Overview

In this chapter, the author discusses two main topics. What are the loss or signal attenuation mechanisms in a fiber? Why and to what degree do optical signals get distorted as they propagate along a fiber?

Chapter 3 Signal Degradation in Optical Fibers

Overview

Overview

Signal attenuation is one of the most important properties of an optical fiber (see dispersion for the other most significant factor). Attenuation largely determines the maximum unamplified or repeaterless separation between a transmitter and a receiver. Amplifiers and repeaters are relatively expensive to fabricate, install and maintain. Thus greater transmitter to receiver separation results in lower system cost.

Signal distortion mechanisms limit the information carrying capacity of a fiber. The light pulses broaden as they travel along a fiber. If the pulses travel far enough, they will overlap with neighboring pulses and create reception errors.

Section 3.1 Attenuation

Section 3.1 Attenuation

The basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are absorption, scattering and radiative losses of the optical energy. As the light travels along a fiber, experiment shows that the power decreases exponentially with distance.

It is not common to use the natural log (ln) form. Usually the attenuation coefficient is specified in terms of decibels.
dB )= ( km

10 P(0) log10 z (distance in km) P( z )

1 km

P( z ) = P(0)e

pz

= 4.343 p (in units of

where P(0) is the power at the origin z = 0. The attenuation coefficient p is typically given in units per km.

This attenuation of light in a silica glass fiber is a function of wavelength.

p =

P(0) 1 ln z (distance in km) P( z )

Fig. 3-1: Optical fiber attenuation

Example 3-2

Consider a 30-km long optical fiber that has an attenuation of 0.8 dB/km at 1300 nm. The power launched into the fiber is Pin = 200 W. Find the power out of the fiber after 30 kilometers.
dB ( km )=

P 10 log10 in z Pout
( ) z ( dB ) km 10

Pout = Pin 10

= (200 W )10

()

30(0.8) 10

= (200W )10( 2.4)

= (200 W )(0.00398) 0.796 W Pout (dBm) = 10 log 1mW

= 0.796W

= 10 ( 3.09897dBm )

= 31 dBm

Example 3-2

Section 3.1.2 Absorption

The text shows an equivalent method to solve the problem. First find the input power in terms of dBm.
Pin (dBm) = 10 log10
200 W Pin = 10 log10 = 10 log10 0.2 = 10(0.699) 1mW 1mW

Absorption is caused by three mechanisms. 1. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition. 2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material. 3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.

= 7dBm

Now note that the decrease in power is dB/km times the distance. Thus the power out is
Pout = Pin z
dB = 7 dBm (0.8 km )(30km) = 7 24 dBm = 31dBm

The power out in linear terms is

Pout = (1mW )10 10 = (1mW )(7.94 104 )
31

(where Pin is assumed to be 1mW)

= 0.794 W

Section 3.1.2 Absorption

Section 3.1.2 Absorption

Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material such as Missing molecules. For example a vacancy in the glass structure even though we think of glass as an amorphous nearly frozen fluid. In the jello analogy, this could be an air pocket. High-density clusters of atom groups. Again this is an irregularity in the glass structure. You can think of this as the fruit floating in the jello. Oxygen defects in the glass structure. When oxygen is allowed to be in the glass melt before or during the manufacture of the fiber, it will displace silica atoms and alter the interbond structure. Oxygen can also slowly permeate a fiber after installation in high temperature and humid environments.

Atomic defects are usually a minor factor in light absorption in the fiber. However in a radiating situation such as space, medical imaging or nuclear power, these defects the ionizing radiation interacts with these defects and can have a significant impact over time. From solid state theory we know that radiating energy can create electron-hole pairs. The electron typically has much more mobility than the holes. In materials such as fibers, these holes become trapped for very long periods and created local irregularities in the fiber structure.

Section 3.1.2 Absorption

Section 3.1.2 Absorption

Intrinsic absorption results for two similar interactions. In the ultraviolet wavelengths, the photon energy is great enough to cause electronic absorption of the light energy. An electron is given sufficient energy to transition to a more energetic state. The energy is quantized and is associated with the band gaps of the amorphous glass material. This absorption follows Urbachs rule.

The energy of a photon can always be stated as

E = hv =

hc

So as the wavelength lengthens, this absorption due to electronic interaction decreases. Beyond a certain wavelength the photon energy is too small to cause a change in the outer shell electron energy states and absorption due to this mechanism essentially ceases. (Some quantum effects still exist but are minor).

uv = Ce

E E0

C and E0 are experimental derived constants. E is the photon energy where E = h.

Figure 3-3 Absorption loss characteristics

Section 3.1.2 Absorption

The other intrinsic absorption mechanism is the transference of energy directly to the atomic structure. This is the familiar lattice vibration of the solid state material. In other words the light warms up the material and gives the fiber vibration energy. This mechanism is mostly effected by the presence of OH ions. OH ions strongly absorb infrared energy. The absorption by OH ions is very strong since so many ionic bonds are present in the fiber. For GeO2-SiO2 glass, we have

Ultraviolet absorption

IR = 7.811011 e

48.48

Figure 3-3 Absorption loss characteristics

Section 3.1.3 Scattering Losses

Scattering losses in glass arise from miniscule variation in the material density. These result from compositional fluctuations, structural inhomogeneities (defects). These density variations give rise to refractive index variations within the fiber. The small index differences result in Rayleigh scattering which is the same mechanism as the blue sky. The process is random and thus complex. Experimental curve fitting has found

Infrared absorption

scattering =

8 3 2 (n 1) 2 k BT f T 3 4

See the text on page 98 for description of these parameters.

Figure 3-3 Absorption loss characteristics

Section 3.1.3 Scattering Losses

Note that scattering increases as the wavelength decreases. Thus, we must have a balance: ionic absorption (UV) increases as wavelength decreases. Atomic vibration absorption (IR) decreases as wavelength decreases. Scattering increases as wavelength decreases.
Scattering losses

So for silica glass fibers we find that infrared signal attenuation is a good compromise. Not too short not too long just right!

Figure 3-3 Absorption loss characteristics

Section 3.1.4 Bending Losses

Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius. Optical fibers are not unique in this result. In accelerators such as CERNs LHC particle collider, much effort is required to reduce these radiative losses due to the curvature of the collider ring. See bremsstrahlung or synchrotron radiation.
Useful transmission windows

There two types of bending that concern the fiber designer. Large-curvature radiation losses are also called macrobending losses. The fiber can also be locally deformed by events such as incorporation of a fiber into a bundle, clamps, and intentionally in optical strain gauges.

Section 3.1.4 Bending Losses

Section 3.1.4 Bending Losses

When we view the light energy in the fiber from the modal electric field distribution stand point, we see that at a certain bend radius the light energy which is now in the cladding must surpass c/n to keep up with the group velocity.

The amount of optical radiation from a bent fiber depends on the field strength at xc and on the radius of curvature R. Recall that higher order modes have light energy bound less-tightly to the core. These higher order modes will be lost first. The following express states the effective number of modes Neff that are guided by a curved multimode fiber of core radius a and curvature radius R.
2 + 2 2a 3 + 3 N effective = N 1 2n kR 2 R 2

At a certain critical distance xc measured from the center of the core, the light energy will radiate away and be lost.

Where is the graded-index profile, is the index difference, and N is the number of modes in a straight fiber.

Example 3-3 on page 101

Example 3-3

At what radius of curvature R, does the number of guided modes decrease by 50%? Assume a graded-index fiber. =2 = 1,300 nm n2 = 1.5 = 0.01 a = 25 m

Now find where Neff = 50% (N) = 167/2 83 modes. Of course, we could have just formed the ratio and not directly found N.
2 + 2 2a 3 + 3 N effective = N 1 2n kR 2 R 2 2 N effective 2+2 2(25 m) 3 3 = 0.5 = 1 + 2(1.5)(4,833, 219) R N R 2(2)(0.01)
2 2(25 m) 3 + 100 3 = 0.5 R 2(1.5)(4,833, 219) R 2 2 1 3 1 100 50 m + 3 3 = 0.5 R R 2(1.5)(4,833, 219)

n1 n2 n = 1 2 n1 n1

n1 =

n2 1
2 2

N =
=

+2

( n1ka )

2 1.5 2 ( 25 m ) ( 0.01) 2 + 2 1 0.01 1300nm

1 ( 2.30 ) [14600] ( 0.01) = 167.9 2

Example 3-3

Section 3.1.4 Bending Losses

Continue to solve for R

2 1 1 100 50 m + 3 ( 3.5 105 ) = 0.5 R R

Another radiation loss in optical waveguides results from mode coupling caused by random microbends of the fiber.

1 1 + 3 0.007 = 100 R R
Since we know R is small, the expression is approximately

1 1 + 0.007 = 100 R R

R = 0.01007 m 1cm

So if you bend a fiber to a radius of 1 cm, then about half the modes (with their energy) are radiatively lost out of the fiber. Be careful during fiber installation to use large curvature changes in fiber direction.

Section 3.1.4 Bending Losses

Section 3.2 Signal Distortion in Optical Waveguides - Overview

While the text indicates that microbends are a manufacturing problem, this type of irregularity is frequently used in the creation of optical sensors for example. Another use of intentionally inducing fiber strain through microbends is called mode stripping used in creating the optical signal for long distance communication.

An optical signal becomes increasingly distorted as it travels along a fiber. We have been discussing attenuation in the previous sections which is the signal power decreasing with transmission distance in the waveguide. Here we are noting the signal will experience changes with transmission even if the assumed total power of the signal remains nearly the same.

Section 3.2 Signal Distortion in Optical Waveguides - Overview

Section 3.2.1 Information Capacity Determination

The concept of group velocity is the foundation in examining optical channel distortion. Group velocity is defined as the speed at which energy in a particular mode travels along the fiber. Two main categories of effects influence this group velocity. Intramodal dispersion is the pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode but not necessarily within a single color. (sections 3.2.3 to 3.2.6) Intermodal dispersion is the result of each mode having a different value of the group velocity at a single frequency. Each mode has a different travel path and different amounts of energy radial across the core. (section 3.2.7)

A light pulse will broaden as it travels along the fiber. The pulse broadening will eventually cause neighboring pulses to overlap. After a certain amount of overlap, neighboring pulses will not be distinguishable. Thus, this dispersive mechanism limits the information capacity of a fiber.

Fig. 3-10: Pulse broadening and attenuation

Section 3.2.1 Information Capacity Determination

One measure of the information capacity of an optical waveguide is called the bandwidth-distance product. This value is usually given as x Hz km. For example, you are given a fiber with an bandwidth-distance product of 250 MHz km and you need to use a five kilometer length. The useable bandwidth over this link is then (ignoring other issues)

BW =

250 MHz km 5km

= 50 MHz

Section 3.2.2 Group Delay

Section 3.2.2 Group Delay

Let us presume a linear system where an optical source launches light power into a fiber where all the modes carry equal power. The spectral components will be assumed to travel independently. Each component will undergo a time delay called the group delay per unit length in the direction of travel.

From chapter 2, the author showed that the phase velocity travels down the fiber as

Vp =

where = 2 v =

The group velocity is then

Velocitygroup

c = Vg = n ( )
m s

Vg =
= 1 Vg

d d d(
2 c

2 c

and Vg = 2 c d ( ) d
1

time delay sec g 1 = = length m L Velocitygroup

d (kc) d

=c

dk d

g =

L Vg

By use of the chain rule, we have

Vg = ()

2 c d 2 d

1 2 d = ( ) 2 c d Vg

Section 3.2.2 Group Delay

Section 3.2.2 Group Delay

Since the index of refraction depends on the wavelength and the velocity of light in a medium depends on the index of refraction, then the group velocity depends on the wavelength of the light.

For not to wide spectral widths, the total delay difference is

= k n( ) =

n( )

d g d

Under this chromatic dispersion each spectral component will undergo a different time delay and the pulse will spread with transmission distance.

The total time spread is the time delay per unit wavelength times the wavelength spread of the source light.

g
L

1 Vg

= ( )

2 d 2 c d

g = ()

L 2 d 2 c d

Section 3.2.2 Group Delay

L 2 d 2 c d Plug the group time delay g into the time spread equation yields

g = ( )

Section 3.2.2 Group Delay

The dispersion coefficient D defines the pulse spread as a function of wavelength.

d L 2 d ( ) d 2 c d

= ( )

L d d 2 2 + 2 2 c d d2

D=

1 d g L d

= ( )

d 2 1 d 2 + 2 2 c d d 2

The text (appendix F) now defines a new term 2 called the group velocity dispersion (GVD).

The units of the dispersion coefficient may be typically listed as ps ns or km nm km nm A dimensionless coefficient for the group velocity dispersion can be defined as

2 =

d 2 d 2

Similar to acceleration, 2 indicates how rapidly the index of refraction is changing per unit wavelength.

D=

d 2k c 2 d   

Lui , Photonic Devices

2 c 2 = 2   

Keiser text

Section 3.2.3 Material Dispersion

Section 3.2.3 Material Dispersion

Material dispersion occurs because the index of refraction varies as a function of the optical wavelength. Or alternately, we can say that varies with n().

Material dispersion is an intramodal effect and of particular importance for single-mode and LED systems. Let the variation in the index of refraction be n(). The propagation constant is now

2 n( )

= k n ( )

The group delay due to material dispersion is then

material
L

1 2 2 n( ) 2 d = ( ) = ( ) Vg 2 c 2 c d

= ( )

2 n( ) 1 dn 1 dn + 2 = n ( ) 2 2 c d d c

Section 3.2.3 Material Dispersion

Figure 3-13

The total dispersion of a length L is then

mat =

L [ n( ) dn( )] c

In terms of rms, the pulse spread mat is

mat

d mat d

= L Dmat ( )
D > 0 is called positive group-velocity dispersion. A long wavelength pulse travels faster than a short-wavelength pulse. D < 0 is called negative group-velocity dispersion. A short-wavelength pulse travels faster than a long-wavelength pulse.

Example 3-4

Section 3.2.4 Waveguide Dispersion

A GaAlAs LED has a spectral width of 40 nm. peak = 800 nm

Waveguide dispersion occurs because a single-mode fiber confines only about 80% of the optical power to the core of the fiber. Waveguide dispersion is another intramodal effect. It occurs within one mode and each mode in a many mode system will have its own waveguide dispersion. In terms of the modal propagation constant, varies a/. The optical fiber radial dimension (radius a) relative to the light wavelength is now the important parameter.

= 5%
The rms spectral width is

= ( 5% ) = 800nm(0.05) = 40 nm
ps 110 km nm = (40nm) 110 ps ps ns = 4400 = 4.4 km nm km km

The coefficient of material dispersion Dmat is found from figure 3-13.

Dmat

The pulse spread mat per unit distance is

mat = Dmat

Section 3.2.4 Waveguide Dispersion

Section 3.2.4 Waveguide Dispersion

The group delay in terms of the normalized propagation constant b is (review chapter 2 and equation 2-48)
ua b = 1 V
2

Using the relation n2 = n1 (1 )

n1 n2 =

n1 =
= n2

n2 1
1

n n

k2 2 1

2 n2 2 2

n2 n n (1 ) n2 = 2 2 1 1

The derivation moves forward by assuming the weakly guided condition where << 1.
b
k n2 n1 n2

Plug this result into the last equation for

= n2 + bn2

1 1 1

Solving for

= kn2 + kn2b

Since << 1, we have

= n2 + b(n1 n2 )

kn2 + kn2b

= kn2 + kn2b

= kn2 (b + 1)

Section 3.2.4 Waveguide Dispersion

Section 3.2.4 Waveguide Dispersion

Thus the group delay due to waveguide dispersion wg is

wg
Where
Vg =

2 L = 2 c

The modal propagation constant is obtained from the eigenvalue equation (Eq. 2-54) which I mostly skipped in lecture. Use the normalized frequency V in an approximation.
2 kan2 2 V = ka n12 n2

c ( 2 k ) =c

1 1 = Vg c k

dV = an2 2 dk

Back to the group delay equation.

Use the last relation in the group delay equation.

wg =

L Vg

L c k

L ( kn2 + kn2b ) c k

L dkb n2 + n2 c dk

wg =

d an V 2 b L L dkb 2 n2 + n2 n2 + n2 = c dV c dk an2 2 an2 2 dVb L L dVb = n2 + n2 = n2 + n2 c c dV an2 2 dV

Section 3.2.4 Waveguide Dispersion

wg =

L dVb n2 + n2 c dV

Section 3.2.4 Waveguide Dispersion

The first term in the equation is a constant. It is the time delay for a light pulse traveling in a waveguide where n2 = a constant. The second term above is the group delay arising from waveguide dispersion. The author then shows the V factor in terms of Bessel functions.
2 J v2 (ua) d (Vb) = b 1 dV J v +1 (ua) J v 1 (ua)

Main message on waveguide dispersion: The group delay is different for every guided mode. For small radius waveguides, waveguide dispersion can be significant. For large radius waveguides (multimode), waveguide dispersion is very small and can be neglected.

Section 3.2.5 Signal Distortion in Single-Mode Fibers

Section 3.2.5 Signal Distortion in Single-Mode Fibers

d wg d

d wg dV

( )

For single-mode fibers, material mat and waveguide wg dispersion can be nearly equal. Examine by looking at the pulse spread wg occurring over a distribution of wavelengths . This pulse spreading can be found by taking the derivative of the group delay with respect to wavelength .
d wg d = d wg dV dV d 2 a = d wg dV
( )

wg =
d wg dV =

L dVb n2 + n2 c dV
L d dVb n2 + n2 c dV dV
L d 2Vb V n2 c dV 2 L d 2Vb V n2 c dV 2 = L d 2Vb n2 c dV 2

Thus d wg
d

2 a

The total waveguide dispersion over a finite wavelength spread is

( NA)d

V=

dV 2 a = () 2 ( NA) d

( NA)

dV = () = ( ) V

wg =

LVn2 d 2Vb c dV 2

Section 3.2.5 Signal Distortion in Single-Mode Fibers

wg =
The behavior of the dispersion by wavelength is At longer wavelengths mat > wg At shorter wavelengths mat < wg

LVn2 d 2Vb c dV 2

Example 3-5 on page 112

The waveguide dispersion coefficient is given by

Dwg =

n2 d 2Vb ps V 2 c dV km nm

Find the coefficient Dwg for the following conditions: = 1320 nm n2 = 1.48 = 0.002 V = 2.4 Use figure 3-15 to find

d 2Vb = 0.26 dV 2

Example 3-5

Section 3.2.6 Polarization-Mode Dispersion

The waveguide dispersion coefficient is then

Dwg

n d 2Vb 1.48(0.002) = 2 V 0.26] = 8 9 [ c dV 2 (3 10 )(1320 10 ) = 1.94

The effects of fiber birefringence on the polarization sates of an optical signal are another source of pulse broadening. Birefringence can result from intrinsic factors such as geometric irregularities of the fiber core or internal stress on it. Bending, twisting, or pinching of the fiber can also lead to birefringence. A fundamental property of an optical signal is its polarization state. If the polarization state varies as the light travels down the fiber, and the fiber is birefringent, then there will be pulse broadening.

s km nm

I find the time units are s not ps as stated in the text solution.

Figure 3-17

Section 3.2.6 Polarization-Mode Dispersion

The time of arrival differences between two orthogonal polarizations is given by

pol =

L L vgx vgy

Temperature and movement are big factors in birefringence in the fiber. Thus Polarization-Mode dispersion (PMD) varies randomly along a fiber, particularly in aerial cables.

Section 3.2.7 Intermodal Distortion

Section 3.3 and 3.4

The final factor giving rise to signal degradation is intermodal distortion. Each mode has a different value for the group delay as can be seen from ray tracing. Different path length = different arrival time. Each mode has a different value for the group delay as can be seen from ray tracing. Different path length = different arrival time.

Please read section 3.3 Pulse Broadening in Graded-Index Waveguides on you own. Graded-index multimode fibers are frequently used and the reading will outline the various factors that arise from the gradation of the index profile of the core. Also read section 3.4 Mode Coupling on your own. The author points out how the pulse distortion increases less rapidly after a certain distance Lc than the linear model expects due to intermodal coupling.

Tintermodal = Tmax Tmin =

n1 ( Lmax Lmin) c

n1L c

Section 3.5 Design Optimization of Single-Mode Fibers

Section 3.5.1 Refractive-Index Profiles

Telecommunication happens mostly over single-mode fibers. So we should take a brief look at the distortion in such fibers. This section looks at design-optimization characteristics, cutoff wavelength, dispersion, mode-field diameter and bending loss.

In the design of single-mode fibers, dispersion (rather than attenuation) is a major distinguishing feature. For silica fibers the least attenuation occurs around 1550 nm. The least dispersion occurs around 1300 nm. There are several approaches to either minimize the attenuation at 1300 nm or to minimize the dispersion at 1550 nm. See figure 3-22 1300 nm optimized fiber Dispersion shifted (towards 1550 nm) Dispersion flattened (broad range suitable for WDM) Large effective core area (good for optical amplifier use)

Figure 3-24

Figure 3-24

Both material and waveguide dispersion.

Total dispersion.

Section 3.5.2 Cutoff Wavelength

Section 3.5.3 Dispersion Calculations

The cutoff wavelength of the first higher-order mode LP11 (where only the HE11 and LP01 will propagate) is given by

cutoff =

2 a 2 2 n1 n2 V

Limiting the spectral width and choosing a minimum dispersion wavelength is the most effective way to have a high-bandwidth channel in a single-mode fiber.

Where V = 2.405 for step-index fibers. A practical method is the test standards listed on page 127, so that comparison of an actual fiber to desired specification can be tested. Trial and error is still the rule with analysis only somewhat guiding the search for appropriate fibers.

The Electronics Industry Alliance (EIA) has set a number of methods and standards to assure performance requirements.

Section 3.5.4 Mode-Field Diameter

Section 3.5.5 Bending Loss

The selection of core size versus wavelength determines how much of the light energy travels in the cladding.

Macrobending and microbending losses are most evident in the 1550 nm region. The lower the cutoff wavelength relative to the operating wavelength, the more susceptible single-mode fibers are to bending losses. The bending losses are primarily a function of the mode-field diameter. The smaller the mode-field diameter, the smaller the bending loss. By specifying bend-radius limitations, the macrobending losses can be largely avoided.

The figure shows that the typical modern single-mode fiber should have a core diameter in the 5 to 10 m range.

End of Chapter 3

Signal Degradation in Optical Fibers