A Glance at Multicultural School Psychology Chapter 2: Jackson, J. H. (2005). Commentary #2: What is multicultural school psychology? In C.

Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 14-29). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Jackson (2005) divides multicultural school psychology into ten distinct subheadings to provide the reader with a comprehensive understanding of the topic. Specifically, Jackson (2005) explicates that multicultural school psychology is constantly evolving, honouring human diversity by ensuring that everyone has equal reception and care and is treated as an individualized and unique case. Multicultural school psychology also endorses unique interventions for various cultures and individuals in a familiar cultural context that will allow them to thrive (Jackson, 2005). Furthermore, multicultural programs will ideally employ multicultural staff and supervisors who are educated and trained in multiculturalism to provide sensitive services to individuals of various ethnic groups and ongoing training to staff (Jackson, 2005). Thus, multicultural school psychology will not only assist students to overcome academic and social difficulties, but also create a scientific foundation to provide professionals and the general public alike with greater insight into multiculturalism (Jackson, 2005). The most important thing that I learned in this chapter was that every child has the capacity to improve given that they receive adequate supports within a familiar cultural context, which is often their own. This realization will allow me to display sensitivity when interacting with individuals of various ethnicities and develop interventions strategies that suite their culture of origin. To expand this knowledge I will further research cultural sensitivity and culturally diverse evidence-based interventions in peer-reviewed journal articles. Also, throughout my

internship I will reflect upon my interactions with individuals of different ethnicities and consider how I responded with cultural awareness and sensitivity. Chapter 13: Truscott, S. D., & Truscott, D. M. (2005). Challenges in urban and rural education. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 357-393). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Through an ecological framework, Truscott and Truscott (2005) provide an overview of current challenges facing urban and rural schools, as well as the impact that these challenges have on school psychology. Truscott and Truscott (2005) explain that national political decisions determine funding for early intervention and special education programs, teacher recruitment, and curricula. Unfortunately, rural and urban communities have little access to funding from the government and local businesses, which leads to a decline in student programming and achievement (Truscott & Truscott, 2005). Furthermore, schools with highly diverse populations also experience teacher shortages due to lower job satisfaction, complex teaching environments, and community violence and crime (Truscott & Truscott, 2005). Additionally, teachers in urban and rural schools often experience difficulty working alongside parents, as many parents have preconceived notions and insecurities about public education and may also lack the literacy skills to communicate (Truscott & Truscott, 2005). Evidently, challenges that involve differences in cultures and values may lead to a home-school misalignment, placing greater demands on school personnel and leading to a decline in academic achievement (Truscott & Truscott, 2005). The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that challenges associated with rural and urban education presents significant challenges to teachers in these areas, and as such

school psychologists need to support these teachers through multicultural education and efficient program plans. Thus, as a school psychologist I need to be aware of challenges in the school environment and its implications on teachers performance and mental health. To expand my knowledge and sensitivity in this area I will question teachers about their work environment, job satisfaction, and knowledge of teaching diverse and multicultural individuals. Furthermore, I will research funding policies for urban and rural schools, and the shortcomings in these policies. Chapter 18: Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Implications of cognitive differences for schooling within diverse societies. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 517- 554). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Gottfredson (2005) closely examines general intelligence (g) as a property of the human brain and connectedness of neurons. Furthermore, g facilitates learning and the ability to apply knowledge to a given situation, and it is also predictive of academic achievement (Gottfredson, 2005). According to Gottfredson (2005) racial and ethnic differences in general intelligence exist as different ethnic groups are typically centered at different points along the bell curve. Gottfredson (2005) further explains that since there are differences in cognitive ability across environment and age, one should expect to see differences in standardized academic achievement. The No Child Left Behind expects teachers to equalize achievement at an acceptable level, however, it has been found that interventions raise average achievement levels and increase variance in achievement (Gottfredson, 2005). Contrary to this view, Gottfredson (2005) believes that children need developmentally appropriate instruction rather than identical instruction or race-specific instruction, to increase their general intelligence. Moreover, children with a lower general intelligence require more concrete instruction with scaffolding, while

children with a higher general intelligence benefit from inquiry-based learning and abstract instruction (Gottfredson, 2005). The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that various races (Hispanics, Asians, African Americans, and Caucasians) differ in general intelligence. Although there are many contributing factors to differences, it is important to understand that various ethnicities present with different cognitive abilities. This realization will allow me to approach intelligence testing with more sensitivity and cultural awareness. To expand my knowledge of differences in intelligence between groups, I will reread the standardized norms section in the interpretative manual for the WISC-IV, UNIT, and WNV. Chapter 23: Achenbach, T. M., Rescorla, L. A., & Ivanova, M. Y. (2005). International cross-cultural consistencies and variation in child and adolescent psychopathology. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 674709). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Achenbach, Rescorla, and Ivanova (2005) address cross-cultural consistencies and differences in psychopatholgy, as well as challenges that school psychologists face in relation to these consistencies and differences. Specifically, many children are forced to cope with cultural differences and discrimination, and consequently may be perceived as having a psychopathology (Achenbach et al., 2005). Thus, school psychologists need to employ assessment measures that are sensitive to cultural values, norms, and educational experiences, allowing them to avoid prejudicial biases (Achenbach et al., 2005). School psychologists also need to consider past and present basis for stress, acculturation difficulties that affect both the child and family, and attitudes toward mental health and mental health practitioners (Achenbach et al., 2005). To

further explain cross-cultural research, Achenbach et al., (2005) distinguishes between emic behaviour, which is behaviour that can merely be understood within the cultural context that it occurs in, and etic behaviour, which is behaviour that can be understood universally as it independent of cultural context. Furthermore, the empirically based approach and the nosologically based approach are also explored to ensure that school psychologists utilize a holistic approach to reduce biases (Achenbach et al., 2005). The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that individuals from various cultural backgrounds may view mental health and psychopathologies very differently than I do. Therefore, I need to be sensitive to others beliefs on mental illness, and ensure that I am utilizing standardized assessment measures and semi-structured and informal measures to gain a comprehensive understanding of the client and their current level of functioning. To further expand my newfound knowledge I will reflect on my prejudicial biases and the impact that they have on assessing diverse populations. I will also research empirically-based journal articles that examine cultural values and norms on mental health and illness. Chapter 25: Breault K. D., & Trail C. (2005). Teen pregnancy, substance abuse, and violent criminality. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 744-768). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Breault and Trail (2005) examine teen pregnancy, substance abuse, and violent criminality, and their implications on individuals and society as a whole. Breault and Trail (2005) explain that although teen pregnancy, substance abuse, and violent criminality span all socioeconomic strata, they are most prevalent among individuals of a low socioeconomic status (SES). Additionally, risk factors also include, external locus of control, poor academic

achievement, socializing with deviant peer groups, child maltreatment, and psychological disorders (Breault & Trail, 2005). Although Breault and Trail (2005) found that teen pregnancy is more like in Hispanics and African Americans than Caucasians and Asians, they declared that there is no known causal connection. Furthermore, protective or resiliency factors include internal locus of control, positive role models, strong family relations, academic achievement, and positive connections with society (Breault & Trail, 2005). Breault and Trail (2005) also explain that socialization plays a large role in normalizing teen pregnancy, substance abuse, violent criminality. For instance, youth whose friends and family bear children at a young age are more likely themselves to bear children early; creating a cyclical cycle (Breault & Trail, 2005). The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that socialization often leads to normalization of aberrant behaviour, thus creating a cyclical cycle. This understanding may help me further conceptualize why it is often difficult for youth to cease aberrant behaviour even though they express a desire to do so. This may allow me to approach youth with more patience and sensitivity. To further expand my knowledge of teen pregnancy, substance abuse, and violent criminality, I will research, in peer-reviewed journal articles, adolescent norms in a variety of cultures. It will also be beneficial to examine these behaviours within different ethnicities in Canada on the Stats Canada website. Chapter 26: Overstreet, S., & Cerbone, A. (2005). Psychological effects of armed conflict and community violence. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 769-794). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

According to Overstreet and Cerbone (2005), approximately one in four children in the world live in unsafe conditions, where they are regularly exposed to armed conflict and or community violence. Conflict and violence may result in the death of loved ones, destruction of public facilities and services, and the deterioration of mental health (Overstreet & Cerbone, 2005). Dependent on social and cultural context and the developmental level of the child, children may experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, externalizing behaviour problems, and or academic and social difficulties (Overstreet & Cerbone, 2005). These problems are explained through an ecological transactional model, which posits that interrelated contexts shape child development (Overstreet & Cerbone, 2005). As such, armed conflict and community violence have both direct (e.g., PTSD) and indirect (e.g., destruction school and community centre) effects on child development (Overstreet & Cerbone, 2005). However, the occurrence of negative outcomes on a childs development depends on the balance between protective and risk factors surrounding the child (Overstreet & Cerbone, 2005). The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that the way individuals react to trauma and express psychological distress are largely due to cultural contexts. This is a crucial realization as an isolated act of violence against an individual of a different ethnicity may not cause psychological distress for me, but may cause significant distress for an individual of the same ethnicity. Thus, it will be extremely important to understand trauma in relation to individuals cultural context and respond sensitively to the matter. To further expand my knowledge, I will pay close attention to traumatic events on the news and try to conceptualize the event within various cultural contexts. Talking to others, specifically individuals of different ethnicities, and reading newspaper articles and blogs will also help me comprehend how traumatic events impact diverse individuals.

Chapter 30: Arrendondo-Ryan, K., & Sandoval, J. (2005). Psychometric issues in the measurement of acculturation. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 861-880). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Arrendondo-Ryan and Sandoval (2005) explain that a dissonance between the home or culture and the school environment creates miscommunication and confusion, which may negatively impact academic achievement. Thus, a measure of acculturation may allow school psychologists to plan and support teachers, parents, and children where needed (ArrendondoRyan & Sandoval, 2005). Acculturation may be explained through either the unidimensional view, which posits that individuals assimilate to the host culture, or the bidimensional view, which posits that individuals learn characteristics of the host culture while retaining components of the original culture (Arrendondo-Ryan & Sandoval, 2005). According to Arrendondo-Ryan and Sandoval (2005) current acculturation scales measure values, behaviours, language, and beliefs, as well as adaptation to the school environment. Measuring acculturation may help school psychologists determine whether a child has a culturally based reason for their academic difficulties or if their difficulties are better accounted for by a learning disability (ArrendondoRyan & Sandoval, 2005). The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that acculturation is that acculturation is fluid and individuals will often alter their behaviours depending on what culture the context is related to. Therefore, it is plausible that individuals may appear to assimilate to the host culture, but are still retaining and practicing many behaviours of their culture of origin. It will be important to keep this in mind when working with a diverse population so that I do not assume that multicultural individuals, who display western behaviours, understand and engage in these behaviours at all times. To further expand my knowledge, I will interview family friends

who have integrated into society, yet maintain a strong sense of cultural heritage, on context dependent behaviours (when and why they alter these behaviours). Chapter 32: Noell, G. H., Gilbertson, D. N., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Witt, J. C. (2005). Ecobehavioral assessment and intervention for culturally diverse at-risk students. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 904927). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. According to Noell, Gilbertson, VanDerHeyden, and Witt (2005), school personnel are often challenged to provide diverse students with environments that are conducive to learning, reflective of school policies and procedures, and acceptable to parents. This often creates conflict as individual differences and cultural variation become either underserved or overrepresented (Noell et al., 2005). Thus, Noell et al., (2005) promote an ecobehavioural approach that encompasses behaviour analysis and relevant assessment procedures that take into account the context of the school environment and the learning abilities of the individual. Noell et al., (2005) further explain that within an ecobehavioural approach, behaviour is measured directly with keystone and target behaviours rather than with standardized test batteries. Thus, the ecobehavioural approach allows school psychologists to arrive at objective conclusions, which may be used to identify areas of support and develop efficient program plans (Noell et al., 2005). Furthermore, Noell et al., (2005) maintain that this approach highlights the importance of flexible and student-centered interventions, thus, surpassing nomotheic assessment, which emphasizes norms and the discrimination of diverse individuals. The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that an individuals problem behaviour needs to be framed around their learning abilities and school environment, rather than

their cultural differences. This understanding will allow me to continue to strengthen my student-centered approach to report writing and recommendations. To expand my newfound knowledge I will reread reports that I previously wrote and consider how I can change my wording to ensure that the focus is on the childs learning abilities and environment instead of cultural differences. Chapter 35: Pogue, R., & Gansle, K. A. (2005). Successful community programs for youth in multicultural environments. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 973-992). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Pogue and Gansle (2005) explain that successful community-based interventions have a multifaceted approach that allows them to target a group of individuals whose needs are not being met within their own family. Community programs provide supervised recreational outlets and structured environments to foster social skills, positive relationships, academic achievement, and consistency and clear expectations; skills that are extremely important for youth from disadvantaged environments (Pogue & Gansle, 2005). These programs are classified as either treatment or prevention programs, and are found to have the most success when they are sustained across developmental stages (Pogue & Gansle, 2005). Additionally, Pogue and Gansle (2005) reason that successful community programs are contingent on functional partnerships with educational institutions, researchers, and evaluators to ensure that they are efficient and empirically based. Efficient and empirically based community programs are granted more funding and tend to receive more community support, ultimately appealing to children, parents, and community members alike (Pogue & Gansle, 2005).

The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that community programs are the most successful when they are implemented and sustained throughout an individuals development. This will not only allow me to continue to practice early intervention and prevention strategies, but also allow me to advocate for consistent and developmentally appropriate interventions that are maintained through childhood and adolescence. To gain further knowledge of successful, developmentally appropriate, community programs in my community, I will examine pamphlets and empirically based literature, as well as interview trained staff and volunteers on the benefits of community programs. Chapter 36: Rogers, M. R. (2005). Multicultural training in school psychology. In C. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.). Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 9931022). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Rogers (2005) explains that, in accordance with National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), graduate programs must integrate multicultural curricula and training with multicultural clients. However, many graduates are neither trained on how to enhance minority recruitment and retention, nor trained on how to develop a supportive training environment (Rogers, 2005). As such, Rogers (2005) explores the demographics for school psychology, history of multicultural training, and resources needed to enhance multicultural training and graduate student preparation. North America is undergoing rapid demographic changes among school-aged youth that place demands on teachers, school psychologists, and educational programming to support diverse students and prevent dropout (Rogers, 2005). And although multicultural training in the past 40 years has drastically improved, many students have limited theoretical and applied knowledge of diverse individuals because of insufficient curricula and limited access to diverse clients during applied training (Rogers, 2005). Thus, the training

priorities set by NASP not only advocate for students to be exposed to a diverse population during applied training and research, but also advocate for an increase in the number of racially, culturally, and linguistically diverse psychologists (Rogers, 2005). The most important thing that I learned in this chapter is that graduate multicultural curricula and training programs are not keeping up with the rapid influx of diverse school-aged youth. This stresses the importance of me attaining additional training in diverse populations that include both theoretical and applied components. To ensure that I am competent to deal with diverse and multicultural individuals I will continue to expand my knowledge through research, practical experience at my internship, and professional developmental opportunities.