APPLICATION O F GEOMECHANICS I N L O N G W A L L OPERATION

D. S. Choi Conoco, I n c o r p o r a t e d Ponca C i t y , Oklahoma

Z

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INTRODUCTION

Coal i.s expected t o become an i n c r e a s i n g l y important source of energy i n the future. Coal production has already increased from about 650

m i l l i o n t o n s i n 2975 t o about 875 m i l l i o n t o n s i n 1984 (Wilkinson, 1985). The d e c l i n i n g t r e n d of l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e e a r l y s e v e n t i e s To

was a s o u r c e of concern f o r C o n s o l i d a t i o n Coal Company (Consol). improve p r o d u c t i v i t y , a g r a d u a l change from room-and-pillar

mining t o

longwall mining h a s been t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h i n Consol.

Consol produces 45

m i l l i o n t o n s of c o a l a n n u a l l y w i t h about 70 p e r c e n t of t h e production coming from underground mines.

Consol i n t r o d u c e d longwall mining. i n t h e e a r l y seventTes and c u r r e n t l y o p e r a t e s a b c u t 20 longwall f a c e s . The longwall f a c e s a r e i n mines i n

t h e Appalachian r e g i o n i n t h e S t a t e s of West V i r g i n i a , Pennsylvania, and Ohio. The s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n of longwall f a c e s h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o a

r e c o v e r y of p r o d u c t i v i t y and t o a n improvement of mine s a f e t y .

I n t h i s paper,

s a f e t y and p r o d u c t i v i t y d a t a of underground c o a l mices

from 1950 t o 1982 a r e b r i e f l y reviewed t o show t h e impact of t h e enactment of t h e Coal Mine E e a l t h and S a f e t y Act of 1969 on t h e c o a l indus-

try.

I n a d d i t i o n , some r e s u l t s of geomechanics work i n longwall mining

t o improve p r o d u c t i v i t y and s a f e t y a r e p r e s e n t e d .

SAFETY

PRODUCTIVITY

H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e c o a l i n d u s t r y h a s improved i t s s a f e t y r e c o r d through innovation and mechanization and t r a i n i n g . Tn t h e f i f t i e s a n d s i x t i e s ,

s a f e t y improvement came from t h e a d o p t i o n of roof b o l t s u p p o r t s , c o n t i n uous miners, s h u t t l e c a r s , and conveyor b e l t s i n room-and-pillar mining.

I n p l a c e of wood t i m b e r s , roof b o l t i n g became t h e primary s u p p o r t system i n c o a l mines, machines. f r e e i n g up t h e narrow e n t r i e s f o r continuous mining

Roof b o l t i n g s u p p o r t was f u r t h e r improved over t h e expansion

s h e l l anchor t y p e b o l t by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e r e s i n grouted b o l t . The r e s i n grouted b o l t reduces t h e h i g h s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e b o l t anchor and e l i m i n a t e s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r l o s s of t h e a p p l i e d b o l t tension. Under roof b o l t s u p p o r t y l a r g e continuous miners w i t h s h u t t l e conveyors have s t e a d i l y improved t h e industry safety

c a r s and b e l t

r e c o r d a s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1.

The f a t a l i n j u r y r a t e p e r m i l l i o n t o n s

of p r o d u c t i o n d e c l i n e d l i n e a r l y a t a r a t e of about .035 p e r m i l l i o n t o n s p e r y e a r between 1950 and 1970 (IR of MSHA and i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s ) .

The p r o d u c t i v i t y of underground c o a l mines had a l s o i n c r e a s e d a t a r a t e of 0.42 t o n s p e r man s h i f t p e r y e a r d u r i n g t h i s p e r j o d a s shown i n

It

F i g u r e 2 (Minerals Year Books and Keystone Coal I n d u s t r y Mantials),

decreased from 1970 t o 1978 a t a r a t e of 1.1 t o n s p e r man s h i f t p e r y e a r p a r t l y b e c a u s e of t h e enactment of mining r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s such a s t h e 1969 Coal Mine H e a l t h and S a f e t y Act.

To improve p r o d u c t i v i t y , method.

Consol s t a r t e d t o employ t h e 1ongwal.l mining

The method p e r m i t s a n improvement i n s a f e t y and p r o d u c t i v i t y

because p r o d u c t i o n can b e r e s t r i c t e d t o one f a c e w i t h c l o s e s u p e r v i s i o n

'

and t h e f a c e workers a r e p r o t e c t e d under t h e s t e e l canopy formed by t h e f a c e supports. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e f a s t moving s h u t t l e c a r s a r e e l i m i n a t e d On t h e

from t h e f a c e a r e a and continuous t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i s provided.

o t h e r hand, some e a r l y l o n g w a l l s i n s t a l l e d d u r i n g t h e f i f t i e s and e a r l y sixties, which were designed w i t h o u t p r o p e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of v a r i o u s

g e o l o g i c c c n d i t i o n s d i d n o t meet t h e i r p o t e n t i a l (Moroni,

1973).

The

g e o t e c h n i c a l problems encountered d u r i n g t h e a d o p t i o n of longwall mining i n t h e e a r l y s e v e n t i e s w i l l b e discussed.

STRENGTH OF COAL MEASURE ROCK

S i n c e no c l o s e d form a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g s t r a t a movement and failure a r e available, mathematical modeling by means of

d i g i t a l computers i s a l o g i c a l c h o i c e f o r a n a n a l y s i s of complex mine s t r a t a and opening geometry. because of Rowever, modeling

i s of

l.imited v a l u e

t h e I n e b i l i t y of a c c u r a t e l y determining t h e p r o p e r t j e s of

geologic m a t e r i a l in-situ.

The r o c k above and below a c o a l seam i s p e n e r a l l y weak and incompetent s h a l e 3rd claystone. Obtaining meaningful p h y s i c a l properties from

laboratory t e s t s i s very d i f f i c u l t .

A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of r o c k c o r e i s a good y a r d s t i c k f o r judging t h e

p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n of t h e rock formations.

The r e c e n t l y published guide

book t o cored rock can b e used t o i d e n t i f y t h e r o c k t y p e s a c c u r a t e l y and c o n s i s t e n t l y (Ferm and Smith, 1980). I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o r r e c t identi.-

f i c a t i o n , rock q u a l i t y d e s i g n a t i o n h e l p s t o e s t i m a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e c o a l measure rocks. F i g u r e 3 i s a p l o t of RQD a g a i n s t t h e d i a m e t r a l

index compressive s t r e n g t h o b t a i n e d from rock c o r e s n e a r a c o a l seam. Four groups a r e found i n t h e p l o t : limestone. claystone, shale, sandstone, and

T h e r e f o r e , t h e c o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e r o c k formation

can h e l p i n f i n d i n g problem a r e a s .

Geologic

log

analyses

as

well

as

lab

tests

can

provide

useful

comparisons.

Usually a small t e s t 9pecimen does n o t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t t h e Thus, f i e l d t e s t s

, b e h a v i o r of rock masses surrounding mine openings.

a r e n e c e s s a r y t o determine t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e weak c o a l measure rock f o r any d e s i g n purpose and a back c a l c u l a t i o n method can b e used f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o s i m i l a r mining c o n d i t i o n s . Thus, a follow-up study i n

t h e f i e l d i s o f t e n r e q u i r e d f o r improvements i n 1.ongwall design.

SIZE OF CFIAIN PILLAR

Most longwall p a n e l s a r e developed w i t h t h e u s e of mining equipment designed f o r room-and-pillar mining.

The h e a d g a t e f o r one l o n g w a l l

p a n e l and t h e t a i l g a t e f o r t h e n e x t a r c developed a s a s e t of e n t r i e s a t

t h e same time.

Thus, t h e t a i l g a t e e n t r y i s v u l n e r a b l e t o roof f a l . 1 ~ p a n e l and must b e Proper s i z i n g of

because i t i s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e p r e v i o u s mined-out maintained f o r a l o n g e r t i m e t h a n t h e headgate e n t r y .

t h e c o a l p i l l a r s i n t h e headgate and t h e t a i l g a t e e n t r i e s i s important t o p r o t e c t t h e t a i l g a t e e n t r y having weak roof rock even where t h e roof

i s supported by roof b o l t s and wooden c r i b s e t s .

A method f o r computing

t h e minimum s i z e of c o a l p i l l a r s w a s p r e s e n t e d i n "Design of Longwall Systems" (Choi and McCain, 1982).

The r e s u l t s of

t h e a n a l y s i s h a s been t e s t e d a t v a r i o u s mfnes.

The

f o l l o w i n g i s an example i n which t h e s t r e s s b u i l d up and r e s u l t i n g roof f a l l s were c l o s e l y monitored.

The l o n g w a l l p a n e l was

183m (600 f e e t )

v i d e w i t h 1.7n ( 6 6 inch) mining h e i g h t and 213 t o 244m (700 t o 800. f e e t )

2

overburden.

Coal p i l l a r s were instrumented w i t h s t r e s s m e t e r s t o f i n d F i g u r e 4 shows

t h e i n c r e a s e i n s t r e s s a s t h e longwall f a c e r e t r e a t e d . t h e l a y o u t of t h e instrumented p i l l a r s .

F i g u r e s 5 and 6 a r e p l o t s of t h e longwall f a c e . The

t h e stress i n c r e a s e a g a i n s t t h e positf.on of

v e r t i c a l s t r e s s continued t o i n c r e a s e a s t h e f a c e passed t h e instrumented a r e a by 61 t o 122m (200 t o 400 f e e t ) . The magnitude ~f t h e i n c r e a s e

was on t h e o r d e r of 6.9 MPa (1,000 p s i ) e x c e p t f o r one s t r e s s meter (D). The measured s t r e s s i s w i t h i n the. t h e o r e t f c n l abutment p r e s s u r e of 8.6

MPa ( I ,250 p s i ) .
s t r e s s was of

It i s a l s o i n p o r t a n t t o observe t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n 1.7 MPa (250 p s i ) when t h e longwall was

t h e o r d e r of

a l i g n e d w i t h t h e s t r e s s meters.

That s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d i d n o t induce any

A s t h e longwall r e t r e a t e d by, t h e

roof f a i l u r e i n t h e t a i l g a t e e n t r y .

roof of

t h e c r o s s c u t s between t h e t r a c k and t h e b e l t e n t r i e s f a i l e d The roof f a i l u r e grows from t h e

without e x c e p t i o n a s shown i n F i g u r e 7.

b e l t e n t r y s i d e toward t h e t r a c k e n t r y a s expected from t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e side-~butrnent p r e s s u r e build-up. The e x a c t r a t e of p r o g r e s s of the

f a i l u r e v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y b u t w a s accompanied by a n ample prewarning before f a i l u r e . The most e x t e n s i v e f a i l u r e was i n a four-way inter-

s e c t i o n of t h e t r a c k e n t r y .

It f a i l e d midway between t h e t r a c k and t h e

escape e n t r i e s through t h e four-way i n t e r s e c t i o n i n one day.

The s t r e s s j n c r e a s e and t h e roof

f a i l u r e a n a l y s i s i s u s e f u l i n the

design of any o t h e r longwall f a c e s under s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s where t h e side-abutment tently. in-situ tion, 25.6m p r e s s u r e c a u s e s t h e f a i l u r e of t h e roof f o r m a t i o n c o n s i s -

That i s , t h e measured s t r e s s l e a d s t o a way t o determine t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e roof f o r m a t i o n by back c a l c u l a t i o n .

In addi-

t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t a row of c o a l h l o c k s of 25.6 by
(84 by 84 f e e t ) i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t t h e abutment p r e s s u r e

~ssociated with an adjacent panel. t i o n w i t h ground movement.

T h i s a s p e c t i s d i s c u s s e d i n conjunc-

WIDTH OF FACE

According

to

recent

survey

(Peake,

1984),

the

average width

of

1.ongwall f a c e s i n c r e a s e d from 159. l m (522 f e e t ) t o 167.3111 (548.9 f e e t ) from 1979 t o 1982. It i s expected t h a t t h i s t r e n d w i l l c o n t i n u e because

h i g h l o a d c a r r y i n g s u p p o r t s and l a r g e f a c e conveyors a r e a v a i l a b l e and because t h e wider f a c e s permit i n c r e a s e d c o a l recovery. In addition the

d r i v i n g of development e n t r i e s f o r longwall p a n e l s t e n d s t o l a g behind t h e p a n e l mining f u r t h e r promoting t h e u s e of wider f a c e s .

To i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e fa.ce width on t h e f a c e c o n d i t i o n , i t

i s d e s i r a b l e t o measure t h e front-abutment p r e s s u r e a t v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s
along t h e face.
A s a p r a c t i c a l matter,

however,

t h e measurement i s

q u i t e d i f f i c u l t because t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of

s t r e s s m e t e r s a t t h e wide

f a c e r e q u i r e s a long c o n t r o l l e d borehole i n a weak c o a l under h i g h pressure.

If

the

f r o n t abutment the

pressure

i s assumed e q u a l t o t h e
presented previously

side-abutment

pressure,

s t r e s s measurements
4 .

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e c h a i n p i l l a r s on t h e longwall f a c e would b e l i m i t e d t o approximatel-y 61 t o 122m (200 t o 400 f e e t ) . That

i s , ar.y f a c e wider t h a n 122 t o 264m (400 t o 800 f e e t ) under t h e same

c o n d i t i o n s may n o t have a n i n c r e a s i n g l y h i g h e r s t r e s s a t t h e c e n t e r of

the face.

A s t h e f a c e becomes wider, t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e c h a i n p i l l a r

on t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n of t h e f a c e diminishes.

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e l e g s of f a c e s h i e l d s u p p o r t s
was measured i n an a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e t h e e f f e c t of t h e front-abutment

pressure. the face

A h i g h front-abutment

p r e s s u r e may induce h i g h convergence a t face conditions evidenced by

and

therefore

deteriorating

increasing l e g pressures. of t h e f r o n t l e g s of

F i g u r e 8 i s a p l o t of t h e h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e s a 183m (600-foot) face.

122 f a c e s u p p o r t s of

It shows t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s from s h i e l d s 1 t o 4 0 , becomes more

o r l e s s c o n s t a n t between s h i e l d s 41 and 8 0 , and d e c r e a s e s from s h i e l d s 81 t o 122.

It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e c e n t r a l zone w i t h a c o n s t a n t l e g pres-

s u r e r e q u i r e s a c o n s t a n t s u p p o r t l o a d because t h e zone i s independent of t h e s u p p o r t i n f l u e n c e of t h e c h a i n p i l l a r s . This observation a l s o l e a d s

t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n , t h a t t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n of t h e f a c e i s n o t i n f l u enced when t h e f a c e width becomes wider t h a n 122m (400 f e e t ) i n t h i s case.

ROOF ROCK BREAKUP AND GROUND MOVDCNT

S i n c e t h e c o a l i s removed c l e a n l y w i t h no p i l l a r stumps bel.ng l e f t

2

behind t h e l o n g w a l l f a c e , large opening behind the

s t r o n g f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e roof may c r e a t e a retreating support line. As the opening

becomes l a r g e r , a l a r g e amount of s t r a i n energy i s s t o r e d i n t h e roof which can b e r e l e a s e d i n a f a s h i o n s i m i l a r t o c o a l bumps. C o n s o l t s mines have s e v e r a l sandstone i n t h e r o o f , roof f o r m a t i o n s . S i n c e most of

s t r o n g f o r n a t i o n s such a s l i m e s t o n e and

i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o monitor t h e breakup of t h e

A method of p r o j e c t i n g t h e roof breakup w i t h t h e use

of a computer model was developed (Choi and PcCain, 1983).

During t h e breakup of t h e s t r o n g f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e r o o f , f a c e s u p p o r t e x p e r i e n c e h i g h pre'ssure. Most of

t h e l e g s of

t h e unsuccessful a t -

tempts a t longwall mining i n t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s a r e a t t r i h u t e d t o t h e

h i g h p r e s s u r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e roof breakup.

Currently the face

support i s designed t o b e more rugged and s t r o n g e r i n o r d e r t o avoid failure.

Consol r o u t i n e l y monitors t h e ground movement t o d e t e c t t h e roof breakup when a longwall i s intgoduced t o a new a r e a . F i g u r e 9 i s t h e p l o t of

ground movement along a p a n e l c e n t e r l i n e from i t s s t a r t up p o s i t i o n . U n t i l t h e p a n e l r e t r e a t e d 48.7m (160 f e e t ) , t h e r e w a s no ground movement

a t a l l (cepe a ) .

During one mine s h i f t , t h e l e g s of t h e f a c e s u p p o r t s

y i e l d e d and s u r f a c e subsidence occurred r a p i d l y a s shown by b i n t h e

\

figure.

A f t e r t h e b r e a k of

t h e roof

formation,

t h e ground movement

becomes g e n t l e r and slower as i n d i c a t e d by c.

>

The major movement o c c u r s

a f t e r t h e f a c e r e t r e a t s a d i s t a n c e approximately e q u a l t o t h e overburden thickness, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e h i g h e r roof formations have broken and The s u r f a c e

allowed t h e s u r f a c e t o s u b s i d e a s shown i n F i g u r e 10.

movement t h e n becomes g r a d u a l w i t h no n o t i c e a b l e o v e r s t r e s s i n g of t h e face supports as the longwall face retreats.

It

is

pointed

out,

however, t h a t t h e c a s e s of a , b , c , and d had almost t h e same a r e a of s u r f a c e subsidence. During t h a t p e r i o d , t h e overburden rock formations

were b r e a k i n g up making a h i g h e r f r a c t u r e d zone above t h e c o a l seam. The maximum subsidence t h e n o c c u r r e d immediately a s t h e (case e ) and continued as the panel was retreated. f a c e moved With the

accumulation of t h e s e d a t a i t i s now r o u t i n e t o i n t r o d u c e t h e longwall system a t o t h e r l o c a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a .

A s mentioned b e f o r e , t h e measurement of ground movement was t o determine

t h e support c a p a c i t y of

coal p i l l a r s .

F i g u r e 11 shows t h e v e r t i c a l overburden p a n e l . Even

movement of t h e s u r f a c e over a 213m (700-foot)

though t h e roof i n t h e c r o s s c u t s f a i l e d , t h e subsidence p r o f i l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c o a l p i l l a r s a r e s u p p o r t i n g t h e side-abutment p r e s s u r e . Furthermore, t h e t a i l g a t e e n t r y was n o t s u b j e c t e d t o a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e coming from t h e p r e v i o u s l y mined-out panel.

CONCLUSIOPJS

The paper summarizes some r e s u l t s of ground c o n t r o l work c a r r i e d o u t i n planning f o r longwall mining. The,results contributed t o t h e successful It i s expected t h a t longwall

o p e r a t i o n s of l o n g w a l l s i n Consol's mines.

mining w i l l b e adepted t o v a r i o u s mining c o n d i t i o n s and w i l l c o n t i n u e t o g a i n an i n c r e a s e d p o r t i o n of underground c o a l p r o d u c t i o n .

The work d e s c r i b e d i s a p a r t of

t h e e f f o r t i n promoting s a f e t y and S i n c e t h e e a r l y s e v e n t i e s , such l o n g w a l l s o p e r a t e s a f e l y and

p r o d u c t i v i t y i n undergtound c o a l mines. d a t a have been c o l l e c t e d efficiently. t o help the

Most of d a t a given i n t h e paper were observed r e p e a t e d l y W e a r e v e r y a p p r e c i a t i v e t o Consol management

over long mining c y c l e s .

f o r t h e i r p a t i e n c e and encouragement i n c o l l e c t i n g t h e b a s e d a t a .

REFERENCES

Anon.,

1970-1981,

" I n j u r y Experience i n Coal Mining,"

IC8613, IR1062,

IR1074, IR1075, IR1076, IR1097, IR1108, IR1108, IR1112, IB1122, IR1133, IR1134, Mine S a f e t y and H e a l t h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n end p r e d e c e s s o r agencies: MESA and USBM.

Anon.,

1950-1976,

Mineral Year Book, Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.,

Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e .

Anon.,

1978-1982, Keystone Coal I n d u s t r y Manual, EIcGraw-IIi11, New York.

Choi, D.

S.

and McCain,

D.

L.,
2

1982, "Design

of Longwall Systems,"

Trans. SME-AIEE, Vol. 268, pp 1761-1764.

Choi, D. S. and McCain, D. L.,

1983, "Ground C o n t r o l Aspects of Longvall

Coal Mining," Proc. of RETC, Vol. 1, Chicago, pp 178-190.

F e r n , J. C.

and Smith, G. C.,

1980, "A

Guide t o Cored Rocks i n t h e

P i t t s b u r g h Basin," Report of t h e BuHines C o n t r a c t No. 50188115,

Moroni, E. T.,

1973, " L o n p i a l l Experiences i n the I l l i n o i s No.

6 Seam"

Ill. Mining I n s t i t u t e , S p r i n g f i e l d , Ill.., October, pp 28-34.

Peake,

C.

V.,

1984, "Longwall P r o d u c t i v i t y Shows S o l i d Growth," Coal

~ g e ,August, pp 6 1 .

P i l k i n s o n , J . F . , 1985, "0utlook 1985: Heavy S t o c k p i l e s Squeeze P r i c e s , " Coal Age, January, pp 50-60.

Source: Injury Experience in Coal Mining. Informational Reports of MSHA, or Its Predecessors.

Figure I.

Fatal Injury Rates Bituminous Coal Industry Underground Mines 1950 - 1982

Figure 2.

Productivity Bituminous Coal Industry Underground M ines 1950 - 1982

Diarnetral Index Strength, MPa ( psi )

Figure 3.

Rock Quality Designation vs. Diametral Compressive Strength o f Coal Measure Rock

Face Position, m ( f t )

Figure 5 . Stressmeters A 8 B

Face Position,

m (ft 1

Figure 6. Stressmeters C 81 D

l o o

Shield Number

Figure 8. Front Leg Pressure

(- 50)

- 1 5.2

15.2 (50)

30.5 (1 00)

4 7 . 7 (150)
Position, m ( f t 1

6 1 .O (200)

76.2 (250)

Distance From Start-up

Figure 9. Ground Movement Along Panel Center with 37 m Overburden

. e 8 '-

.30
a Q)

(1)

0
LZ

w .u , -61 5 (2)

8)

.91 ( 3)

1.22 (4) -76.2 (-250)

I
0

I
3048 (1000)

228.6 152.4 76.2 (750) (250) (500) Distance From Start-up Position, m (fi)

Figure 1 0 . Ground Movement Along Panel 3 m Overburden Center with 2 1

Panel Center

Distance From Panel Center, m (ft)

Figure I I. Ground Movement Across Longwall Panel with 213m Over burden