chapter

Hot-water supply
OVERVIEW
A supply of hot water is an essential requirement for anyone. We use it for personal washing and general cleaning purposes. There is a variety of hot-water systems available. In this chapter you will learn about:

Hot-water systems properties of hot water types of hot-water system Storage heaters typical storage heaters combination storage systems Instantaneous hot-water systems types of instantaneous heater

202

7 Hot-water supply

It would be hard to imagine life without hot water: no hot showers, baths or water for cleaning. It is the plumbers job to ensure that hot water is available as required. A supply of hot water to domestic dwellings only became commonplace after the Second World War, and systems design has been improving since then. Hot water system design is also covered by the Water Regulations and BS 6700. The design of a hot-water system will depend on the type of building. For example, when installing a toilet in a factory canteen, an instantaneous water heater is a more economical option than a storage system. In a domestic situation, there are instantaneous methods of supplying hot water as well as systems fed from storage.

Remember
The essential Water Regulations: preventing the contamination of water supply preventing the waste of water preventing the misuse of the water supply preventing undue consumption preventing erroneous measurement of the water supply.

Properties of hot-water systems

At the end of this section you should be able to:

explain the basic properties of hot water explain the requirements of hot-water systems and connections to service pipework explain key difference between hot-water storage and instanteous systems.

Properties of hot water

The intensity of heat is measured by its temperature. In open vented domestic hot water systems, the temperature in the hot water storage vessel should be 6065C. The quantity of heat takes into account the volume of a substance and is measured in kilojoules (kj). The effect of heat on any matter solid, liquid or gas causes it to expand. This is a very important principle in plumbing, especially when dealing with the expansion of hot water, and the material in which it is stored or transported, e.g. copper pipework. Heat travels by conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction: Have you noticed when you use a blowlamp to make a soldered joint on a copper pipe that, although you apply the ame to the tting, the pipework either side is always hot for some distance? This is because the heat has travelled along the pipe by conduction. Convection: The transfer of heat by convection arises from the physical movement of molecules within a uid or a gas. Liquids and gases expand when heated, and the molecules nearest the source of heat expand more quickly than those further away. On expansion, they become lighter, or less dense, and are consequently pushed upwards by the colder and heavier molecules surrounding them. Convection is the principle behind hot-water circulation between a boiler and a hot-water storage vessel, and for the majority of the heat given off by a radiator. Radiation: Radiant heat can be described as a form of energy that travels in a straight line through both air and space. Probably the best example of the radiation of heat is that given off by the sun used to good effect on solar hot-water heating systems.

Did you know?

There are many types of hot-water system but, generally speaking, they are either instantaneous systems (supplying hot water instantly) or storage systems (where water is heated and stored in a vessel until needed)

Safety tip
Catering for the expansion that occurs during the heating process is vital to ensure that the system works correctly and safely

203

Plumbing NVQ Level 2

Types of hot-water system

Connection
The connection between main and service pipework will depend on the type of hot water system that is to be installed, but generally will be categorised as direct or indirect. Direct: Appliances such as instantaneous water heaters, when supplied directly should be tted with a servicing valve (ball type) as close to the appliance as possible. Direct hot-water storage systems are fed via the cold-water storage cistern (CWSC). Indirect: Instantaneous water heaters can also be supplied indirectly, and again should be tted with a servicing valve. Again, on indirect hot-water storage systems the cold water supply is via the CWSC and the installation details were covered in the cold water supply section. There is a wide range of hot water systems available for domestic properties. The following factors should be considered in their selection and design:

the quantity of hot water required the temperature during storage and at outlets the cost of installation and maintenance fuel energy requirements and running costs any wastage of water and energy safety for the user.

Methods of heating hot-water systems

The following energy sources or fuels are used for heating hot water.

electricity immersion heater instantaneous heater storage heater gas boiler water circulator instantaneous heater storage heater solid fuel boiler combined cooker and boiler oil

boiler combined cooker and boiler

solar (usually used to supplement other systems) solar panel or collector.

204

7 Hot-water supply

Choosing a system
Systems can range from a simple, single-point arrangement supplying one outlet to a more complex centralised boiler system supplying hot water to a number of outlets. BS6700 sets out a number of ways of supplying hot water, as detailed in gure 7.1 below. The chart is divided into centralised and localised systems. A centralised system is one where water is heated and can be stored centrally within a building. The heating of the water can be controlled by a thermostat. A system of pipework supplies the heated water to various draw-off points. A localised system is one where water is heated where it is needed for example a single-point water heater sited over a sink. Localised systems are often used in situations where long distribution pipe runs would involve a waste of water and energy.
Choice of system

Denition
Centralised storage system stores heated water ready to be supplied to a number of outlets Localised system heats water at the point at which it is required

Localised

Centralised

Instantaneous

Storage

Instantaneous

Storage

Single point

Multipoint

Combination boiler

Water-jacketed tube heater

Vented

Unvented

Inlet controlled

Outlet controlled

Sealed primary

Vented primary

Boiler & cylinder

Gas storage

Electric immersion

Indirectly heated

Directly heated

Vented primary

Figure 7.1 Centralised and localised systems

Double feed

Single feed

205

Plumbing NVQ Level 2

Denition
Gravity circulation cold water is heavier than hot water and gravity therefore exerts a stronger pull on it, drawing it down and allowing the hot water to rise through the system Immersion heater is an electric element tted inside the hot water storage vessel. It can be controlled by a switch and thermostat

Direct hot-water system (vented)

Open vent pipe

You are only likely to work on the system shown in the illustration when carrying out maintenance or repair, as it is Storage cistern no longer widely used. This direct system works by water being heated in a boiler (by gas, oil or solid fuel) and then Hot distributing Cold feed pipe rising due to the principle of to cylinder convection otherwise known only as gravity circulation. It rises through the primary ow pipe and into the hot water storage vessel, heating the contents of the vessel directly. The hot water from the boiler Primary flow is replaced by the cooler and heavier water moving in the primary return from the lower area of the storage vessel. The system does not always have to be heated by a boiler via primary ow and return pipes. It can be directly heated by means of an immersion Primary return heater; gas circulators are also used on direct systems, connected directly to the storage vessel. There are a number of points to remember about direct systems using gravity circulation.

Boiler

There are minimum sizes for primary circuits to hot storage vessels: 22 mm for short pipe runs Figure 7.2 28 mm for longer pipe runs (or from continuous Direct system of hot-water burning appliances). Vent pipes should not be less than 22 mm in diameter. All pipes to be laid to falls to prevent air locks and help system drain down. The vent route from the boiler, primary ow and open vent should not be valved. The cold-feed pipe should be sized in accordance with BS6700 the cold feed is the key route in which expansion water is taken up from the cylinder when it is heated, i.e. the heated water from the cylinder moves through the cold-feed pipe and the water level rises in the storage cistern. The open-vent pipe cannot be taken directly from the top of the hot-water

206

7 Hot-water supply

storage vessel. The hot draw-off pipe should incorporate a 450 mm offset between the storage vessel and its point of connection to the open-vent pipe to prevent one pipe circulation.

Did you know?

The vent pipe is where the term vented system comes from; the pipe is a key safety component in the system

Corrosion inhibiters should not be used, as the water in the boiler is fed directly to the appliances. No other supplies or draw-offs should be connected to the cold feed.

The next illustration shows a direct system heated by an immersion heater. The immersion heater should be controlled by a thermostat.

Open vent pipe Cold distributing pipe

Storage and feed cistern

Cold distributing pipe Servicing valve

Drain valve

Cold feed pipe DHW Cylinder

Hot distributing pipe

Supply pipe

Figure 7.3 Direct hot-water system heated by an immersion heater

The purpose of the vent pipe

The purpose of the vent pipe is to maintain atmospheric conditions in the pipework. It permits any air entering the system to escape and, should the water in the system become over heated, it allows it to expand up the vent pipe and discharge into the cistern. The use of better system controls has reduced the risk of overheating, but it can occur on direct systems, particularly ones using solid-fuel back boilers.

Indirect hot-water system (vented)

This is the most common form of vented domestic hot-water system. It allows the boiler to be used for the central heating circuit as the system permits the use of a variety of different metals because the primary circuit is totally separate from the

207

Plumbing NVQ Level 2

secondary circuit. The system is called indirect because the water contained in the storage vessel is heated indirectly through a heat exchanger. The diagram shows a vented double-feed indirect system.
Open vent

Coil type heat exchanger

Annulus type heat exchanger

Storage cistern

F&E Cistern

Cold feed Indirect cylinder types Wash basin

Bath

Primary flow

Sink Drain Valve Primary return CH Pipework

Boiler

Figure 7.4 Double-feed indirect system of hot-water supply

Key points of the double-feed type of cylinder:

Remember
Hot water storage vessels must be insulated. New cylinders are now pre-lagged in the manufacturing process, using expanded foam, but lagging jackets can also be bought

The open-vent and cold-feed pipes may be connected to the primary ow pipes as shown, or fed separately into the boiler. Where the vent pipe is not connected to the highest point in a primary circuit, an air release valve should be tted. A separate feed and expansion cistern needs to be provided to feed the primary circuit this ensures that where a double-feed cylinder is used, the primary water is kept totally separate from the secondary hot water.

Indirect single-feed system

This system uses a self-venting cylinder and does not require a separate feed and expansion cistern. The water in the primary and secondary circuits is separated by means of an air bubble. The installation of the cylinder needs to be carefully made

208

7 Hot-water supply

in accordance with the manufacturers requirements, in order that the air bubble is not dislodged in the cylinder permitting the two waters to mix. It is for this reason that this type of cylinder does not tend to be widely used in modern vented types of hot-water system.
Secondary water Open vent Air trapped in upper dome Cold feed Primary water

Storage cistern

System filling

System filled (cold)

Cold feed

Volume of air in dome reduced due to heating effect

Wash basin

Bath

Primary flow Sink

System heated

Primary return

CH Pipework

Figure 7.5 Single-feed vented hot-water storage system

Boiler

Key points of the single-feed type of cylinder:

Water enters the primary circuit via a number of holes at the top of the vertical pipe immediately under the upper dome. The system is self-venting through the air vent pipe while the primary circuit is lling. Once the primary circuit is lled, the lling of the secondary supply (the one which feeds the appliances) continues. When the secondary supply is full, two air seals are formed and a permanent seal is maintained. Once the water is heated, expansion of the water in the primary circuit is taken up by forcing the air from the upper dome.

Remember
The manufacturer will specify a maximum head of water above the base of the cylinder

209

Plumbing NVQ Level 2

Note also the following points:

Safety tip
Manufacturers recommendations must always be followed when installing water heating systems

The primary circulation system must not be too large. An excessive quantity of water in the system, once expanded, would exceed the amount of space in the dome. The result would be the loss of the air seal. Care must be taken when using circulating pumps on the primary circuit to the hot water cylinder, again this could result in the loss of the air seal. The loss of air seal would convert the system into a direct system. That is, water from the central heating system would mix with the secondary water. Corrosion inhibitors or other additives must not be added to primary circuits.

Denition
Sacricial anode a piece of metal low in electro-motive series (electrolytic corrosion) that will be destroyed before all others

The disadvantages tend to outweigh the advantages of single-feed vented cylinders, so they are not widely used. The cylinders used in direct and indirect systems are available in a number of standard sizes 900 mm 450 mm, storing approximately 110 litres of water, being the most common. Cylinders are supplied in a number of grades (thicknesses): grade 4 has been commonly used, but it is of an inferior quality, possibly with poor heat exchanger surface area and should no longer be considered. Grade 3 is the preferred minimum option with a heat exchanger and insulation level that will meet the requirements of Part L1 of Building Regulations. The cylinder will usually be labelled to indicate that it complies. Most cylinders will include a sacricial anode inside (made from magnesium) to guard against pitting corrosion and protect the lifespan of the cylinder.

Open vent

Draught diverter

Storage heaters
At the end of this section you should be able to:

Sacificial anode

identify and describe various types of hot-water storage systems

Flute baffle Hot distribution pipe Cold inlet

Inlet controlled
These are more common in large domestic or small commercial/industrial buildings. The diagram shows a typical storage heater. In this case, it is heated by gas, but electrical storage heaters are also available. A gas storage heater is basically a self-contained boiler and storage system. This system also includes an open ue, which must be terminated externally. Often referred to as pressure-controlled

Gas supply Gas burner

Figure 7.6 Direct-red gas storage hot-water heater

210

7 Hot-water supply

water heaters, they are usually designed to be fed by a cistern (indirect) or mains (direct) supply, in which case it would be included in an unvented system. This type of storage heater is classied as outlet controlled, as the supply is controlled at the appliance outlet, Inlet control e.g. hot tap. It will also valve serve multiple outlets.

Electric or gas single point heater

Outlet controlled
As the illustration shows, these are generally seen as single-point Supply pipe heaters, tted either above the appliance with a swivel outlet spout, or under the appliance.
Basin

Alternative heater position (special tap required)

The heater is fed from the supply pipe, which has an inlet control. Figure 7.7 Small, inlet controlled single-point storage heater It is important that the outlet must not be obstructed, or any connections made to it, as the open outlet allows for expansion of the water on heating. If an under-sink model is used, then a special tap will be required to allow venting of the water heater. They can be heated by either gas Open vent or electricity.
Storage cistern

Supply pipe

Combination storage systems

Hot distribution pipe

DHW cylinder Primary flow

Combination storage cylinders include a cold-water storage cistern. The base of the cistern must not be positioned lower than Coil type heat exchanger the level of the highest connected water outlet. It should also be high enough to give adequate water ow at the outlets. They Return connection or drain valve are not very widely used, as the relatively low head provided to the hot water outlets in typical Figure 7.8 Combination storage cylinder installations can be problematical.

Cold feed

Primary return

211

Plumbing NVQ Level 2

The advantages of combination storage systems are:

low installation costs they are useful for ats where space is limited, providing minimum ow rates can be achieved.

However, there are disadvantages:

can not be used for showers (without pumping) low pressure at hot taps cold-water storage space limited.

Instantaneous hot-water systems

Flue outlet Heat exchanger

At the end of this section you should be able to:

list the various types of instantaneous water heaters describe their operation

Instantaneous systems work by passing cold water from the service pipe through a heat source, which heats the water by the time it comes out at the application end. The heat source can be either gas or electric, or in the case of a water-jacketed tube heater, oil. The speed that the water can be heated is limited, so the ow rate of the water needs to be controlled so it can be heated properly. Because of the reduced ow rate, it is not possible to supply a large number of outlet points all at once, so they would not be installed in situations where there is high demand. For example, you might nd a multipoint in a small property, or a single point in an ofce kitchen area or WC.

Gas burner

Pilot flame Thermocouple Push rod

Types of instantaneous heater

Pressure differential valve Gas Cold water supply inlet

Multipoint gas red

As you can see from the illustration, this consists of a gas burner sited beneath the heat exchanger. When the hot tap is opened, it allows water to pass through the heater. This causes the gas valve

Hot water outlet

Figure 7.9 Typical gas red multi-point water heater

212

7 Hot-water supply

to open as a result of the drop in pressure in the differential valve. This drop in pressure is caused by water passing through the venturi, which creates a negative pressure as it sucks the water from the valve. The diaphragm is connected to a push rod and, as it lifts, it opens the gas line. The gas is then ignited by the pilot light. When the hot-water tap is turned off, the pressure in the differential valve is equalised, the diaphragm closes and the gas supply is turned off.

The water-jacketed heater

This is also known as a thermal storage system.
F&E cistern (can be built into unit)

Expansion chamber

Adjustable thermostatic mixing valve

Boiler

Hot taps

Cold taps

CH flow and return pipework

Supply pipe

Figure 7.10 Water-jacketed tube heater

When the hot tap is turned on, cold water either from the mains or storage cistern passes through a heat exchanger, which is situated in a heat store of primary hot water. The size of this heat store will be calculated based on the volume and rate of ow that can be delivered without an unacceptable drop in temperature. The primary water-ow from the boiler is programmed by the cylinder thermostat. Hot water is pumped to the radiator heating-circuit and is returned to the heat store; the cooler water from the heat store is then returned to the boiler where it is reheated. This is similar to an indirect domestic hot-water system, only in reverse.

213

Plumbing NVQ Level 2

Single-point instantaneous water heater

This type of heater uses electricity or gas. Sited directly above the appliance, it is usually inlet controlled, with the hot water delivered via a swivel spout. The electric multipoint is a small tank of water with an electric heating element inside. Because of the low volume of water, it quickly heats up as it is drawn through the heater. The temperature at the outlet will be related to the water ow rate and the kW rating of the heater. You will nd single-point heaters used in situations where a small number of hot-water draw-offs are fed by individual heaters in a non-domestic type building, and where the use of a centralised hot water system would be uneconomical. You might nd them in the WC of small cafs, etc.

Single-point vented electric water heater

Denition
Check valve a device used to protect the water supply from any contaminants that may get into it

Instantaneous electric showers

The electric heater shown is designed for mains connection, although some can be fed indirectly. The electrical rating can be in excess of 10 kW, so it is important that the supply is adequate, and wired directly from the mains distribution unit (MDU). For a rating of 9.6 kW, the circuit protection device requirements would be 45 amp and the cable 10 mm2. The shower should also be isolated with a switch; this should be located within easy access outside of the shower room. Any pressure variations in the cold water supply to the shower will be handled by the ow governor. Most electrical instantaneous showers are tted with a exible hose outlet they will require a check valve to be tted to protect against possible contamination of the supply, as required by the Water Regulations Schedule 2, paragraph 15. This will usually be provided by the manufacturer.

Instantaneous electric shower

214

7 Hot-water supply

FAQ
Why is it that a hot-water cylinder is always full of water even when the hot tap runs dry?
A hot-water cylinder has the cold-water inlet at the bottom and the hot outlet at the top therefore it always remains full even if the cold supply is disrupted and hot taps are opened until they run dry. Furthermore it is safe for immersion heaters and boilers to remain working because the cylinder is always full.

Knowledge check
1 2 State 3 of the key factors to be considered when selecting and designing hot-water systems. The water temperature in a hot-water storage vessel should be maintained at: 50-55C 65-70C 60-65C 70-75C Heat transmitted by gravity between the boiler and cylinder in a hot-water system uses the principle of: Radiation Convection Conduction Reection Which of the following statements is correct? A single-feed indirect cylinder a. Should not be lled with corrosion inhibitor b. Should be lled with corrosion inhibitor c. Requires a feed and expansion cistern d. Requires a primary vent pipe 5 Which of the following statements is incorrect? A combination storage cylinder a. Is space saving b. Provides high pressure hot water c. Provides low pressure hot water d. Does not require a storage cistern 6 List the main types of instantaneous water heaters.

215