25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining

Advanced Prediction Methods for Roadway Behaviour by Combining Numerical Simulation, Physical Modelling and In-Situ Monitoring
Andreas Hucke, Senior Geologist Axel Studeny, Geotechnical Engineer Ulrich Ruppel, Senior Mining Engineer Deutsche Montan Technologie GmbH, Rock Mechanics Essen, Germany Holger Witthaus, Certificated Expert in Geomechanics and Support-Systems Head of Competence Center for Roadway Support Deutsche Steinkohle AG Herne, Germany

ABSTRACT For the roadway design in the German hard coal mining industry, an advanced combined planning system has been applied during the past 20 years. The German mining industry is working with single entry roadways system. After first longwall passage the roadways will be stabilised with side wall building material packages. Later this roadway will be used again for the second retreating longwall. The intention of the implementation of several different design methods for the planning of the roadways is to enhance the reliability of the results. On one hand the planning system uses numerical simulation and physical modelling in addition to analytical and empirical methods. On the other hand in-situ monitoring and analysis during the roadway development will be used to verify and calibrate the numerical and physical models. Especially before the implementation of new support elements in underground, this system is suitable and reasonable because the new support elements will be tested in the physical and numerical simulation prior to cost intensive underground tests. The interaction between the numerical and physical modelling in comparison with underground monitoring and analysis during development and the later use of roadways will be shown with some examples. The first example shows a rock bolted rectangular roadway which will be mined at both sides of the roadway. Different support and roadway building material package systems are investigated under various stress conditions. The results are utilised to optimise the roadway support and the roadway side package systems. The influence of different points in time of the installation of several support elements in a combined arch and bolted roadway is shown as another example. Two different types of support systems are compared within the physical models. These models are used as a base for ongoing numerical analysis and simulation to find out the ideal point of time to assemble the different support elements. The last example handles the influence of slickensides in the roof of arch shaped roadway on their stability. Different slickenside positions and densities are investigated and classified.

INTRODUCTION The history of German hard coal mining goes back many centuries into the past. The first exploitation near the surface was mentioned in documents of the year 1300 after Christ. Since the exploitation went deeper and deeper. In the 16th century, adits were developed. From the beginning of the 19th century hard coal has been developed by shafts in underground mining (Figure 1). Today, the deepest extractions are in the area of about 1,700 m (5,600 ft). The extraction of coal in several seam levels (multiple seam mining) with different interburden thicknesses is typical for German hard coal mining. The result is a high recovery of the reserves. The large depth and high recovery lead to high rock stresses in the area where mining is being conducted.

Figure 1. History of German hard coal mining from surface mining to deep mining (at a depth of 1,700 m) The seam bearing layers of the Upper Carbon are composed of hard coal, sandy mudstone, siltstone and sandstone. Figure 2 shows a typical sequence from the Ruhr Carbon. Here, it is shown that the waste rock of the seams can be composed differently. Depending on the lithology and the depth, the waste rocks have strength between 20 and 200 MPa. In the roof and floor of the seam, weak siltstones or sandy mudstones occur often with strength of 45 MPa on average. Due to the folding beginning with the Upper Carbon the rock mass is highly tectonically stressed. Today, this

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becomes visible by a large number of faults, joints and slickensides. Through underground observations, rock stress analysis and a systematic rock evaluation, a systematic relationship between the rock stress and the roadway convergence could be determined empirically for the German hard coal mining. Figure 3 shows the relationship between the stress and convergence after roadway development with yielding arch support for a waste rock strength of 45 MPa. The roadway has only minor deformations up to a stressstrength ratio of 3 (this corresponds to a depth of 800 m). If this value is exceeded, the convergence of the roadway increases significantly.

P H=2 - 3.5 X P V
260 m 1000 m pH = 13 MPa pV = 6,5 MPa p H = 2 x pV

Figure 2. Typical lithological strata sequence in German hard coal bearing carbon CONDITIONS OF CURRENT MINING Reserves For the geological and geomechanical conditions of German hard coal mining the following features of parameters exist: High primary stresses. Additional stress by multiple seam mining. Partially low strength of the rock mass. Large number of separation planes.
Stress-strength ratio low
50

pH = 25 MPa pV = 25 MPa pH = 1 x pV

Figure 4. Rock stress in Germany and Australia The parameter stress-strength ratio is useful for comparing different reserve conditions. Figure 4 shows a comparison between the primary stress situation of a typical German and a typical Australian mining situation. Although in Australian mines a higher ratio of horizontal to vertical stress occurs, the absolute values are clearly below the stresses in German hard coal mines. By comparing the rock stresses (Table 1), a larger stress occurs in German hard coal mines, compared to those, in particular, in Australia and, the USA. Table 1 Comparison of vertical and horizontal stress-strength ratio Stressstrength ratio Vertical pV/D Horizontal pH/D Germany 25/45 3,7 25/45 3,7 = = UK 15/45 = 2,2 22,5/45 = 3,4 Australia 6,5/40 = 1 13/40 = 2,1 USA 9/40 = 1,4 18/40 = 2,8

mean
5 scaling, brittle

high heavy stressed/ squeezed

stable heading convergence [%]

40

30 3

20 2

10

D = 45 MPa
1200 30 4,5 1600 40 6 2000 m 50 Mpa 7,5 p/D

Depth 0 Vertical rock stress 0 Rock stress 0

400 10 1,5

800 20 3

Figure 3. Convergence verse stress-strength-ratio The rock stress is influenced by the ratio of stress to rock strength. The resulting coefficient concerning the stress-strength ratio is defined by the quotient of the stress p in MPa and the square root of the uniaxial compressive strength of the waste rock.

Due to larger depths and additional mining-induced stresses, the stress-strength ratio in German hard coal mining is nowadays often higher than the values stated in Table 1. This results in high roadway deformations which have to be controlled by highcapacity support systems.

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Roadway Usage Additional parameters influencing the roadway behaviour and the requirements for the support systems are: Roadway orientation and usage. Roadway cross section and size. Yielding arch support with concrete backfill in archshaped roadways. Combined support i.e. bolt and arch support with concrete backfill in archshaped roadways.

Even here there are obvious differences between the German and the international hard coal mining. The complex multiple seam mining in large depths in Germany requires the repeated use of roadways after the first passage of the face. Partially the roadways have to be prepared for a second use. The reasons are: High rock temperature and gas content of the seams requires ventilation behind the face. Obligatory prevention of stable not mined pillars because additional stress as a result of multiple seam mining leads to higher rock stresses. Additionally, an irregular subsidence leads to higher mining damages on the surface. Figure 5 shows the different stages of a double-used roadway.

Figure 6 shows the support systems used in hard coal mining depending on the stress-strength ratio and use of roadways. It is obvious that a major part of roadways has to be kept in use after first face passage (OA, TR). It is also obvious that these roadways are in the area of medium or high stress-strength ratio most of the time. Therefore, the support systems used have to be at a high standard. For this reason, combined support systems with roof bolting and backfilled yielding arch support or standing support are often used. According to the roadway deformation, further safety measures such as installation of additional roof bolts may be necessary.

Type of use

Stress-strength-ratio
A 1
< 3.0 low

Fr > 4.5 high

< 4.5 medium

D Bolt support 2 OR 3 OA
BF

After development

Intersection with 1st face

Behind the 1st face

Intersection with 2nd face

Combined support

Figure 5. Different stages of roadway usage In German mining, roadways have normally an arch-shaped or a rectangular cross section. Due to coal seam thickness an overcut or undercut is required. Technical requirements demand an opening width at the face of at least 5 to 5.50 m. This results in roadway widths for arch-shaped roadways of 7.5 m after development. Compared to these details, the U.S. mining system uses rectangular roof bolted roadways of approx. 4.5 to 6 m wide, which are mostly developed in-seam with stable or yielding pillars by utilising a 2 to 4 roadway system. The roadways are only used up to the first passage of a face. Large additional mining-induced stresses by multiple seam mining and subsidence of roof strata behind the face are not normally present in U.S. mining system. Support Systems The factors stated above lead to a high load of roadways in German hard coal mining. This results in high roadway deformations. Due to concerns over the safety of equipment and ventilation it is necessary to limit these deformations. Therefore DSK uses different support systems today: Roof bolting in rectangular roadways. Roof bolting in archshaped roadways.

TR

4
BF BF

Figure 6. Support systems used in hard coal mining depending on the stress-strength ratio and the use of roadways. BF = with backfilling; D = Development; OR = One-sided retreat; OA = One-sided advance; TR = Two-sided retreat working Compared to this fact, roadways of the U.S. mining system are normally in the area of minor or medium rock stress and are not used after first face passage. Therefore, only roof bolting is often sufficient for roadway control.

ROADWAY PLANNING Due to the conditions for German hard coal mining described above, it is necessary to follow a strict roadway planning system. A standard planning procedure has been used since 2004 in DSK.

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Geological and tectonical core analysis Geomechanical test

Model techniques Physical

.
Mine layout

Rock Classification

Dimensioning of the support

Numerical stress forecast Numerical Support and material testing Empirical equation
K= -32+11*p/

Figure 7. Schematic representation of applied methods for supports design in German hard coal mining Special tools are used for the support dimensioning. These tools allow a technical planning, regarding the available information and the known rock mechanics process. Planning in terms of rock mechanics begins long time before roadway development and depends on exterior influences and requirements of mining operation, rock management as well as ventilation technology and air conditioning. Special planning tools have proved to be useful concerning the solution for the planned tasks. These tools are described in the following. Basically, there is a difference between methods based on analysis of underground measurements (empirical) or numerical simulations and physical models as a method to determine the roadway and support behaviour during development and use of a roadway. Concerning open questions and safety of assumptions concerning planning, measurement methods are used which allow precision of rock mechanic planning by means of an iterative check. New geological and geomechanical knowledge during roadway development are included in this planning. The technology of measurement is highly relevant with regard to these facts. Measurements can detect critical states by measuring deformations. A control of important planning parameters is possible. Figure 7 shows the applied methods schematically. In the following, the numerical and the physical modelling as a possible part of the planning process will be described. Numeric and physical models are used for planning when evaluating new situations (e.g., larger depths, double roadway systems), new support systems or to analyse the risks by variations of different rock mechanic parameters. The combination of these modelling techniques is to calibrate numerical models by use of physical models. These calibrated models are used for additional variation calculations. Vice versa numeric simulations provide boundary parameters for physical models. By means of underground measurements reliable models can be created, providing important information for the roadway planning process, in particular, apart from standard planning. In the following both model techniques are described. After that some examples will follow. Numerical Modelling DMT uses mainly the software FLAC provided by ITASCA. FLAC calculates iteratively the mechanical interaction between stresses and deformations with the result of a stable or unstable final state. The algorithm for calculations is as follows: After creating a model, grid generation and implementation of the geomechanical parameters, the model is exposed to a stress situation leading to deformations in the model and ends depending on the situation - in a state of equilibrium or does not lead to a reduction of movements and, therefore, to a stable final state. By including several material laws concerning rock mass, separation plane and support modelling, the program is suitable for simulating in-situ situations with large deformations. This fact has been proved by successful roadway planning. FLAC is used 2- or 3-dimensionally, depending on the underground situation. The 2-dimension model is especially for roadway analysis. For analysis of intersections, e.g., face-toroadway transition, a 3-dimensional model is used.

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Through many years of experience and calibration, modules for simulation of different states of roadway use are developed by DMT. These modules allow a simulation of these states very close to reality. They include: Calibrated rock mechanics parameters for typical strata of German coal seams. Calibrated rock mechanics parameters for modelling different types of separation planes (e. g. slickenside, polished slickenside). Simulation of different support elements, e.g. bolts, yielding arch support, roadside packages and their connection to the rock. Different states of use. systems concerning rock mechanics and support behaviour. These test rigs are as follows: 3-dimensional test rig Roadway test rig (Figure 9) Face test rig Part system test rig

Figure 8. Shows a 2- and a 3dimensional model with different geomechanical and support components.

Figure 9. Physical modelling: roadway test rig

Numerical FD-Modell: FLAC3D Numerical FD-Modell: FLAC2D

Figure 8. Numerical Modelling: 3D- and 2D-Model with different geomechanical and support components The results of numerical calculations are such as roadway deformations, fractured zones in the rock, support load and stress distributions. The advantages of numerical modelling are: Investigation of complex geotechnical systems is possible. Realisation of variation calculation with relative low expenditure. Calculation of small sized and large sized stress redistributions. Detail analysis (e.g. observation of the bolt load during the calculation).

The theory of similarity is the basis of physical modelling. This means that all parameters being relevant for a test have been reduced to a prescribed scale (Figure 10). Equivalent material has to be found with the scaled parameters (e.g. strength, elastic). This material will then be used in the model. Nowadays roadway test rig and part system test rig are used primarily. Similar to numerical modelling, complex geotechnical systems including the rock mass and the support elements are reproduced in the roadway test rig (roadway during different stages of usage, cross section in Figure 5). The load is applied by props to simulate different stress situations. The results are deformation and failure processes at the support, fracture processes in the rock, and resulting roadway deformations.

Replication of bolts Lagging reinforcement Lagging

Physical Modelling Physical modelling is a classical instrument of rock mechanical and support analysis for planning in German hard coal mining. For several decades, model tests have been carried out in German hard coal mining. In the first model tests, special photoelastic materials have been exposed in polarised light and electrical analogue models for the simulation of stress distributions. Due to these exposed materials the realistic process of fracturing could not be simulated. After development of physical models, constructed layer by layer and made of a material corresponding to the in-situ dimensions it became possible to simulate realistic fractures. Several test rigs for physical modelling have been developed at DMT during the last decades to analyse complete or parts of the

Bolts

Figure 10. Physical modelling: scaled support elements In the part system test rig, small-scaled models are reproduced representing parts of the roadway (e.g. roof of a roadway), enabling

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detailed analysis to be carried out. The results are primarily the detection of fracture zones. The advantages of physical modelling are: Clearness. Realistic failure structures. Every state of roadway usage can be simulated. Stopping of the test and changing of the conditions is possible at any time. Immediate damage analysis, visible damages can be interpreted. Dissection of the model. EXAMPLES Three different actual case examples are presented in the following. They provide a survey of the different fields of application of numerical and physical modelling. The first example is about planning a rectangular roadway; one with a new support system and the other hand with a new roadside pack system. The second example treats the influence of difference in building a combined support system with roof bolts and backfilled yielding arch support. The third example investigates the effect of slickensides parallel to the layers in the roof of an arch-shaped roadway. First Example: double usage of a rectangular roadway. In a roadway supported only by roof bolting, it had to be tested if failures in the roof are controllable for every stage of usage of the roadway by the newly developed support systems. Figure 11 shows the roadway after development. A fracture can be clearly seen on the side walls. The coal moves some distance into the roadway. If there is additional stress in front of the face, roof buckling occurs near the left side wall. This could be observed in-situ later on in parts of the roadway (Figure 12).
Left sidewall Right sidewall

Figure 12. Influence of slickensides in the roof on the roadway behaviour - in-situ, physical model and numerical model Secondly, the physical and numeric modelling helped to develop a new system of roadside package. The rock mechanics suitability of this system was investigated before developing the hardware. This new method was a roadside package constructed by textile coated concrete pillars (Figure 13). Tests proved that this method is suitable for practical application, which confirmed the results of the modelling.

Figure 11. Roadway after development. black arrows: fractures; white arrows: movement on slickenside By means of numerical models different geological conditions such as strength of the roof or weakening zones in the roof have been varied to analyse the possible causes for the buckled roof. This is helpful to prepare measures for changing geological situations. In this case, it became clear that slickensides in the roof cause such a folding in particular (Figure 12). The used support systems (Adjustable Dual Roof Truss) can prevent rock from breaking into the roadway during all stages of use. After the first face passage the horizontal stresses were reduced so that the buckling did not propagate more.

Figure 13 The newly developed roadside package system. Left: after construction; Right: with shear fractures (black arrows) after subsidence of the roof For quality assurance different numerical situations were carried out to analyse the effect of pillar parameters, including strength, elasticity, and residual strength, and their effect on the stability of roadway and the expected cross section after deformation. For example, it became visible that solid pillars lead to new fractures in the floor and roof (Figure 14). For this reason, the strength of the concrete has to be limited.

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Figure 14 . Influence of the strength of roadside packs on roadway behaviour Second example: arch shaped roadway with different backfill properties Minor difference in executing the support can lead to extreme effects in a mining operation in case of a large rock stress. Numerical and physical models proved this. Physical tests were performed to compare a model with an optimal support system to one with a worse system. Principally, both models used the same support system, (i.e., combined support type A). However, one applied optimally and the other applied with delay and poor backfill quality. Figure 15 shows the situation after first face passage. An explicit higher roadway and support deformation concerning the badly realised support can be verified. This deteriorates extremely the stability of the roadway at the 2nd face passage. Also a breaking of the roadside package after face passage can be seen in this case.

Figure 16. Roadway with different support quality after heading (left: good quality; centre: not completely backfilled roof (with detail); right: lower backfill strength) These explanations emphasise the importance to realise the support optimally. It also illustrates the reasons for unexpected deformations of roadways and support which were observed in-situ. Third example: influence of slickensides parallel to the layer on the roadway behaviour In the Carbon, weakening planes parallel to the layers occur as slickensides or polished slickensides. Due to low friction on these separation planes higher movements can take place. In case of the occurrence of slickensides in the roof they are often cut by the roadway cross section or situated in the roof. In physical models the influence of slickensides in the roof on the deformation behaviour of a roadway supported with combined support Type B was investigated. Figure 17 shows a model of a roadway with slickensides compared with a roadway without slickensides in the roof after development. It is visible that the roadway without slickensides does not show any fractures in the roof.

Figure 15. Roadway with high quality (left) and low quality (right) support after first face passage Numerical models analysed the influence of the deviation of individual parameters on the support behaviour. Here, for the not completely backfilled roof and for a reduced backfill strength (Figure 16), an explicit larger load on the roadway support with rock bolt breaking and weakening of backfill is visible.

Figure 17. Arch-shaped roadway without slickensides (left) and with slickensides (right) in the roof after development

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On the contrary the model with slickensides in the roof shows an explicit loosening especially in the roof, in form of movements on the slickensides and fractures in the rock. This leads failures of the roof bolts as well as to damages of the backfill, resulting in larger roadway deformations and less stable roadway in the following stages of usage. To analyse the influence of a single slickenside in the roof, numerical calculations were carried out. The distance of the slickenside to the roof was varied to determine the critical distances. Figure 18 shows 2 different situations with a slickenside distance of approximately 1 m on the left and 2.50 m on the right. It is visible that at a distance of 2.50 m, the slickenside was not activated and did not lead to additional strain in the roof. The reverse was true for the other slickenside with a smaller distance. Here, there are visible movements of the slickenside, which results in roof bolt failure, roof buckling, and deformations of the backfilled yielding arch support. The result is clearly a less stable roadway in subsequent stages of usage. The benefits by combination of the different modelling techniques, empirical investigations and underground measurements are: Decrease of specific uncertainties of the different modelling techniques. Enhancement of the reliability of the results of the different modelling methods due to recalibration of models by means of underground measurements. Failures, which could not be detected with classical methods, can be discovered. Redundancy results in better projections and higher planning reliability. Newly developed support elements can be verified before application in underground roadways. Increasing of planning reliability for novel underground projects.

REFERENCES Griesenbrock, Hucke, Studeny & Witthaus (2002): Numerical and Physical Modelling as Planning Tools for Rockbolted Roadways. Proceedings 21st Int. Conference on Ground Control in Mining. Opolony, Witthaus, Hucke & Studeny (2004): Ergebnisse von numerischen Berechnungen und physikalischen Modellversuchen als Planungshilfe fr eine Rechteckankerstrecke in Flz D2/C. Ankerausbau im Bergbau. Roofbolting in Mining. Aachen International Mining Symposium; Band 3. Ruppel, Opolony (2000): Einsatz von Ankerausbau in Hochleistungsstrebbetrieben im internationalen Vergleich Glckauf 136 (2000) Nr. 9, S. 508-514.

slickenside

Figure 18. Arch-shaped roadway with 2 different distances of slickensides in the roof (left: approx. 1m; right: approx. 2.50 m) The conclusion of this analysis for the planning roadways is that geotechnical rock mass analysis should be carried out before planning to detect the occurrence and position of weakening planes in the roof. With this information suitable measures for increasing the roadway stability can be realised (e.g. additional roof bolting) in the case of the occurrence of slickensides within the critical ranges. SUMMARY Due to demanding reserve conditions in German hard coal mining a combined system for roadway planning is used. Here empirical, static, numerical and physical methods are applied. In addition a recalibration of the planning by underground measurements during roadway development is carried out.

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