Honors Chem Final Review Chemistry: The study of the composition of materials and the changes they undergo.

Solid: Matter that has a definite shape and volume. Element: Simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties. Solution: Another name for a homogenous mixture. Reactants: Starting substance in a chemical reaction. Compound: Contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion. Compounds/mixtures: Atoms are to elements as molecules are to? Vapor: A gaseous substance that is generally a liquid at room temperature. Extensive properties: depends on the amount of matter in a sample (i.e. volume and mass) Intensive properties: depend on the type of matter in a sample, not the amount (hardness and density) Substance: matter than has a uniform and definite composition. Mass: the measure of the amount of matter an object contains. Volume: measure of the space occupied by the object. Mixture: a physical blend of two or more components (hereto or homo). Heterogeneous: a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout (i.e. chicken noodle soup) Homogeneous: a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout (a.k.a. a solution) Phase: any part of a sample with uniform composition and properties, a homogeneous mixture consists of a single phase, while heterogeneous mixtures contain two or more. Element: the simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties **Compounds can be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means, but elements cannot** **If the composition of a material is fixed, it is a substance. If the composition may very its a mixture** Chemical changes: transfer energy, change color, produce gas, or form precipitates During any chemical reaction, the mass of the product is always the equal to the mass of the reactants.

Law of Conservation of Mass: in any physical change or chemical reaction, mass is neither created nor destroyed.

**PERCENT ERROR = (experimental value accepted value) / accepted value. Take that, multiply the absolute value by 100 in order to get your percentage of error. Significant figures: for a measurement include all of the digits that are known, plus a last digit that is estimated. Every nonzero digit Zeros between nonzero digits Leftmost zeros in front of nonzero digits are NOT significant Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of a decimal point are always significant Zeros to the rightmost end of a measurement that lie to the left of a decimal are not significant

Weight: is a force that measures the pull on a given mass by gravity Kilo (1000) J D Base Unit Deci (.1) Centi (.01) Micro (.001) **DENSITY = MASS VOLUME** (Generally decreases as a substances temperature increases) Atom: smallest particle of an element that retains its identity in a chemical reaction. Democritus: believed that atoms were indivisible and indestructible J. J. Thomson: discovered the electron using a cathode ray **Elements are different because they contain different numbers of protons** Atomic Number: the number of protons in the nucleus of that element **Atoms are electrically neutral the number of electrons = number of protons. **NUMBER OF NEUTRONS = MASS NUMBER ATOMIC NUMBER** Electron configurations: the ways in which electrons are arranged in various orbitals around the nuclei of atoms. Aufbau Principle: electrons occupy the orbitals of lowest energy first Pauli Exclusion Principle: an atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons. To occupy the same orbital, two electrons must have opposite spins (up & down arrows) Hunds Rule: electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in a way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible. Quantum: the amount of energy required to move an electron from one energy level to another **The quantum mechanical model determines the allowed energies an electron can have and how likely it is to find the electron in various locations around the nucleus. **

**When atoms absorb energy, electrons move into higher energy levels, and then lose energy by emitting light when the electrons drop back to lower energy levels.** **The light emitted by an electron moving from a higher to a lower energy level has a frequency directly proportional to the energy change of the electron** **In general, atomic size increases from top to bottom, and decreases from left to right** **First ionization energy tends to decrease from top to bottom and increase from left to right** Electronegativity: the ability of an element to attract electrons when the atom is in a compound **Electronegativity decreases top to bottom, and increase left to right Covalent Bond: Sharing electrons Ionic Bond: Giving away electrons (arrows and charges, produces ions) Nonpolar Covalent Bond: when the atoms of a covalent bond are shared and pulled equally Empirical Formulas: gives the smallest whole-number ratio of the atoms in the compound