia. He completed the Fellowship in Integrative Medicine at the University of Arizona Center for Integrative Medicine in 2005 and has been concentrating more of his practice on preventive nutrition since completing his fellowship. He is evolving his care to reect up-to-date medical expertise coupled with a deeper commitment to environmental balance and sustainability.

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