HOW TO MAKE

A VIOLIN
by

JOHN BROADHOUSE
and

VIOLIN NOTES by OLE BULL

Revised Edition

LONDON
WILLIAM REEVES
la

Bookseller Ltd.

Norbury Crescent, S.W.I

Lowe and Brydone

Printed in Great Britain by (Printers) Limited, London,

N.W.io

Foreword,

THE demand

for this little

work on the

construction of the violin has con-

tinued steadily for years and for a short

time has been out of print.

This present

edition has been considerably improved

and

has had the advantage of being revised by

one

of

our

well-known

violin

makers.

With

a view of further improving this edi-

tion the outline illustrations of the

models

of Stradivarius, Guarnerius and Amati have

been re-drawn and that of a Maggini added

to the
list.

Contents
rAOK

Introduction

Chapter

1.

The Parts

of the Violin

7
II.

Chapter

On

the Selection of

Wood
III.

Chapter The Tools Required

13

Chapter IV.

The Models
Chapter V,
The Mould
Chapter VI. The Side-pieces and Side-linings

22

28

35

Chapter VII.
The Back
The Belly
...

41

Chapter VIII.
46

The Thickness

of

Chapter IX. the Back and Belly

52

VI

CONTENTS.
PAOK

Chapter X.
The Bass Bar
66

Chapter XI.
The Purfling
Chapter XII.
61

The Neck
Chapter XIII.

67

The Fingerboard
Chapter XIV.

V6

The Nut

cand the Tail Piece

Nut

77

Chapter XV.
Varnishing and Polishing
79

Chapter XVI. Varnishes and Colouring Matter

Chapter XVII. The Varnish Chapter XVIII. Mathematical Method of Constructing the
Outline

82

91

A.

102

Chapter XIX. The Remaining Accessories of the Violin cluding Violin Notes by Ole Bull)

(in...

113

List of Illustrations.
''Le Mercure " Strad
Frontispiece

ria.

1.

Saw
Plane, side view

J3

2.
3.

14
...

Plane, bottom view

... ...

14

4. 5. 6.
7.

8.
9.

10.

Plane showing loose pieces detached Plane ready for use ... Side view of small rounded plane Bottom view of small rounded plane Knife Scraper ... ... ... ... ... Steel compasses ... ... ...

14
15 16

...

16
17 17 17

...

...

11. Steel trace

12.

Bending iron
Hand-vice

... ...

...
... ...

...

13. 14.

Wooden hand screw

wood

...

...

...

15. Clip of
16.
17. 18.

Sound-post setter ... ... Sound-post setter used by Spohr

...

... ...

...

18 18 19 19 20 20 20

Large folding plate of outlines of an Amati, Stradivarius, Guarnerius and Maggini At end of volume
Outline of a violin

19.

23

20.

21.

Model Model

for the curve of the

for the curve at its greatest

back and belly width

24 24

Vlll
FIO.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAOK

22.
23.

The curve over the / holes Model for the curve at the widebt part
the neck end
... ...
... ...

24
of
...

24

24.

25.
26. 27.

Model for drawing and placing the / holes The mould The counter mould The upper mould with pieces in position

25 28
29
31

28. 29.

30. 31. 32.

Mould with the blocks Maple piece The two maple pieces in
The back-plate

32
41

position
...

41

Another view in one piece

42 44

33. Purfling tool

34. Cutters 35. Purfling tool

36. Chisel-sharpened awl 37.

38.

The neck

62 62 63 66 68
... ... ... ...

39. Outline
40.

view of the foot of the neck with measures marked

72

104

Arc
showing the position of the bar showing varying thickness Bridge of a viol with seven strings, body of which is not cut out except at two sides ... ... ... ... Bridge of a viol with five strings through in every part ... Bridge of a small pattern violin of ancient school of Anthony Amati Bridge of a Nicholas Araati ... Bridge of a Stradivarius ...
...
...

41. Outline

108 109
110

42. Outline 43.

the
the
...

126
127

44.

cut

45.

the

46.
47.

126 128
128

Introduction.

So
all

much has been

written

upon the
its its

violin, its history, its

development,

beauties as a musical instrument,

musical literature,
the

etc.,

that a collection of

works to which it ha^ given rise would form almost a library of themselves.
Its history

has been ably treated in a Gercalled

man work
chichte
ever,

"Die Violine, Ihre Ges-

und

Ihr Bau."

The

oiily

work, howI

as

yet

given to English readers,

treats fully

believe,

which

and

concisely of
in

making a violin, is the very fine but expensive work of E. Heron-Allen a work complete in itself, but perhaps too costly for some who would like to try their hand at fabricating
the

numerous details involved

2 a fiddle.

INTRODUCTION.
Hints are given
in

many

books,

and
seen

in

some of them a general outline of

is

the process
is

furnished; the best

"

have

contained in

The

Violin,"

by

P.

Davidson.
interesting

By

far the greater part of that

is

work

devoted to theoretical

and

historical matters, which, however, at-

tractive in themselves, are not strictly con-

nected with the making of the instrument

My
the

object in writing this book

is

to afford

amateur detailed information respectworkshop, from the time when the

lies

ing the various processes to be gone through

in the

wood in the rough moment when the

not think
I

on the bench
is

to the

finished article

ready
I

to be fitted with strings for playing.

do
es-

have allowed any detail to

cape me,
reader

if I

have
will

shall be grateful to

any

who

communicate with me, so

that the defect or defects

in

may

be remedied

a later edition.

do not
is

for a

moment
have
every

suppose that
tried to

my work
it

perfect, but I

make
and

as

full

and complete as
in

possible,

to

explain

detail

operation necessary to construct a violin,

INTRODUCTION.
It
is

3
is

presumed that the amateur

enthusiastic

suffi-

ciently

to

make

the
to

attempt,

and

that he

means not merely

of

make a
sound

common box

wood which
live after

will

when played upon, but

ments which will
his best

to produce instru-

him, and to put

work
are

into every violin he finishes.

Violins

turned

out by

the

thousand
for

every year, but cheap as they are, most of

them are dear

telligence,

at the price paid

them

because they are

made without

artistic in-

without enthusiasm, without love

for the beautiful,

attention

and without that minute

particular

to

each

instrument

which alone can secure a perfect work.

So

many backs, so many bellies, so many necks, so many finger-boards, so many bass-bars, so many sound-posts, are shaped to a given
pattern, fitted together, varnished, into the

and sent

market as so many violins; but

this is not the

strument.

way to produce one good inThe amateur who reads this

all that

book doubtless knows

about
the

can be learnt

old

masters whose

names are
if

household words in the violin world, and

4
SO,

INTRODUCTION.
he knows that they did not work on this but bestowed
loving
care

plan,

on every

single instrument, regarding the one

in

work

hand as quite enough to tax all their energies and absorb all their artistic knowledge and experience for the time being.
This
spirit
is

the spirit in which to work,

detail

the
as

which will regard every

equally

momentous, and bestow as much

time and trouble on the inside v/ork which

will never be seen, as

on the outside work which will be seen. I would call the reader's attention to the remark of the
eminent sculptor to the
effect that "Trifles

make

perfection," but I

would at the same

time caution him against misunderstanding

the quotation.
there

In the
"trifles,"

making of a
beautiful

violin

are

no

everything seen or
or

unseen,

great

or

small,
first

not

beautiful, is of the

importance.
details

The
on

mason who carved elaborate

figures, in

a cathedral, placed so high that

the beauty of his

work could not be seen and admired, made his work perfect because the gods would see it does the amateur who
;

INTRODUCTION.
is

about to begin to make a violin

?

know

what such enthusiasm means

to

Is

he pre-

pajed to produce a perfect work, not merely

make a
it,

profit

by

it,

not to win admiration

for

not to

gam

celebrity

by

it,

but because

the doing of genuine work, for the reason

that

it is

genuine work,

is

the highest

and

purest pleasure

This

is

known to the enthusiasm. The work

be bad
if

enthusiast?
will not of

fame result from it, but it will certainly be bad if this particular kind of enthusiasm do not inspire
necessity
profit or

every step taken in the process of doing

it.

Few

stories

have been told oftener than

that which tells

how

Sir Joshua

Reynolds

informed

an inquirer that he mixed his

colours with brains.

That
I

is

the one single

commodity with which

to supply
the

cannot undertake

amateur violin-maker.

No

amount of

instruction will enable a fool to

make a

fiddle.

No number of difficulties will man "with a head screwed on

to
success.

prevent a
the
right
failure

way about" from working through

These
instructions

are

only

INTRODUCTION.

meant for people of the latter sort. For them the directions here given will be ample.
Theories have been abundantly dealt with

by other
practical.

writers

this

work

is

meant

to be

HOW TO MAKE A
CHAPTER
I.

VIOLIN.

THE PARTS OF THE VIOLIN.

TAKEN
parts

to

pieces,

a violin would be

found to consist of the following

Back
Belly

....
. . .

2 Pieces

(4 Corners

and

top and

bottom blocks)
tSides Side Linings

6
12
I

Bar

JPurflings
*

36

It is is sometimes made in one piece. " then called a whole back." The same remark also

The back

applies to the belly.

t
I

Bottom side is sometimes one piece only. The purflings are the narrow black ornamental

double lines running round the outer edge of the back and belly. They are sometimes omitted.

How
Neck
.

to

Make

a Violin.
I

I^iec
II

Finger Board

Nut
Bridge

II

II

Tail Piece

II

Button for ditto

String for ditto
Tail Piece Nut
.

II

II

II

Sound Post
Strings

11

4
. .
.

II

Pegs

4
82

II

( Four kinds of wood are used pine, ebony and rosewood.

maple,

Maple
Pine
is

is

used for the back, the neck, the

side pieces

and the

bridge.

used for the belly, the bar, the

blocks, the side linings

and the sound

post.

Ebony
button.

is

used for the fingerboard, the

nut, the tail piece, the tail piece nut

>v

and

the

Rosewood

for the pegs

.
)

CHAPTER
maple and THE woods
the quality of

11.

ON THE SELECTION OF WOOD.

pine are the sounding

of the violin, and the tone of

the instrument depends chiefly upon

wood

chosen.

It is

a pity to

waste good work on bad wood, and the fol-

lowing points must be carefully observed

in selecting both the

Q The tree ber or January.

maple and pine should have been cut in Decem-

At

that time the sap has

ceased to flow, and

wood

cut

down

then

is

always richer in sonorous qualities than that

cut at
It

any other time^ must have been seasoned for

less.

six

or

seven years before use, more,

if possible,

but

never

Artificial

means have been emeffects

ployed to hasten the

of seasoning,

and make the wood tough,

ant, but seasoning is the

elastic

and

reson-

only genuine, be-

10

How

to

Make

a Violin.

cause natural

mode

of attaining this end,

and I advise the amateur to avoid baked wood, or wood dosed with chemicals, as he would the plague. The longer the wood has
been seasoned by being kept in a dry and
airy place

and protected from extremes of

it

heat and cold, the better will

be for violin

making.

y he
knots,

wood must be
quite

perfectly

free

from

sound, not

worm

without flaw of any kind. be perfectly straight and

and The grain must

eaten,

run lengthwise.

The maple must not be

too hard or too soft,

in the first case the tone will not

come

freely
it

at the touch of the bow, in the second,

will be dull, muffled

and

entirely without

brilliancy.^ This, like

many

other matters

in connection with our subject, is a question

of judgment and experience.

Paris, travelled in Italy

Vuillaume, of
for

and Switzerland

the express purpose of procuring pine wood,

and other articles of furniture whenever he found the kind of wood he wanted. As it is not possible for every would-be maker to follow his example
chairs, tables

and bought

On
I

the Selection of the amateur to

Wood.

il

recommend

buy the wood

he requires from a violin-maJcer of repute.

These are to be found

and even

at

London, Paris, Mirecourt, the French town

in

where so many

common

violins are

made by

machinery to order.
pieces of

For good material a

high price will be asked, and very valuable

back and belly wood are wortli

almost their weight in gold.

maker
pieces

in

London once showed me two

of

maple sawed into shape for a back, which he said he would not sell, even in the rough,
for twenty

pounds

apiece.

Tt

is

not of course necessary or desirable

that the amateur should

make
to

his earliest

experiments on costly wood, on the other

hand,

recommend him

make

his

first

fiddle of cheap material, so as to familiarise

himself with the tools ^nd the

them.
quired,

way

to use

When
it

this

experience has been ac-

will be soon

enough

to try to turn

valuable

wood

into

an

artistic

and

really

excellent violin.

The wood must be cut from the south side 01 the tree. The old Italian makers took
(

12

How
care
to

to

Make a

Violin.

great

select

wood
it

of

this

kind,

more sonorous and brilliant in tone. The maple should be free from red or brown patches, that which is of
because they

found

an uniformly whitish

tint is the best.

The pine should be white and of

instrument.^

perfectly

straight grain throughout the length of the

The very

finest grain is

not so

good as that which has an open space between the hbres. The least knot, fault, flaw
or curve in the grain will render the piece
useless.

No

other

wood but

pine

is

ever

used for the belly, though the back has

occasionally been

maple.
sonority
ful

made of other woods than Figured wood is advisable if its

not interfered with, as the beauti-

is

and the useful may readily be combined.

of the backs of Stradivarius combine

Some

beauty of appearance and excellence of tone

in the highest perfection.

CHAPTER

III.

THE TOOLS REQUIRED.

the used SOME ofcommonly used
tools

in violin

making
cabinet-

are

by

makers and carpenters, and others

are peculiarly fitted for their special purposes.

They may be bought

or table,
2
ft.

at a

good

tool

shop.

The work-bench
larger than 4
ft.

need not be

by

should be attached to one end.

clean.

wooden vice The surface

:

should be quite smooth and kept scrupulously

The following

tools are required

FIC.J

Three saws one of the usual kind for

sawing the larger pieces (24 inches of blade will be plenty), a hand saw for the more

14

How

to

Make

a Violin.
for outline

delicate work,

and a bow saw

work.

Three

chisels,

inch, inch,

and

inch

broad respectively.

Eight gouges, ranging from \ inch to

I

inch broad, will be necessary.

riQ.%

flat-bottomed plane 8 inches long.

The

illustrations

quired.

Fig.

show the kind of plane re2 is the side view of the body

Fi(^^

The Tools Required.

Fig. 3
is

15
slit

the bottom view, aa being the

for the blade; Fig. 4

shows the loose pieces

detached, which,
in its

place;

when fixed, keeps the blade and Fig. 5 shows the plane

FIO.S

ready for
sharp, or

use.
it

The blade must be kept very will tear the wood instead of
his

taking

off

a thin clean shaving.

If the

maker buys

wood

in the tree,

and decides to season it himself, he must cut his maple for the necks into pieces 12 inches long, 2\ inches deep, and if inches broad,
the grain running on the broadest side.

Stack

the pieces so that the air gets freely to them.

maple and pine for the back and belly must be 16 inches long, 6 inches broad, but conical in shape, the broader edge being i^ inches and the narrower \ inch.
pieces of

The

Authorities are divided as to whether the

heart

wood

or the outer

edge should be joined

i6
in the

How

to

Make a

Violin.

middle of the instrument.

*'
:

Mauzin, a
.

French author, says

II

faut avoir soin

de mettre

la partie

du

coeur

de Teirbre

c*est-a-

dire les veines les plus rapproch^s, centre de la table."

dans

le

Mr. Davidson, in the

work referred to in the introduction, says the "two thickest edges" should be "the bark side of the tree," and yet he says later on, after giving directions for planing and
joining the thicker edges to

make

the back

and

belly

" It

will thus be seen that the

centre of this joined plate contains the interior or heart

wood"

If,

as he says, the
it

two

thickest edges are the bark side^

is

impossible that the centre of the joined plate

can contain the interior or heartwood*

//^ 6
is in the centre or jointed part of the iD6trument, this applies to both back and belly.

Aa matter

of fact the bark side

The Tools Reauired.

i;

Three small planes, with rounded bottoms.

Figs. 6

and 7 show what

these tools are like.

The

smallest should be of the size shown;

the second half as large again; the largest

twice the size of the smallest.

Three or four knives of the shape shown

in Fig. 8, with blades

ranging from

inch

to 3 inches in length.

Two
The

or three scrapers, like those used by

cabinet-makers,

but

with

rounded edges.

necessity for this difference will be seen

when the use of the scraper is explained. One scraper will be required with
later,

the edge shaped as Fig.

9.

r/^a

i8

How

to

Make

a Violin.

pair of steel compasses for measuring

the thickness of the back

as in Fig.
lo.

and

belly,

shaped

These must, of course, be

to allow the

large

enough

back and belly

facility

pieces to be

measured with equal

from any point of the edge.

A A

steel

trace,

with one leg shorter than

for giving shape to the

the other, Fig.

ii.

bending

iron,

The Tools Required.

side pieces

19
12.

and side

linings, Fig.

The

body (B) is of an oval shape (C), Fig. 12, and 6 inches long, the length of the oval being 2 inches and the width i inch. The handle (A) should of course be long enough to prevent burning the hand when the body
(B)
is

heated.

hand-vice, Fig. 13; the opening from

B should be about breadth, C to D, about

to

3^ inches, and the

i

inch.

Sixteen or eighteen hand-screws,

made
14,

of

wood, of the shape shown

in Fig.

and

20

How
inch thick.

to

Make
from

a Violin.

measuring
be
I

3 inches

to B.

should

In using these hand-screws,

a piece of cloth must be put on the violin to

prevent marks of any kind.

A
Fig.

clip of
1

wood shaped

like

a clothes-peg,

5,

inch wide at A, 2 inches from point

r-iA

to point at B,

its

length

thickness | mch,

and

is

9 inches and used for glueing

is

its

in

the bass bar, five of these being required.

It

should be

made

of hard wood.

Another

clip of a similar kind, but

only

2 inches long.

The

inner surfaces of these

The Tools Required.

two
little

21

tools

must be as smooth as pos'*

sible,

so as not to " chafe

the violin.
is

A
steel

sound-post

setter,

which

made

of

and shaped as in Fig. 16, where A shows the surface, and B the bend of the
tool.
It

should be 8 or 10 inches long.

setter

Another form of sound-post

used by Spohr.
17.

was

Its

shape

is

given in Fig.

The bend B enables

the setter to be

applied to the head or foot of the post at

will.

The
it is

best tools should be procured whicii

;

buy the art of violin making is not an easy one, and its difficulties are indefinitely multiplied by bad tools.
possible to

CHAPTER

IV.

THE MODELS.

BY
take.

"

a model

" is
19,

meant a

flat piece

of

about | inch thick, which affords a means of drawing

is

wood, Fig.

the shape which any part of the violin

to

Great care will be required in shaping

upon them the accuracy of the finished work depend?. While the amateur will naturally wish to
these models, as

copy the outline of an instrument by one of

the great masters,
it

is

not to be supposed

that he will possess a back or belly by Amati,

Stradivarius or Guarnerius.

therefore give

the outline of a violin by each of these

masters

see large folding plate.

model of either may be made as follows draw the outline on tracing paper, or, better still, cut out the model chosen from
:

The Models.
the woodcut,

23

and paste

it

on a thin piece of

mahogany, having first made the straight edge representing the centre joint quite smooth and even with the plane. Then cut

ri^.if
out the

mahogany

the required shape, with

scrupulous care, filing out the corners and

inlet

with a fine

file.

The shape
if it is

thus obcarefully

tained will answer very well

done, and can be kept for future violins.

The name of

maker of the strument taken as the model written on the mahogany in ink
the

ori|jinal in-

should be
for identifi-

24
cation.

How
If
it is

to

Make

a Violin.

preferred, the full

model can

be

made

in

the

same Nvay by cutting out

another piece of paper, the shape of that

taken from the wood-cut, the following will

then be the form of the model
:

Fig. 20.

Fig. 20 shows the

the back

model for the curve of

and belly taken lengthwise.

Fig

21.

Fig. 21 shows the

model

for the curve of

the

instrument at

its

greatest

width,

and

Fig. 22 the curve over the / holes.

'^-23.

Fig. 23 shows the

model for the curve

at

the widest part at the neck

end

The Models.
Fig. 24 shows the

25

model
It will

for

drawing and

placing the / holes.

be observed that

the position and shape of the / holes varies

in different instruments,
bf*

and a model must

made

to suit each style adopted.

/g.2^.

The four models shown in Figs. 18, 19, 20 and 21 can only be properly made by adthem to the back of another instrument. If the amateur cannot obtain access to
justing

a good violin for this purpose, he should purchase a copy of a Stradivarius, which can be

bought tolerably cheap.

that
I

If

it

seems strange
h
it

should recommend a trashy copy as

for the arching of a

model
must
copies are

good
the

violin,

be

remembered
any

that

Mirecourt

those, at

rate,

of the better kind,

made

accurately to a scale taken from

26

How
and

to

Make

a Violin.

the instruments of the best period of Stradivarius,

is

are correctly
If

made

so far as shape

concerned.

the

amateur prefers to

make

these models of arching

by
that

his eye

alone, he

must bear

in

mind

Stradi-

varius, following the

example of the Amati

family, began with a high arching, especially

between the / holes, but as he gained experience he found that the lowering of the
arch contributed to fullness and brilliance of
tone,

and

the violins of his best period have

all.

the lowest arching of

The chapter on
out-

the mathematical
line gives

method of finding the

mode

of determining the shape

of the arch lengthwise; this being once obtained and the model made, the transverse
course be

arching will

of

determined by

that, as the arches at the

upper and lower

widths and also at the / holes must necessarily fall from the given height of the
lengthwise arch to the level near the edges.

The scroll must also be formed from a good pattern. A good neck and scroll can
be bought at
as
all

instrument dealers and kept

Directions
for

model.

carving

the

The Models.
scroll

27
on.

will

be

found

later

Various

methods have been devised for making a

model of a scroll without a pattern, but those methods are very cumbersome in operation

and uncertain
the amateur to

in

result,

and

recommend

buy a scroll from Hart, Hill, Chanot, or some other London maker of He can work from this pattern, repute.
his

always knowing that

model

is

as

good

an one as can be obtained.

CHAPTER

V.

THE MOULD.

THE
is

mould, which, properly speaking,

a
" tool
*'

as

much

as those menis

tioned in the chapter on tools,

piece of

wood

cut in such a shape as to allow

the blocks, side-pieces

and

side-linings to

be

fixed in their proper places, so as to form the

true foundations on which the violin
built up.
25.
is

to be

This mould

is

represented in Fig.

At

A A

are the inlets for the two top

The Mould.

29

and bottom blocks, and the four pieces marked B are for the corner blocks which fill up on each side of the two circular inlets, for the solid Jaasis on which the back and
belly are afterwards glued.

The mould

is

begun by making a model

exactly the shape

and

size of that for the

back and belly, Fig.

19.

the piece intended for

Lay on the bench the mould and put

upon it the model already made, Fig. 19; mark the outline with the point of the tracer, and with the saw and knife clean away the wood, and then with the file dress the edges
until they correspond exactly with the pat-

tern (the four corners

may

be left sharp).

This piece will then be of the shape of Fig.

26,

and

is

called the counter mould.

30

How
Now

to

Make a

Violin.

take a piece of hard

wood (walnut

is

the best for the purpose) \ inch in thickness

and

little

larger than the

model

in Fig. 19.
itself.
.

This piece

is

meant for the mould

table,

Lay
upon

it

on the

and
it

the centre

mould
rule,

it,

and

trace

on

the outline of the

latter

with the
the
inlets

tracer.

Then, with a

trace

A A

and four

inlets

at

B B B
lines

B, as in Fig. 25.

The dark

line

shows the shape of the mould; the dotted

at'B represent the corner blocks.
the superfluous

Re-

move

wood with

the saw

and
file.

knife, finishing off with the scraper

It is

and

absolutely necessary that the sides of

all

the mould, in perfectly

their extent,

should be

square

with

the

surface.

Any

deviation from this rule will throw the sidepieces out of the upright
be fixed,

the

when they come to edges of the mould being the

only means of enabling the side-pieces to be

glued to the corner blocks in an upright

position.

Next
25.

pierce the eight holes

shown

in Fig.

The top and bottom

holes are to be

TJie

Mould.

31

respectively

i\ inches (or 15 lignes French

measure) from the inner edge of the inlets

A, the four marked

inch from the inin the centre

i

lets

B B B B; and

the

two

inch from the inner edge of the

curves.

Eight other pieces must now be added to

the mould.

ri^ 27,

This figure shows the upper mould sur-

rounded by the eight pieces

in

question.

They must
precise
inches,

also be of walnut,
the

and of
viz.,

the
\\

depth of
they

side-pieces,

and must be dressed with the scraper

fit

and

file till

perfectly close to the

sides of the mould.

The next figure shows the mould, with the blocks (A A) (B B B B) fitted in their places.

32

How

to

Make

a Violin.
pine, of perfectly

These blocks must be of

even grain and a
trifle

over i^ inches high to

allow for trimming.

perfectly in their

The blocks should fit inlets, and their grain and

also

that

of the corner blocks

must run

across the instrument

This gives solidity

to the body.

The blocks being prepared, put a mere spot of glue on the edge of the mould in each of the six inlets, and fix the pieces of
pine so that they all stand exactly at the

same

height.

surface

They should project beyond the of the mould underneath, but only
inch.

j^ of an

When

the glue
file

is

dry, trim off with the

knife and

the projecting -^ of

an

inch,

The Mould.
and
file

33

the blocks perfectly level with the

underside of the mould, this being the side

on which the back will

ruler

be glued.
that

The
the

must be used

to

ascertain

surface corresponds perfectly with that of

the mould.

Lay

the upper

mould on

the

mould

so

that the outlines of the two are quite square

with each other, and trace out the shape of

the former

on the blocks.

Then
till

the extra

wood with

a suitable

away gouge and

cut the blocks

trim with the knife

and

file

are the exact shape of the upper mould.

The

mould and blocks

will then be of the shape

of Fig. 26 (page 29).

Work

slowly and

measure constantly with the square to see

that the outer edges of the blocks are perfectly square with the surface of the
It
is

mould.

now time

to speak of glue,

which

must be of the best quality and made with the utmost care. This is the more important
because no other material
is

used for hold-

ing the parts of the violin together.

best glue
It is
is

The
glue.

that

known

as

Cologne

pale in colour and sold in pieces 6 or

34

How

to

Make
2

a Violin.
it

8 inches long

and

wide;

is

very brittle

and whitish at the broken edge. Common glue is of no use at all. Break a quantity in small pieces and put it in cold water for four hours, which will soften and swell it Then take a small glue pot of the orup.
dinary
kind,

but

with

the

inner

vessel

enamelled.
glue
is all

Add

water slowly; when the

it

dissolved

should be of the conoil.

sistency of very thick

Take

care that

it

never

boils.

The glue should always be

hot,

used very

but never boiling.

While

making,

stir it

gently with a stick of pine

wood, and
glue will

in using it

apply

it

to the

wood
it

with a large camel hair pencil.

In summer,
in winter

dry in four hours;

the

needs twelve, and, in the latter case, the

edges

of

wood should be
the glue
is

carefully

warmed before
two

put on.

When
away

pieces are glued together, scrape

with a chisel any drops which escape, while

they are hot^ or with a pencil dipped in
water.
It

warm

cannot be too often repeated that

is

only the very best glue obtainable

use for violin making.

of any

CHAPTER

VI.

THE SIDE-PIECES AND SIDE-LININGS.

The grain should run lengthwise. Lay it on the bench at one end and clamp it down
4 inches wide, and
^^j

SAW

out a piece of maple 30 inches long,

inch thick.

with the hand-vice.

over (going

Plane the surface

all

away from

the vice), then un-

clamp it, turn it round, clamp the clean end down, and plane the rest. This time a flat bit of wood must be put between the handvice and maple to prevent the planed surface
from being marked.
the

Plane the other side in

is

same way,

till

the piece

reduced to a

thickness of

inch.
its

On
iron

account of

peculiar grain

maple

is

very difficult stuff to plane,

and

,the

plane

must be dressed so as
35

to project very

36

How
it

to

Make

a Violin.

slightly, or

will tear the

wood and

not

smooth

it.

The most wavy and ornamental

same time the most
too thick, but
it

pieces are at the

to plane,

difficult

and

best suited for the side pieces.

The

piece

is still

must be

carefully scraped

till all

inequalities left

by
is

planing

are

removed
nice

and

the

strip

smoothed

to a

polish

on the surface

which will be outside the

violin.

Now
into

take the tracer and

strips

mark your
width.

piece

three

of equal

Divide

them carefully with a knife. Take the plane bottom upwards, between your knees,
and, holding each strip in your hands, move
the edges along the plane iron
till

each

is

exactly i^ inches wide.

To

divide

them

into

proper

lengths,

measure with a strip of paper round the upper curve of the mould from the point
where the neck
is

to join the

block to the

corner of the block.

Allow for trimming

In the same
for

and

join at this comer.

inlet,

way

measure the

allowing

trimming

and joining at both ends. Then measure from the lower comer to the centre of the

The Side-pieces and

lower block.

Side-linings.

yj^^

Cut two

strips to each length.

Cut the pieces long enough. The next operation

is

to

bend the
to

strips,

which
in

is

done with
Fix
the

the bending iron.

Heat

it

a stove, but not

taking one of
it

hot enough

char the

wood.

handle

in the bench-vice, and,

it

the strips, dip

in cold

water and bend

If

to

the required shape very gradually. are too hasty

strip.

you

you

will certainly break the

strip

Keep the

damp by

frequent

dipping.

little

practice soon renders this

operation easy, but care must be taken to curve square with the width, in other words,

when

bent, the side-piece should touch the

its

bench at every point of

edge.
fixed.

The
meet

side-pieces can

now be

At

the

four corners

and

at the point

where the sides

at the lower block the joint

filed
till
it

must be

trimmed and

is

perfect.

The

eight pieces of walnut before mentioned, of

the depth of \\ inches, will
Fig. 27 (p. 31)

now be wanted.
in their places,

shows them
is

and

their

use

to hold

the sides to the

blocks to which they are to be fixed by

means of

glue.

Rub

the

edges of

the

38

How
well

to

Make

a Violin.

mould

with soap, taking great care

does not touch the blocks.

that the soap

Glue the two blocks in the

side-piece in
its

inlet,

put the
it

exact place,

fix

upon

the

walnut block, take a hand-vice, and, putting

the beak in the hole nearest the
the screw

inlet, fix

on the outside of the walnut block

screw
until

and
the
inlet.

tighten

the

side-piece

presses firmly against the soaped

mould and
other

glued

blocks.

So

for

the

Glue the upper block and the corner block,

lay on the side-piece,

add

the walnut blocks,

clamp up with hand-vices as before, using

the holes nearest to the glued block.

The

side-pieces will, of course, be level with the

mould on
leave

the

under
of

side,

and
at

project

on the upper surface.

a

At

the upper block

the

space

inch,

lower

block the joint must be perfect.

this

To do

end first, glue the block and clamp, and do the same with the other side-piece, leaving the two ends free. Then bring them together at the lower blpck and make your joint perfect
properly,

run

the

corner

The Side-pieces and

before

Side-linings.

39

gluing the block

up.
It is

glue the block

and

clamp

now
in the
firm,

clear

why

the eight

holes were

made

mould.

When
pieces.

dry and
It is

remove the vices and

trim the blocks to the level of the side-

hardly necessary to say that

this

must be done slowly and with exceed-

ing care, lest the side-pieces should be disturbed.

It is

usual to have the sides slightly narat

rower

the

neck end.

This narrowing

must now be done.

take off the

With the knife and file neck block and side not more
all

than tV of an inch\ the height of the sides

must then be graduated

iV

round, starting

with \\ inches at the lower end and finishing

inch less at the upper end.

This operabe

tion requires great care.

The
put
1*1

side-linings

may now

made and
inch broad,

in.

They

are of pine,

inch thick at the thicker

at

the

thinner

edge.

and -^ inch They are bent

by the same means as the sides, glued in with the thicker edge level with the edge of the sides and held in their places

40

How

to

Make

a Violin.
these are dry,

with wooden chips.

take a fine knife

When

and separate the blocks

from the mould, round off the blocks with a gouge, and the outline of your violin is
complete.

CHAPTER

VII.

THE BACK.

THE

back and belly are made

thinner

in

the
is

same way, save that the

than
the

latter

left

former,

of

which hereafter.

In form and arch they are

precisely the same.

Take two pieces of maple shaped thus, and of the size previously indicated, Fig. 29.

Fig, 29.

Plane the surface and the thicker edges,

and lay

the two pieces together

on the table

thus, Fig. 30.

These two when glued together will form

the back of the violin, the ridge being the
41

42

How

to

Make
If

a Violin.

position of the arch.

your back in one piece,

you decide to have its size must be that

its

of the other two laid together, and

thus, Fig. 31.

shape

If

you use two

pieces,

plane the thicker

edges until they join perfectly.

together.
is

Glue them

When

the glue

is

dry, your back

ready for work.

Lay

the two pieces (now practically one)

on the bench, and having planed both sides

perfectly, take the

model

(Fig. 19), place

it

on the
model.
line

flat side,

taking -particular care that

the joint corresponds with the centre of the

With

the tracer point

draw the outis

of the model.

Rigid accuracy

in-

dispensable.

Saw round
flle

the outline with the

line,

bow

saw,

not going too near the

as the knife

and
all

have to follow to give the exact outline

See that the edges are at
flat side.

of the model.

points square with the

Open

the tracer \ inch, take the back beline all

tween your knees, and work a

round

The Back.
the edge at that distance

43
flat side.

from the
is

This

is

the thickness the edge

to be.
fix
it

Put the back on the bench,

with

hand-screws, and with a large gouge give to

it

a rough resemblance of the shape which

take.

it

must ultimately
this work.
It is

Do
that

not hurry over

hardly necessary to remind

when all the gouging, knifing, scraping and filing have been done, a certain thickness of wood must be left, and that one cut too deep at the outthe

careful

workman

set will necessitate

a fresh

start.

Begin by

working along the ridge, so as to give to the joint a rough resemblance to the model
of the arching lengthwise.

Take

short

and
off

shallow strokes with the gouge, cutting

only very small chips at a time, and be sure

and

leave

enough wood

for the operations

this
is

which are to follow.

When

done

there will, of course, be a cavity, like a miniature railway cutting, getting deeper as

you

get further

away from

the centre.

Now

'begin

again from the centre, and

to

work out in the rough the arching down the middle of the C inlets.

44

How
Next
clear

to

Make

a Violin.
the point where the

away from

two archings meet, four sloping Imes diagonally, to the middle of the upper and lower
curves.

The back-plate

will

now resemble

the following figure. Fig. 32.

Next clear away

all the

spare

wood from

and then with the smallest round-bottomed plane, make the

the centre to the edges,

whole surface tolerably smooth,

until

the

two models

fit

with accuracy.

The
fit

place

where the shorter model should

must be

The Back.

45

found by taking the model of the / holes and marking through it the two notches on
their

inner edges.

The

highest arch must

be across these notches.

Now

take the same plane and clear out

the groove or slight depression round the

edge, so that the arching of the instrument

falls
little

away

all

round to the bottom of

level of

this

valley,

from the

which there

will be a slight rise to the level of the outer

edges.

Having thus got

will

the outside of the back

to the proper shape, as far as the small plane

do

it,

finish

it

off

with the scrapers and

fine glass-paper.

You must now

side up.

turn the plate the other

this,

Before doing

however, put a

piece of cloth or green baize on the bench, to

prevent the outer surface of the back from

being scratched.

Under

this cloth pieces of

wood must
the

be fixed all round, of such a

height as to support the outer edges,

and

at

same time allow the middle of the back to rest upon the bench. The reason of this
is

obvious;

if this

precaution were not taken

46
the back

How

to

Make a

Violin.

would not remain still while the outer side was being hollowed out. In hollowing out the inner surface, care must
be taken to leave
level

places where the

blocks will have to be attached, and to leave

more wood all over than when the back is finished.

referred to

will be the case

The compasses
Fig.
10,

Chapter

III,

will

enable you to obtain the requisite thicknesses,

which are of such

vital

importance
in

that

have treated the matter fully

separate chapter.

Now

turn to Chapter IX, and reduce the

its

back to

proper thickness all

over as

there directed.

Having

carried through this

operation with great care, the outer edge

of the back should correspond exactly in
outline

with

the

side-pieces,

which

are

already fixed on the mould, and the back

should project over the side-pieces

all
file,

inch

round.

Now

take a good,
slightly

fine,

biting

and bevel very

round the whole

file

inside of the edge, using a round

where

the short curves render

flat

it

necessary,
finish
off

and a
with

one everywhere else;

The Back.

47
fit

medium
the back

sand-paper.
is

If the

is

accurate,
is

ready to be glued on, which

:

done as follows

lay

the back
it is

upon the
to occupy.

side-pieces, in the exact place

Mark with a

pencil

on the edge of the back

the joint where the side-pieces meet at the

broad end of the instrument and also make

marks

at the four corners

where the side-

pieces are joined at the extremities of the

inlets.

These markings are to enable you

to lay the back in an instant,

hesitation, in the

and without place where you want it

to be used as hot as

to be.

The glue has

without

possible

boiling,

and unless you

exact place
it

can lay
the
its

down the back in its moment the glue is put on

and
its

will lose

heat

tenacity

while you

are

shuffling the back about to find its place.

Have everything
readiness the

ready,

therefore,

for

rapid and precise operation, so as to be in

moment

the glue

is

laid on.

When you
brush,

are ready,

take the camel-hair

upon the sidepieces, put the back in its place, and secure it with the wooden hand-screws, putting two
lay the hot glue

and

48

How

to

Make

a Violin.

on the upper block, two on the lower, one at each corner, and as many more as you
can place round
surface, to keep

the

edges.

should have a piece of cloth

its
it

Each screw placed upon

from bruising the wood. The glue which has been forced out by the pressure must be at once removed with a
camel-hair brush dipped in the hot water of
the
glue-pot.

Let

it

stand

till

it

is

per-

fectly dry.

The
it is

belly

is

fixed in the

same way when

both back and
in the pro-

completed by the fixing of the bass bar

later on.

as

shown

When

belly are glued on,

jection of either

any variation

beyond the

side-pieces
file,

must

be adjusted with the knife and

the projection
is

so that

perfectly symmetrical all

round.

CHAPTER

VIII.

OF THE BELLY.

IF a
in

the operator has succeeded in

making

good back,
the

either

whole or joined,
the

he will meet with no great difficulty

making
the

belly;

cutting

out

of

holes

being
the

the

only

differ-

ence,

and,

moreover,

little

projection

end of the back is not required for the belly. It must be remembered, however, that pine is much more
at the smaller

fragile

than

maple,

and

will

therefore
care
in

require

proportionately
;

increased

working

it

must be worked with very sharp

it

tools, and, as

is

liable to split

along the
in

grain, the tool

must be used both ways

lest

getting out
"

a curve,

the

wood

split.

Measure twice before you cut once," cut

lightly

and

delicately,

and be content

to

take

off

a very small piece at each stroke

49

jo
lest

}low

to

Make

a Violin.

one unlucky gash should at the same

care that the joint follows exactly

time spoil your labour and your temper.

Take
the

grain of

the wood, which

should be

perfectly straight from

end

to end,

and that

you get a
that
the

faultless joint before glueing the

It is

pieces together.

of great importance
other words,
the

heart-wood

in

part which grows nearest the centre of the

tree,

and consequently is of closer grain, should be on the side furthest from the joint.
In regulating the thickness of the differ-

ent parts of the belly, follow the directions

given in Chapter IX.

THE / HOLES.
Before these are cut out the belly should
in

every

other

respect be

finished.

Place

the model of the / holes upon the belly,

having, of course,

first

laid the latter

upon

the bench, taking care that the position of

the

model

is

accurately

adjusted.

Then
the /

with a pencil sharpened to a very fine point,

carefully
trace

out the interior of

holes in the model.

Of
First of
all,

the Belly.

51

pierce the

round holes above

and below somewhat less than the tracing. Then introduce a very sharp penknife blade and cut away, little by little, all the wood
within the tracing.

CHAPTER

IX.

THE THICKNESS. OF THE BACK AND BELLY.

WHEN
all

the belly has been

finished

but reducing

it

to

its

proper

draw a line across the centre from the two in notches of the / holes, and draw by measurements. a similar mark on the back. The middle
thickness,

of

this

line

will

in

each

case

be

the

starting-point of the operation for reducing

the

wood
upon

to

its

proper

thickness.

This
the

operation requires the most scrupulous care,

as
its

successful
the

performance

vibrations

of

instrument,

and conse-

quently

its

quality

of tone, will entirely

depend.

The

lines

above mentioned must be drawn

upon the

inside of the belly

and back.

Now

open the compasses exactly J inch, and, putting one leg of the compasses on
6S

The Thickness of Back and

the centre of the
line,

Belly.

53

mark

off

that distance

on either side from the centre point.

These

two points will therefore be

points
apart.

\\ inches, or

double the distance between the compass

Now

with

the

ruler

draw

through these two points lines parallel with

the joint 3 inches towards the top
inches towards the bottom.
at
their

and

Join these lines

extremities,

rectangular
inches wide.
this space

space

and you thus have a inches long and \\

All the

wood of

the belly in

must be \ inch thick. This thickness must be diminished gradu-

ally

from

i^

inch

(or

\\

lignes

French

measure) at the edges of the rectangular

space

down

to nearly

inch at the points

where the belly joins the blocks,* and the

same

thickness must be left all round the

under surface of the belly where the groove

or valley runs just within the outer edges of
its

upper surface.
is

inution
steps.

Take care that this dimgradualy and not by jumps and

Some makers

little

advise \\ lignes thicker by the soundpoet.

all

over, but a

54

How

to

Make a

Violin.

The

thickness of the back is obtained in

precisely the

same way, but the hack must

trijie

be throughout a

over

inch thicker

than the

belly.

In other words, the rec-

tangular space on the back will be -h inch

thicker than that

on the
*h

belly, the

groove
the

round the edge

other

inch thicker,

and

gradual diminution from the one to the

inch thicker at the corresponding

points.

To

ensure

these

thicknesses
a small

being cor-

rectly obtained,

make

wedge of some

hard wood \ inch thick at the broader edge, Tti inch at the centre, and -^ inch at the thin
edge.

This will serve to adjust the com-

passes, the buttons of

which must be put at

the

thickness

required,

and fixed

at

that

position

by the screw. Work with the small plane and scraper. Note the following the strokes of the plane will take away your pencil lines, and fresh ones must be drawn at each measurement. Do not trust your eye, but work rigidly to the exact rectangular shown by
:

the pencil marks.

The Thickness of Back and

Belly.

55

The plane and scrapers must not reduce your wood to the given thickness; these must be finished and brought down to their proper gauge with glass-paper. The glass-paper is the last " tool " to be used on the wood, and when the rectangular is thus finished, the compass buttons should move quite easily
over
it,

but touch

it

at all points.

Make

a second hard

wood wedge

for the

back, of course 21

inch thicker in all parts

than that for the belly.

CHAPTER

X.

THE BASS BAR.

THE making member

tant

and

fixing of this impor-

will finish the interior

It
is

work of
it

the violin.

made
is

of

pine, fixed parallel to the joint

and between
to

and the

left

/ hole.

Its

purpose

give

depth and power to the third and

fourth strings.
lo^ inches to io| inches i inch thick, J inch deep at its centre, long, and tapering off to the thinnest strip at
the ends.

The bar should be

The edge glued

fit

to the belly

is,

of course, curved to

precisely, the other

edge

is

straight.

The

centre of the bar falls

on the
/ holes.

line joining the inner notches

of the

The grain of

the bar must corres-

pond with that of the The measurements

the thickness of belly

belly.

here

given

are

for
in-

and back above

The Bass
timated;

Bar.

57

but the proportions

care that the bar

of

the

bar

differ in different violins.

Take
to

is

at right angles

the surface of the belly

fits

and that

the

curved edge
possible
fix the

the belly with the greatest

exactitude.

Glue that edge and

-^ inch from the
circle

bar parallel to the joint, so that the

is

outer edge of the bar inner

edge of the upper

side.

of

the

hole on the bass

clips
15),

Clip

it

with

/ the

shown in the chapter on tools (Fig. and let it dry, first removing the super-

fluous glue with

before.

a wet camel-hair brush

as

Some
gonally

writers contend

that the bass bar

would be of greater
to

service if glued dia-

the

grain.

The amateur who

wishes to do so can easily test this for him-

The following opinion of an American maker (Mr. W. H. Colton) is not without inself.

terest.

Mr. Colton was a friend of Ole Bull,

is

and

the "note"

from the

life

of the

latter,

published at Boston in 1883:

"The

oblique position of the bar has not

been generally adopted.

The bar

is

ordin-

58

How

to

Make a

Violin.

arily placed with its outer side

on a

line

parallel to the centre line or glue joint of the

top,

and

at a distance

from

it

about equal to

one-half the width of the bridge, measured

from the outer extremities of the

slight spring
is

feet.

given to the ends of the bar,

it

so that when glued to the top

produces an

upward pressure
of the bridge.
the

at the centre,

under the foot

This pressure should equal

thrust of the bridge, the force

downward

of which will depend upon the angle of the

strings over
its top.

Practice soon discovers

a certain

medium of

spring which agrees

fairly with a certain height of bridge.

An
But

entirely successful result

is

not always
is

insured, but a positive failure

in the case

avoided.

of the oblique bar, no such

common
sents

factor can be

found to

fit

all cases,

even averagely well.

its

Each instrument
problem.

pre-

own

particular

The

spring at each end must be accurately de-

termined by mechanical means, which will

take into account both the resistance of the
top,

due
the

to its comparative strength of fibre

and

resistance

due

to

the

form of

The Bass
modelling.

Bar.

59
of obliquity
foot

The same degree

relative
it

and

position

to

the

of

the

bridge which

supports, will not answer

equally well in all cases.

But when the

greatly
in-

required conditions are fulfilled, the oblique

bar

does beyond
the

doubt very

crease

depth

and

volume

of

tone,

particularly of the lower strings.

Mr. Bull

spent

many

years in attempting to formu-

late the rules

which govern

this

most per-

plexing part of the organism of the violin.

His observations and experiments demon-

him the correctness of the oblique position; and though, as was his wont, he frankly owned to more failures than one, his instances of success illustrated by his Da Salo and many other instruments, bore most
strated to

convincing
theory."

witness

to

the

truth

of

his

Ole Bull's own opinion on the matter

thus expressed
in his "

is

Violin Notes

"

"The
top.

principal object of the bar

is

to

resist the

pressure of the strings

upon

the

All old violins require to be rebarred,

to the height of the present musical

owing

6o

How

to

Make

a Violin.

hundred years ago. The old short bars are no longer adapted to the greater strain, and more powerful ones
pitch over that of one
are needed.

From long-continued
the

strain, the

pulling of
centre,

two extremes towards the

and the downward pressure of the

bridge at that point, the tops of

violins have

many old

bulged up at the ends and sunk

down

at the centre.

new bar bar was

Salo, so

will tend to

The adjustment of a remedy this. As the

originally
it

placed by Caspar
is,

Da
not

should be placed now, that

in the direction of the fibres of the top,

but

obliquely,

the

end under the fingerboard

In this position
it

being nearest the centre.

appears to give ample support to the bridge

and

to allow a fuller

and

richer tone.

CHAPTER XL
THE PURFLING.

THE
lines of

purfling

is

the ornamental black

lines

running round the outer edge

of the back and belly

made of two
wood

black with a strip of white

between.

The wood for the purfling can be bought ready made at any violin maker's, and it is better to buy it than try to make it, as good
machinery
is

needed

to

do the work

well.

The grooves for the insertion of the purfling are made with a purfling tool. The
distance of the purfling from the edge
is

matter of

taste.

When
the

decided, open the

fix it

tracer to the required

width and
violin

with

the

screw; put

on your knees,
square,

and

trace the first

line,

running one limb

is

along the outer edge (which

61

still

62

How

to

Make

a Violin.

the rounding off comes

the second line in like
tool
is

Then trace manner. The purfling

later).

then adjusted to the required dis-

tance.

The following

description

of

an

excellent purfling tool, directions for use are

from Mr. Davidson's book on

"

"

The

Violin."

By

this instrument,

it

will be perceived

we can vary
to

the distances from the edges,

imitate

any model chosen.

left

The two

cutters are thin pieces of steel, sharpened at

an angle, with a shoulder

the indenting strips.

of the neces-

sary thickness, so that the groove cut

fit

may

The two
a.

cutters are

kept in position by the screw

Fig. 34a

represents

one

of

the

cutters,

seen edge-

ways; Fig. 34^ shows the form of blade

The
and
point.

Purfiing.
is

63

There

a small screw for ad-

justing the shoulder piece to any required

distance the purfiing

placed, Fig.
33t5'.

may

be intended to be

This tool

may

be

made
tool-

from iron
of
handle.

with the exception of the course and fixed an ordinary

in

cutters,

Another purfiing
is

tool,

but much

simplified,

shown

in Fig. 35.

The body of

this tool

may

be formed from a piece of

two cutters the same as the preceding, fixed by a binding-screw. This simple tool answers admirably, and may be
beech, having
easily

made by any

amateur, or can be pur-

chased for about three shillings and sixpence.

The angular parts of the blades must be made thin, and the edges kept very
Either of those two tools
is

keen.

to be held

64

How

to

Make

a Violin.

quite steady,

and

a double cut of the propef

depth run round the margin of the back and breast, the interior wood is afterwards to be
cleanly cut out with a chisel-sharpened awl.*

The indenting groove must be

and
carefully, never
tear the

cut gradually

allowing the tool to

wood, or

slip

from the proper

place.

At

the parts of the back

and belly opposite

where the
in-

to the extremities of the neck,

denting tool does not reach, two pencil lines

may

be drawn through the spaces, and the

groove cut to such lines with a thin pointed

knife,

and the wood

cut out as previously.*'

When

the purfling tool has been run twice

along the intended groove, take a sharp

knife and cut

groove to
figure

away enough wood from the allow the awl to enter. The next

shows the shape to which the awl

should be bent and the way the point should

be ground.

shows the side view, and B

the front view of the point.

*

When you
is

have
a cob-

By

a " chisel-sharpened awl "

meant

bler's awl,

narrow enough to run easily

in the width

of the groove

made by the

purfling tool but ground

to a fiat and sharp edge.

The

Purfiing.

65

^1

cleared

away with a knife a

starting-point

for the awl, begin with the point of the awl

and turn up the strip of wood intended to be brought away just as a ploughshare cuts underneath the soil and turns it up so as to
leave a furrow. This must, of course, be done

slowly and with great care, seeing that the

groove required
the

is

extremely shallow and

to be cut has

wood from which it has already been made very thin.

Glue the
strip

of purfling to be inserted,

or both strips if

two are

desired,

and gently

squeeze both together into their grooves, care

being taken that the small ridge of

between the grooves

is

not broken.

wood Make

neat joints at the four corners, and remove

66

How
When

to

Make

a VioliH.

any superfluous glue with the camel-hair

brush.

the glue

is

dry, take

away

the

projecting surface of the purfling with a very

sharp knife, and finish

off

with the scraper

and

glass-paper.

CHAPTER

XII.

THE NECK.

TAKE
faces.

a piece of maple lo inches long,

wide and i inches thick, and plane it smooth on all four The maple for the neck is usually
2 J inches

selected

from

wood

well

marked

and

figured, so as to be as
ble.

ornamental as possithe

The

purfling of

body, and the

scroll of the

neck are the only parts of the

are

instrument

which

simply

ornamental
is

without being useful, but there

no reason

why

the useful parts should not be as orna-

mental as possible.

Take
the

the finished neck which

you have

bought as a model, and draw the outline of

model on the piece of maple. Then with the T square, draw a line all round the wood 5j inches from the end where it is to be
fastened to the body.
67

This

line

will

be

68

How

to

Make

a Violin.

at the point G, Fig. 37,

which

is

the place

where the peg-box begins.

Take
side;

the compasses, open the points

is

inch which

half the width of the narrow

mark

a point at each

end and draw on

each of the narrow sides a pencil line the

whole length of the

where the long
line

piece.

Open
the

the

com-

passes \\ inch, place one point at the angle

meets

transverse
line
it,

Ime

at G,

and mark on that transverse

line

on both sides of the

point

which cuts
line,

inch from the long

will,

between
iJ inch.

which points there

of course, be

The Neck.
This

69
at

W inch shows the width of the neck

the beginning of the part held

by the hand,

and

also the width of the nut (the small

piece of

ebony__Qyer which the strings pass

the

out of the peg-box).

Open
line

compasses
angle

inch,

and
the

put

one leg on the

made by

long

and the

cross line on the narrow side

opposite to that on

which you have been

either side of the long

working, and mark as before upon the cross

line
line,

two points on
This i^ inch

the distance between which will be i\

is

inch.

to be the thickness of
it

the

neck at the point where

joins

the

belly.

Now

fasten the neck to the bench with the

hand-vice, the broad side upwards, so that

the scroll

end projects over the edge of the table, and cut away with the bow-saw ail the superfluous wood. Begin at point G (Fig. 37) and proceed along the line F E up into the corner; then start from C and work
past
start

round the curve to the corner point; again from C, work round the top past
to A.

B down

This gives a rough outline.

70

How
G

to

Make

a Violin.

from

round to A, which must now, by

chisel,

means of

knife and

file,

be brought

to proper shape.

Then take your measurements from the model cut away the wood from the point A
;

to the part

where the neck joins the body,

and give
which
is

to that part,

to

and to the neck proper, be held by the hand, its proper

it

shape, finishing

off to

the greatest nicety

with scrapers,

files

and glass-paper.

Now
before,
etc.,

fasten the neck

down

to the bench as
knives,

and carve out with gouges,

"

the curves of the scroll, beginning at the

central

button

"

which, in Fig. 37,

is

crossed

by the
centre

line

B C and
the

the dotted line aa^ bbt

the point where these lines meet being the

of

button.

Begin
Finish

with

the
as

smallest gouge,

and take a
it.

larger tool
it

the spiral requires

care

with great

with

the

knife,

scrapers

and glass

paper.

Before beginning to carve one side,

you
lines

will,

of course, draw on both sides the

aa, bb.

B C and

If this precaution
it

is

not taken, you will find

the centres of the

make Be buttons correspond.

difficult to

The Neck.

71

careful, in

widening down from

in

to A, to

maintain the gradual increase of thickness

which you will find

constant

your model, taking

as

measurements
finished off

Having
heck
is

you proceed. the sides, work out the

two grooves round the edge

A B C

D.

The

now

finished, except

hollowing out

the peg-box,
the body.

and preparing

the foot to join

This foot will be glued on to the

and level with it at the top, while the bottom will be glued to the projecting semicircle on the back of the violin, and must,
block,
therefore, be filed
until
its

shape exactly
this

corresponds with it

From

point ths
it

foot will gradually increase in size until

attains the width already

down
into

the foot of the

marked out. Draw neck a line in continuawhich divides

it

tion of that already drawn,

two

parts.

The

foot of the neck, or in

is

other words, the surface which

glued to

the block, will determine the height which

the finger-board
the
violin,

is

to be above the

body of

finally in

and before you glue the neck its place you must finish your
according
to

finger-board

the

directions

72
given

How
later,

to

Make a
it

Violin.

and, holding
it is

with one hand in

the place in which

the foot of

intended to be, adjust

to

the neck so as to give

its

the

finger-board
on.

proper height when glued

Fig. 38 gives a view of the foot of the

neck (A

B C D)

the part above the line

AB

being the part which projects above the level

of the block.

The mortising
to present

of the peg-box and the

placing and drilling of the peg-holes ought

no

difficulty.
is

The

conical shape

of the peg-holes

obtained by means of a

small tapered gouge.

In gluing on the neck, regard must be had
to

two points

The

central line of the sur-

face to be attached to the finger-board must

make

a straight line with the belly-joint, and

that surface as well as the end or foot must

The Neck,

73

be so adjusted that while the proper height

is

given to the finger-board the centre of the

is

scroll-buttons
line

intersected

by an imaginary
of the level at
sides.

drawn

in continuation
is

which the back

glued to the

The time has now come

to fix the neck.

When

the side pieces were put on,

more wood

was left at this place than was must now be cut away, so as
neck to
fit

required, this
to allow the

in exactly.

An

inlet

\ inch deep, \ inch deep,

must now be cut

that
is

in the block

to say,

side-pieces,

from the outer surface of the enough wood having, of course,

been

left at the

end of the neck to allow for

this inlet.

Before gluing the neck every precaution

must have been taken to ensure its correct shape and position, and the neck should fit into the inlet so accurately as to require some
little

force to get

it

to its place.

You

will

a piece of cork \ inch thick and 2 inches long by i mch broad* Glue thoroughly

now want

* Felt is preferable as it is

not so liable to leave

an impression on the wood.

74

How

to

Make a

Violin.

the inside of the inlet, put the foot of the

neck

in its place,

but the piece of cork on the

back so as
this cork

to cover the button, and, placing

on the beak of the hand-vice, screw down the screw on to the end of the neck. In half an hour unscrew it and see if the
finger-board
is

at the right height.

it

If so,

the glue can be left to dry; if not,

must be

readjusted,
until
it
is.

and
In

the operation gone through

damp

weather the end of the

it

neck should be warmed before

is

put

in,

and the glue will have a more binding effect if a good number of holes are made with a knife in the end of the neck, and in the small surface which fits upon the button.

CHAPTER

XIII.

THE FINGERBOARD.

THE
have no
it

finger-board

is

so simple

and so
will

easily

made

that the best

way

be to purchase one as a model.

The
like

amateur who has followed

difficulty in

me

thus far will

making one exactly

.

from a piece of eb^py sary to say that its width

that

It is

hardly neces-

at the

narrow end

must be adjusted to that of the neck, and

must fit the neck accurately at the sides, and should join it so closely that they both appear as one piece. Be careful in gluit

ing

it

on, not to

board with the

the

mark the neck or the fingerhand screws. The height of

varies

finger-board

according
its

to

the
at

model of the instrument;

75

mean height

76

How

to

Make

a Violin.

the middle of

its

upper curve should be

inch from the belly joint, but this will all

depend upon the height of the bridge and

the depth of touch required for the strings.

CHAPTER

XIV.

THE NUT AND THE TAIL PIECE NUT.

THE
is

ny^t

is

the_sgaalL^iece

of

wood
out o f

over which the strings peiss

the peg-box,

and the

ta il piece nut

the piece which^esists th^ action of the

string

by which the

tail piece is

held to the

button.

Take a

piece of e bony of the size

for the nut, as to which the eye will be a

sufficient guide.
Its

length will

be

deter-

mined by the width of the neck, with which it should exactly correspond. Its curve must
correspond exactly with that of the fingerboard, and
higher.
its

upper surface

be

inch

Its front,
IS

against which the finger-

board
neck,

glued, will be perpendicular to the

in

and the upper surface

the strings are cut

which the
as

slits for

must slope graduto

ally

down towards

the
71

peg-box, so

78
present
strings a

How
may

to

Make

a Violin.

rounded surface on which the

rest.
is

The string-guard
of ebony about
i

usually a small piece

inch long

and \ inch

square,
in

which

is

glued into an

inlet
Its

made
outer

the

block at the lower end.

surface

must be
it

level
fit
it

with the side pieces, into which

must

accurately.

An

edge should be

left

upon
it

to stand

yg-

inch above the belly,

and
the

should be trimmed to the surface of

latter.

The edge over which

slits in the

the strings

pass must be rounded so that they are not

cut.

The four

nut should not be

file.

cut,

but filed out with a rat-tail

of

The making
difficulty.
It is

the button presents

no

a sort of drawer-handle on
of ebony, with a project-

a small scale,

made
i

ing limb about

diameter, which

inch long,

and | inch

in

fits

accurately into a hole of

that size bored through the sidepieces

into the block,

and
to

and we are now ready

begin to varnish.

CHAPTER

XV.

VARNISHING AND POLISHING.

HOWEVER
been
that

carefully
it

the

work has
certain

done,

is

almost

you

will

on looking it over closely hnd some slight roughness or

some place where glue has trickled out, some part of the edges not nicely rounded, or some other fault overlooked. These faults must now be searched for and remedied by fi.le, glass-paper or
unevenness,
other suitable means.

When

all is perfect,

polish with very fine glass-paper the whole

surface.

Now
water,

take a clean sponge, dip

squeeze
it

it

in cold

nearly

dry,

and gently
all

damp
Then

(not

wet) the

instrument

over.

polish as before until the surface has

the appearance of having been covered with

a very thin coat of poor varnish.

79

8o

How

to

Make

a Violin.

The making of the varnishes, both spirit and oil, is treated in the next chapter. The best tool to lay on the varnish is a
flat

camel-hair

or

sable

brush,

about
a

an

inch wide, and which has never been used.

The

-varnish
in

being
a

ready,

take

small
vessel.

quantity

glazed

earthenware

Have

as

little

varnish as possible at a time

strokes,

in the brush,

and take only two

one

up and the other down, over each part of Take care and " lay it off the wood. evenly, as a painter would say that is, work so that the marks of the brush are invisible, and as if the varnish had all been put on with one simple stroke. Try your hand first on two pieces of maple and pine, both treated and prepared for varnishing just like the violin, and do not touch the instrument with varnish until you have put two coats of oil varnish on each piece as an experiment. When you have succeeded in getting a

brilliant

surface,

from which brush-marks

are totally absent,

violin.

you can venture on your

spirit

After each coat of

with

varnish,

polish

linen

cloth,

the

older

the

Varnishing and Polishing.

material,
will
it

and

the softer

its

texture, the better

be for your purpose

lustre

You cannot
with spirit

obtain a really brilliant

varnish unless you polish with linen cloth

after each coat.

CHAPTER

XVI.

VARNISHES AND COLOURING MATTER.

HAVING
next
out
this

completed
step
is

the

violin,
it,

the

to

varnish

and

there are
process.
is

two modes of carrying

The

one
if

is

genuine,

the other

a sham; and
in

the

amateur

has

succeeded

making an
all, I
it

instrument

worth varnishing at

strongly advise

him what
to be

to

varnish

it

that

may
one.

pass

for

it is,

a new instrument, and not pretend

it

what

is

not,

an old

New
is

in-

struments are
the

made

to look old

by colouring
applied,

wood

before the real varnish

and leaving those parts uncoloured which in an old violin shows the effects of wear and tear. This fraud is on every ground to be deprecated, for nothing will be gained by it, while the genuine workman, who cares more
for turning out

a good
83

violin than he does

Varnishes and Colouring Matter.

for

83
will

making money by dishonest means,

by such a fraud he
loses
self-respect.

feel that

what

money can never buy, proper way to varnish the

it

The

violin is to varnish

all over

without any previous colouring. be

This

may

done either with plain or

Both are equally genuine
I

coloured varnish.

the fraud consists, as

have

said, in

making

the violin look as though coloured varnish

had been
long
use.

originally used, but

I

worn away by
to give precise

shall

now proceed

directions for

making

the two kinds of varviz., oil

nish used for the violin,

varnish and
colour-

spirit varnish, as well as the

mode of

ing the varnish in various tints when colouring

is

desired.
best,

The

though most troublesome,

OIL VARNISH.

is

This
it is

is

vastly better than spirit varnish, as

more beautiful, more durable and more

moreover,
it

elastic;

needs
whereas

no

polishing.

Two

coats, properly applied, will generally

sufficient,

be found

spirit

varnish

requires six or seven applications.

84

How
The

to

Make a

Violin.
oil

ingredients of

good

varnish are
lin-

three

amber, spirits of turpentine and

seed

oil.

The

latter,

however,

is

such a bad

drier, that it

must be used
oil."

in the

form known
"

as

"boiled

The
it

operator could, of
boiling "
it

course,

perform the operation of

is

himself, but as

very dangerous unless

carried out with great care,

oil

and
it

as boiled

can be purchased ready for use without

risk, I

any trouble or

think

better not to

give any recipes for rendering linseed oil a

better drier.
I

strongly

recommend

that varnish that

use,

is

sold, in

any quantity, ready for

by
oil

Messrs.

Winsor and Newton,

London,

artists'

colour-

men,
of

who

prepare

boiled
artists,

the

very finest

quality for
rely

so

that the violin

maker may
procurable.

upon obtain-

ing the best

boiled
oil
is

Cheap common nearly black, and is worse

the

than useless for

sideration.

purpose

under

con-

The following is the way to prepare varnish. The materials required are
;

oil

Varnishes and Colouring Matter.

85

Amber
Boiled
oil
.
.

4 ounces.

2 ounces.

Oil of turpentine

.4

ounces.

Break up the amber into pieces the size of peas, and having prepared a charcoal fire,
put the amber mto
never before used,
the turpentine,

glazed

iron

vessel

and with it a spoonful of and put the pot on the fire

and the cover on it. A quarter of an hour's warming will suffice to melt the amber, but ii must now and then be stirred with a strip of pine wood. When the amber is melted down, take the pot from the fire, stir it till cool, and add the oil very slowly, stirring all the time so as to thoroughly mix the ingredients, and then add the turpentine, to which you have previously given the colour
desired.

The colouring matters must simply be powdered and put in the turpentine to dissome time before it is wanted for making the varnish. The colouring matters
solve,

are here given

Yellow.

Aloes,

gamboge,
give

turmerics
tints

or

saffron; these will

various

of

86

How
The

to

Make

a Violin.

yellow, from light golden to deep, as

desired.
brilliant.
effect

may
is

be

of golden varnish

very

Red.

Dragon's blood or

Saunder's wood.

By mixing
Brown.
It

with yellow any tint of light red

can be obtained.

Madder or logwood.
for
It is

must be remembered that each coat adds a slight depth of colour to the previous one.
These colouring matters are suitable
colouring either oil or spirit varnish.

sometimes the practice to make a quantity of

any colour

in as small a portion of turpen-

tine as will dissolve

tion to the requisite

and keep it for tint when required.

it,

dilu-

The following

are

recipes

for

oil

var-

nishes of different kinds

Amber, coarsely powdered

Venice turpentine Prepared linseed-oil Oil of turpentine
.

2 oz.

2
li

fl. fl.
fl.

drs

oz
oz.

Amber, fused
Oil of turpentine
.

2 oz 5 6

Drying linseed-oil Amber, fused

Varnishes and Colouring Matter.

Lac Drying

......
linseed-oil
.
. .

87

1 oz.

,,

Oil of turpentine

,,

Dissolve the lac separately, then

add
heat.
1 lb.

the

amber and thoroughly dissolve by

Clear and pale African copal Pale drying oil '. Rectified oil of turpentine
. .

rty

.1
.

qt.

P>

^^^

3 pt.

Boil the copal

and drying-oil
the
turpentine,
jar.

until stringy,

then thin with

and

strain

immediately into the store

is

This varnish

hard and durable, and dries hard in from

twelve to twenty-four hours.

Clear pale rosin
Oil of turpentine
.

.3^

lbs.

.1

gal.

Dissolve.

This

is

the varnish generally

used on the cheap

violins.

Colourless Copal Varnish.

To prepare

this

varnish the copal must be picked, each piece

then broken, upon which a drop or two of

rosemary

oil

is

to

be

poured; the
be

pieces

which become soft upon the application of

the oil are those only to
used.

Those
ground

pieces having been selected are to be

88

How

to

Make a

Violin.
sifted.

to a fine powder,

and then

Place the
to
it

powder
stir for

in a glass vessel

and add

corresponding volume of the rosemary

oil;

a few minutes, when you

Leave the liquid

will have a
to rest for

thick liquid.

two or three hours, then add a few drops of

pure alcohol, and mix slowly, after whicb
reduce with alcohol until the required consistence
is

obtained.

This

is

a clear and

beautiful varnish.

The following

are

recipes

for

spirit-

varnishes of different kinds

Elemi
Mafitic in tears
.

\ oz. or 1 part.
.

Seed-lac

Sandarac Venice turpentine Powdered glass

.

1 2
\
1

>>
))

2
2

>>

Alcohol

M 2 1 n >) 4 16 )) 32

Mastic

1 dr.
.
.

Sandarac

,/

Lac
Alcohol
.

6i
5
fl.

oz.

Varnishes and Colouring Matter.

89

Gum

sandarac

oz.

Seed-lac

2
1 1

Mastic

Benzoin in tears

Powdered
Alcohol
Seed-lac

glass

Venice turpentine

32
5
2
,j

Sandarac
Elemi
.

li
2

Venice turpentine

Powdered
Alcohol

glass

24

Coarsely

powdered
.

copal

and
4 bz.

glass of each

Camphor
Alcohol (64 0. P.)
1 pt.

Heat the mixture (with frequent

counted as they
plete, then
rise,

stirring) in

a water bath, so that the bubbles

may

be

until solution is

com-

decant the clear portion.

. .

Mastic

ilb..
2\
fl.

Turpentine varnish
Alcohol
.

oz

1 pt.

90
This
is

How
clear

to

Make

a Violin.
seen

the spirit-varnish so often

upon the

German
lac

violins.

Colourless Spirit Varnish.

Dissolve 2\
of

oz.

picked orange
alcohol,

in

pint

rectified

and

boil well

for a few minutes

with

5 oz.

of well burnt and recently heated

animal charcoal.
solution should
colourless

small quantity of the

be filtered, and
charcoal.
if

now

not

add more
through

When

coloursilk,

less press the liquor

through a piece of

and

filter

fine filtering paper.

This

varnish must be used in a room where the

temperature

is

about 60 degrees Fahr.

It

does not
minutes.

chill or

bloom, and dries in a few

CHAPTER

XVII.

THE VARNISH.

THE MS.
Bull,
"

"Violin Notes" left by Ole

the

contain

following

inter-

esting observations

In a search after an elucidation of this

facts immediately
this

so-called lost art, three

present themselves

first,

varnish was

employed by the very earliest of the Italian makers as well as the later; second, its use was common only in Italy third, it ceased to
;

be applied to violins after

"
it

A.D.

1750-60.

In texture this varnish

is

extremely supple

will yield to pressure, but breaks or scales

off

under a sudden blow.

It is entirely trans-

and of all shades of brown, red and yellow. The vehicle in which the gums and colours arc dissolved is an oil. Applied to a
parent,
violin,
it

compacts the tone together, without

91

92
rendering
tional

How

to

Make a
or harsh,

Violin.

it shrill

beauty to

and gives addithe wood. That its inIt is

gredients were indigenous to the Italian soil

is

out of the question.

the

well

known

that

maple used by the violin-makers of that day came from Turkey. Imported
to Venice,
it

much of

was employed
etc.

in the construc-

tion

of

oars,

The extremely
liability

curly

pieces,

owing
to be

to their

to

fracture
re-

under rough usage, were consequently

jected,

appropriated

by the

violin-

makers.

Venice and Genoa held great com-

mand

over the entire Eastern trade,

doubtedly
various

through

these

and unports came the

substances of

gums and colouring

was made.

which

this varnish

"Turning to other countries of Europe* Germany, France and England and exam-

ining

the productions

of

their

most

cele-

brated violin-makers contemporaneous with

the

Cremonese school, scarcely a trace of the

is

Italian varnish

to be

met

with.
is

In Ger-

man

instruments the varnish

distinguished

by extreme hardness, a glassy lustre, and an absence of all delicate shades of

The Varnish.
colour.
over,
is

93

The

vehicle

or menstruum, more-

alcohol.

In France, the colouring

was sometimes good, but in general too pronounced. The- varnish of the old English makers lacked transparency. In both these countries the vehicle was oil, but the varnish
in quantity

and texture

differed essentially

from the
"

Italian.
:

was this manufacture a secret? second, how was this secret lost? third, are there any clues for perusal and examination? Answers to these
Three questions occur
first,

questions should clear

this so-called lost art.

up the mystery of
first

"To

begin, then, with the

question,

was the manufacture of this varnish a secret? There is no reasonable doubt that it was,
but only in a certain way.

about two hundred years,

For a period of from the time of

Caspar da Salo to that of the Bergonzi, the varnish was common to every Italian violin-

Cremona had no monopoly, for the knowledge and use of it extended to Padua, Venice, Rome and Naples. It is impossible,
maker.
therefore, during this long time to say that

94

How

to

Make

a Violin.

the selection of ingredients or the

method

of preparation employed in the manufacture

of this substance, so well

known and widely

But a
this
little

used, were in any sense a secret.

later quite a

change

is

observable.

From

hundred
date,

Italian

instruments of

later

only a notable few can be selected

varnish;

as
this

possessing the true

and that
is

marked
is

characteristic in the case of these

few

not the result of mere chance

ap-

parent from the fact that the artists

who
it

made them have

all

consistently applied

to

their productions.

From about

1745 to

about 1760, then, the manufacture of this

varnish

may
bitter

be properly called a

secret, as

being confined to a chosen few.

"

rivalry

had

always

existed

between the Neapolitan, Venetian and Cre-

monese

schools.

Alessandro Gagliano, pro-

bably a pupil of Stradivarius, had established himself at Naples.

Dominico Mon-

tagnana and Sanctus Seraphino were the

masters
of the art
in

Venice.
to

The
relied

Cre-

monese
their

makers

seem

have

on
their

sonorous,

well-selected

wood,

The Varnish.
established principles of construction,
their ancient reputation;

95

the

and Venetians, on
exceedingly

the beauty of their wood,

and

careful finish;

and the Neapolitans on

low
"

their

price.

As a knowledge of
confined to a

the varnish

became

at

last

few, instances are not

their

wanting of the persecution of such by

less

fortunate fellow-workmen.

It

is

quite

evident, that, apart

from any considerations

of beauty, the importance of the varnish as

an acoustic element was well recognised.

The second question now how was the secret lost ? A

"

presents itself
careful
to

and
a

re-

peated examination,

extending

vast

number of

objects, reveals the fact that the

varnish of the Italian violin-maker of the

time of Stradivarius and before him was

common

to the painter, the varnisher,

and

the gilder as well.

Let an ancient piece of

Italian furniture, a chair, a cabinet, the case

of a spinet or harpsichord, be examined,

and provided
ing,

it

has escaped modern retouch-

the varnish might be

by Stradivarius

himself.

Generally

it

is

colourless, then the

96
quality

How

to

Make a

Violin.

and texture
it is

are the indications, but

occasionally
it

of brilliant hues, and then

at once.

proclaims

itself to the eye

Let

specimens of a later date, say, 1760, be ex-

amined, there

is

no such

varnish.

This

is

smooth, fairly lustrous, hard and durable.

The chair of 1725 presents a surface broken and worn away, that of 1760, one comparatively smooth, and fairly able to endure
further vicissitudes of time.

"Between the years 1740 and

introduced.

1760, great

changes in the manufacture of varnish were

The old
capable
in

soft

gums and
of

their

menstrua,

themselves

dis-

solving them, were discarded in favour of

newer and more complicated processes producing a result more durable and unchangeable under exposure and rough wear.
"

The old

fashion of ornamenting all ar-

ticles

of furniture, whether of ornament or

utility,

with carvings, had given place to a

more sober style. Broad, unrelieved surfaces, depending on the intrinsic beauty of their material, were found a relief to the eye tired with unravelling the mazes of complex

The
carving
soft,

Varnish.

97

or

painted arabesque.

The
no

old,

badly

wearing

varnish

longer

sufficed for protection

surfaces; hence the

and covering of sucli new processes, and, for

superior results.
hitherto undissolvso,

such utilitarian

purposes,

The hard copal gums,

able,

or only
entirely

partially

were found to
heating

yield
fusion.

upon

proper

and

In 1750 a patent, covering a period

of twenty-fi.ve years, was granted by the

King of France

to

one Simon Martin, a fan

painter, for the process of

making varnish
the succinic acid

from amber, by driving

off

by means of

heat,

and

the subsequent
oil.

comthat
in

bination of the residue with

From

day
field

to the present, various

improvements

this art hav^e

gone on uninterruptedly.

The

of discovery, the gates to which were

opened by such pioneers as Simon Martin,

being once entered, the problem of durability,

hardness and unchangeableness was

soon solved.

But with the laying aside of

composition,

the old recipes, the Italian varnish became a

lost art.

The knowledge of

its

naturally confined to the general manufac-

g8
tures,

How
was

to

Make

a Violin.

There is no doubt that some of the Cremonese and other makers knew how to prepare it, but, as has been shown, its use was not confined to them.
forgotten.

The new ingredients, the copals, amber, etc., would naturally supersede the old as articles of import, and so by degrees those who possessed the secret, for a secret it was,
certainly regarded

by

its

latest possessors,

would

find increasing difficulty in obtaining

the old constituents.

Moreover, the days of

violin-making in Italy were over.

England,
the

France and Germany were eager competitors, the stolid

build of the

first,

gaudy
of the

colour of the second, the baked

wood

Mittenwalder, or artist of the Black Forest,

and the general cheapness of all, held the market. And so it has happened that the
art of the old varnish
in
is

not

lost,

but buried

under the wheel of progress. For two hundred years it was in the hands of a nation; and though now a desire for this forgotten knowledge is confined to only
the dust

a few,
sistent

would be absurd to say that perinquiry must fail to unravel a skein

it

of so

many

ends.

The Varnish.
"

gg
presents itself

The

third question

now

any writings or clues for perusal and examination? There are many. An ingenious Frenchman, who long ago wrote a
are there
treatise
list

on varnish, has given the following

of authors

who have

treated

upon

this

subject

"Alexis,
author,
Arts,'
"

Piedmontese

(real
'

name

of

Hieronymus
*
:

Ruscellai),

Secrets des

Milan, 1550. Miroir Universel des Arts

Tiavoranti

et des Sciences,* Bologna, 1564.

"

And a

'
:

Recueil Abr6ge des Secrets Mer,

veilleux;

1663.
Artificialis,
etc.;

"Zahn, Jean, 'Oculus Nuremberg, 1685.

" Coronelli,

"Morley, C, 'Collections'; London, 1692.

Vincent,
'

Epitome

Cosmo-

graphique'; Venice, 1693.

"

Pomet,

Histoire Generale des Drogues

'

Paris, 1694 (reprinted 1736).

"

Buouanni, Phillipe, 'Traite des Vernis';

the

Rome, 17 1 "Here is a succession of

earliest written

treatises,

about the time of Caspar da

100
Salo,

How

to

Make

a Violin.

and the latest during that of StradiHere are hundreds of genuine revarius. cipes. Is any one of them the right one? Patience and perseverance are necessary, much fitting of old names to their nomenclatures and many tiresome comparisons, but
these once made, the desired result

may

be

obtained,
the

new varnish may possess old coveted lustrous softness and supand
the

pleness.
red,

And

the colours? the brown, the

?

and

the yellow

hidden

under quaint
all

and obsolete names, they are by one and another of these

all

indicated

authors,

and

are soluble in the one vehicle, forming

a coloured oil varnish, clear

which, however long kept,

sediment.
"

and transparent, will let fall no

There

is still

another branch of this subrarely,

ject

which has never, or very

been
In
to
in-

specified,

and

this is the

ground-toning.

all Italian

instruments the

wood appears
in

be permeated with a colour varying

tensity

from pale yellow

is

to almost orange.

This colour
varnish
;

quite distinct

from that of the

for,

however faded by exposure and

The Varnish.
other causes the latter

lOi
be, the

may

ground-

tone almost always retains

its

colour.

The
its

violins with red varnish afford the finest ex-

amples of

this ground-toning.
is

On

such

tawny yellow

the most intense,

and

offers

a splendid foil to the superimposed colour,

toning and giving

life to

it.

How

composed

or applied, whether as

was a wash or
it

stain, or as

a distinct varnish, none of the

authors give any information.

But from their

miscellaneous

lists

of the drugs, dye-stuffs

and colouring matter common to the Italian

markets,
it

is

quite possible that a selection

fulfil

could be made, which would

required conditions of colour
"

all the

and

stability.

But though supplied with the groundelement

is

tone, another

needed before the

the natural colour

exact reflex of the Italian varnish can be

reproduced, and that

of the old wood.

is

"The problem of the old varnish is solvable by anyone who deems the reward worth
the trial of patience

and perseverance, two

elements most effective in the task of interlining the broken sentences of tradition."

CHAPTER
A MATHEMATICAL

XVIII.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING

THE OUTLINE.

IN the
the
result.

constructing an outline according to

directions

now

to be given,

it

is

necessary to observe great accuracy in

working,

to

ensure

satisfactory

draw a perpendicular line 14 inches long, and divide it accurately into 72 equal parts. Then draw at right angles to line,
First

the following

'

A line through
point No.
>

8
14 16

tf

i9

20

>

2U

A B C D E
loa

See Illustration.
>)

}) >

Constructing the Outline,

103

A line through
point No.
11
yy
>>

22

23
27

F G

See

Illustration.

>
>

H
I

28
31

>> )

K
L

f)

33
34
37

)>
>

M N
00

>> }>

>> > >i > it

It

39

}>

40
44i

P
Q-Q

>}

48
55 56

R-R
S

it

65

Open
parts,

the compasses to the width of 9

b^

put one of the feet at point

little

and

draw the two

curves aa.

Open

the compasses to the width of 24

parts, place

one foot on point

24,

and draw
2

the arc aba.

Open
parts,

the compasses to the width of

off this

and mark

distance

upon each
open

side of the perpendicular, as at

cc.
r,

Put one foot of the compasses at

Constructing the Outline.

to
fl,

105

and

describe the curve at aa.

Do

the

hke on the other side. Open the compasses to the width of one part, and mark to right and left of No. 14,
on the
line

BB, two points

circle,

ee\

make each

point the centre of a

as in the last

paragraph, with radius ^A, and draw the

arcs

A D

on

either side.

measure to a point 22J parts from the perpendicular; put one foot
the Ime

On

L L

of the compass at each of these points h and

describe from the centre h with a radius of
1 1

parts,

the

arcs

cutting

the

lines

LL

and PP.
In the same

way

find

on

line

KK

2 points

23! parts from the perpendicular, and from centres kk open the compasses to the point

whe^e the arcs

last

drawn, join the line LL,

and continue
it

the arc

from the

line

LL

until

meets the line

HH.
11

Open

the compasses to the width of

parts, place

one foot upon point

72,

and draw

the two small lines vVy then place one foot

on point 35, and the other on point 72, and draw the curve between these two lines, vv.

io6

How

to

Make a

Violin.

Open
parts,

the compasses to the width of 6

and placing one foot on point 55, mark on the line SS the two points xx. Take each point ;r as a centre from x to v as a radius, and continue the curve from v
to the line

VV.
4

Open

the compasses to the width of

parts, place

one foot on point

56,

mark

the

2 points to ZB.

Take each
joins the line

s as a centre,

open the com-

passes to the point where the arcs last

drawn

VV, and

continue the curve

from the

line

VV

to the line

RR.
00,

Mark

off

on

line

GG

two points

each

distant from the perpendicular 24^ parts

open the compasses from point

on either
side,

to point /

and draw

the curve

from

point / to the line FF.

On

line II

mark on each

side of the per-

pendicular at the distance of 14! parts from the perpendicular 2 points mm; open the

compasses from
the
line

to where the curve joins

trace

HH, and

on each side the

curve from the last mentioned point to the

point
n.

Constructing the Outline.

107

On

line

EE,

find 2 points 22 parts

from

the perpendicular on each side qq\ open the

compasses from point q to point p on line EE, and draw the small curve from ^ to r

on each

side.

Open
parts,

the compasses from point 20,

16^

and draw the two corners ss. On line QQ open the compasses 24 parts from the perpendicular, and mark on each side the point bb\ from point bb^ open the
line

compasses to the poin^ where the

is

RR

joined by the curve from

to R, and

continue the curve from cc to dd.

On

the line

NN

open the compasses

16-J-

parts from the perpendicular,

and mark on

each side the point

/;

open the compasses

from point
is

to the point where the line

i

PP
and

joined by the curve from the point

curve.

draw the small

Open
the

the compasses to the width of I9f

parts from point $0,

and

trace

on each side

comer dd.
will

We

arch of

now proceed to show how the the violin is made in the direction

of the perpendicular.

io8

How

to

Make a

Violin.
-2

Take a
a
little

strip of

hard wood,
to

inches widd,

longer than the perpendicular, and

centre,

thick
find

enough not
its

bend too easily, and across which draw a line.

length

Open
is,

the

large compasses 216 parts, that

three

times

the

of the perpenstrip

dicular, and,
table,

having fixed the

upon the

draw upon

the table a perpendicular

drawn across the centre of the strip, place one end of the compasses on the perpendicular line upon the strip not too near to the upper edge, and the other point upon the perpendicular drawn upon the table, and draw upon the strip the
line in continuation of the line

arc

shown

in Fig. 40.

When
is

cut

away

this

arc will give the proper arch of the violin.

The length
incision

of the / holes

15 parts; the

on the inner side of each should

opposite
point

be

exactly

40;

the

head

commences opposite point

32^,

and the foot

ends opposite point 47^. The diameter of the hole at the head is i^ part, that at the
J parts; the inner edge of the upper holes should be 9 parts asunder, and the
foot
I

Constructing the Outline.

109

inner edges of the lower holes 23 parts, as

under (see Fig.

41).*

For

all

measurements

required in this

method a

rule 72 parts long

will be

and accurately divided into 72 parts found of great service. THE THICKNESS OF THE BACK.

Point 42 is the starting point for obtaining the proper thickness of the back. With the
Fig. 41. The position of the bar shown in the above illustration is that found in old Dutch and other early made instruments. The position of the bar in modern instruments will be found under paragraph headed " The Bar."
*

no

How

to

Make a

Violtn.

compasses describe from centre 42 a circle having a radius of 4J parts; all the wood contained in this circle should be precisely I Then open the compasses 12 part thick. parts and draw another circle from the same centre, the wood in which will gradually fall off from I part thick at the edge of the inner circle to f of a part at the edge of the outer
circle.

From

this line to the side pieces, the

fall

thickness will gradually

-A

away

in

all

directions to ^ part (see Fig. 42).

fio .^2

Construcling the Outline.

ill

THE THICKNESS OF THE BELLY.

Point 40
is

the point of departure.

Open
with
this

the compasses 4 parts

and draw a

circle

point 40 as
circle

its

centre.

The wood

in

must be f part thick; open the compasses 9 parts, and draw another circle.
Then, as with the back, gradually thin
off

from the inner

outer circle
is

circle till

the

wood
it

at the

\ part thick,

and from thence

should

thin off again to the sides, where

be a good \ part in thickness.

THE BAR.

The bar should be $6

thick, 2 parts

parts long,

part

high in the middle, diminishing

gradually to f part at the ends. Its position should be parallel to the joint, slightly inclining inwards at the top end, or about

inch in

its

whole length, and precisely upon

circle.

the edge of the inner

the bar can be readily
off

The

length of

gauged by measuring

\\\ inch (or 17 lignes French measure)

from the top and from the bottom of the belly, the ends of the bass bar should come
to these points.

The bar should

never be

112
further
at the

How

to

Make a

Violin.

away from the centre than 8^ lignes top and 9^ lignes at the bottom. The

sHght slope at the present time given to the bar should be in this proportion also.

THE SOUND-POST.

The sound-post should be \

meter,
bridge.

inch in dia-

and placed behind the foot of the

Other
particulars

respecting

this

important part have been given in previous

chapters.

THE BRIDGE.

The bridge should have

outer edge of the feet;
its

8 parts between

height should be

6| parts.

THE NECK.

The neck should be 27

the violin.

parts long

from

the extremity of the peg-box to the sides of

CHAPTER

XIX.

THE REMAINING ACCESSORIES OF THE VIOLIN.

THESE

are the tail-piece, bridge, pegs

and strings, which can all be bought of any instrument dealer. I might give the amateur minute directions for making the first three named, but as I only propose writinp: on the making of the
violiriy
I

have

expressly

omitted

matters

which merely pertain to the fitting-up of the

instrument preparatory to playing.

When

Luigi Tarisio came to Paris with a number

of priceless Italian violins in his possession,

he brought nothing but the violins

a mere

assortment of wooden boxes, as turned out

by the master hands of their makers. Those parts which gave a finished appearance to the
instrument were wanting.

An

old "Strad"

may

in

its

time have had fifty tail-pieces

113

or a score of finger-boards; and however

114
essential

How
they

to

Make
be,

a Violin.
the

may
is

parts

above-

named are only The tail-piece

which
should

"fittings."

fastened to the button by

a piece of violoncello

string, the
tied.

knot of

be

firmly

Different

modes of fastening are adopted. Some tailpieces have two holes pierced through them and in this case the ends of the cord should be put through and tied so that the
knot comes
in

the groove of

the button.

Others have the holes pierced in the end of

the tail-piece,

and a hollow scooped on the

under side to allow the knot to stand within

the level of the
belly.

wood so

as not to touch the

The amateur
best.

will select the pattern

he likes

The

strings are

an important factor

in the

production of the tone. They should always

be gauged before they are put on.

string

gauge can be bought for sixpence, and when the thickness and quality of strings best
suited to a violin are ascertained, no variation

The following passage from Mr. Davidson's work will be

should be permitted.
useful to the amateur:

The Remaining
"

Accessories.

115

good

violin string

ought to be perfectly

cylindrical from one extremity to the other,

having a regular thickness throughout, and

possess the necessary elasticity.

packet

of strings upon being compressed, or bent

together,

ought not to change colour, or the

united parts to break, but to quickly return

to their original shape.

They ought

also to

be transparent throughout their entire length,

like a

thread of glass, and possess no

wavy
and
;

or curled markings.

The

best second

third strings are of a transparent white

first

the

not

being
If

so
the

white,
first

but

perfectly

transparent.
white,

strings are

very

we may

safely assume that they have

been

made from

the intestines of animals

which have been prematurely used by the

manufacturer.

The

strings should be

now

and again
in

oiled, preserved in oil-paper or

bladder, and laid aside in covered tin boxes,

a dry place.

For oiling the strings a

small piece of woollen or other cloth

used,

may

be

upon which a few drops of

olive or

almond-oil are poured.

it

If olive-oil is used,

should be purified by a mixture of lime

Ii6

How
lead, until

to
it

Make a
is

Violin.

and
first

perfectly limpid.

The

string should require a tension of 15 lb.

it

to bring

to opera pitch; the second 17 lb.;

the third
first."

and fourth about the same as the

must carefully observe that the tone of any violin is very perceptibly affected by the size of the strings, as if not in due proportion the one to the other, no uniformity

We

of tone or power will be obtained.

peculiarities of the strings

The
in-

which prove

dividually suitable to the different classes

of violins must also be judiciously studied,

as
the

instruments

vary so
is

much

in

this

respect that a string which

perfection to

one

is

destruction to another, but generally

speaking, all the ancient instruments require

to be lightly strung, in order to effectively

evoke their purity of tone and freedom of

vibration.
light,

If

the

strings

are too

thin

or

the tone of such will be

weak and

feeble, whilst

on the contrary,
strain

if

too thick or

heavy, the sounds will be hard and coarse,

and an unnecessary

and pressure

will

be exerted on the bridge.

The Remaining

Accessories.

117

Many

of the common-class violins require

the strings to be <7Z'^r-tight ere they can be

brought to pitch, causing endless ruptures,

but a well-made violin never requires this
<?^'^r-st^aining or tightening in
it

order to bring

to pitch.
violins,

The

fingering also varies

on

some

even although they

may

be of

precisely similar lengths of fingerboard.

From

the preceding cursory remarks the

reader will easily discern that the strings

form an important item

in the correct ad-

justment of the instrument.

The pegs must be accurately adjusted, and when properly fitted the holes should fall
so as to allow the strings to run from the

hole to the nut without crossing each other.

mixture of finely powdered chalk and

found the best means of making the pegs move freely and stay where they
rosin will be

are left without pressure.

The bridge
in

is

ably treated by Ole Bull

his

"Violin Notes," and the following

passage will afford the necessary information on this point,

and

also with respect to

the sound-post

and bow

Ii8

How

to

Make

a Violin.

THE BRIDGE.
"

The

position of the bridge should be such

as to affect the whole violin equally,

and

not to favour one tone more than another.

"The

centre of the bridge should be dir-

Whether it should stand slightly backwards or forwards of, or directly on a line drawn across the top from the inner notches of the / holes, will depend upon the character of the instrument, and can only be determined experiectly over the centre line of the top.

mentally.
piece
in

It

should incline towards the

to
better

tail-

order

withstand
in tuning.

the

forward pull of the strings

**

The

construction of the bridge has great

mfluence upon the tone.

centre of the bridge tends to

Thinness of the

make prominent

any nasal quality or

instrument.

shrillness latent in the

proper solidity conveys sweetthick-

ness

and compactness, but too great

violins

ness muffles the tone.

"

High-built

mostly

require

low

bridges,

and such should be particularly

thick at the edges where the strings rest.

The Remaining

Accessories.
flat

119

"The

bridge should be perfectly

It

on

the side toward the tail-piece.

slightly convex

may be

on the other side. "The material of which the bridge is made should be invariably maple. That
which
is

known

as the silver-grey

maple

is

preferable to the brown or yellow, as having

a more close and elastic grain.

"The

incisions in the sides of the bridge

should extend each one third of the distance

tov/ard the centre.

The French model of

is

Aubert, of Mirecourt, though open to some

objections in special cases,

one of the

best.

These bridges are made of excellent wood,

and

are thick

and

strong.

"The

top of the bridge should.be thick.

Properly constructed, a bridge

quite heavy,

may

be

made

and so made it will always convey a rounder and fuller volume of tone. The distance measured along the top between the G and E strings, should be i-^^
inch.

The

string should be \ inch above

its

the hnger board at

larger extremity; the

E
of

string,

inch.

The average height

bridge

the

feet

of

the

should

be

120

How
-j^

to

Make

a Violin.

about

inch.

The

thickness at the base,

a scant

inch; at the top a full -^ inch.

The

feet

should be -^ inch long.

THE SOUND-POST

"In general the sound-post should stand from i to J inch to the rear of the right foot of the bridge. Its outer edge should be
in line with the outer
this position its

edge of the

foot.

From
cer-

upper or lower end, or both,

should in
all cases

may
fit

be moved with advantage to secure

It

tain qualities of tone.

the curves of the top

lutely.

Moving
favours

the

and back absolower end toward the

strings.

centre

the

lower

If

the
all

lower strings are weak and the upper at

sharp or hard in tone, then a very loose post

should be used.
a long

If the reverse

is

the case,

and tightly fitting sound-post is required. Moving the upper end outward
will help all the strings, if the tone before

was hard and shrill; but if the upper strings happen to be dull and heavy, then the post
should stand a
little

inside the line of the

little

foot of the bridge,

and a

further back.

The Remaining

Accessories.

121
fine -

The sound-post should be made o f gr ained soft spr uce. The grain should
ring of
the

cross

that of the top, as this will prevent the mar-

inner

surface of

the

top in
it.

putting the post in

and adjusting

THE BOW.
" I

use a

bow

longer by two inches than the

ordinary standard, a powerful, heavy

required for four-string
tours de force.

bow is passages and many

if

The bow, while elastic, should

stiff,

be extremely

so that

dropped upon
It

the strings the rebounds are very rapid.

should have weight to give force to these

rebounds, as in
the

many passages

the weight of

hand cannot be applied to assist the bow; as in the tremolo, arpeggio and staccato volante. In this last example the bow is thrown upon the strings and runs its length
in

series

of

little

rebounds, neither the

hngers nor wrist having anything to do with

the result.

In order to graduate, as

it

were,

the different colours of

certain overtones

sound, we favour
to act

by causing the hair

122

How

to

Make a

Violin.

from the bridge. The nearer we approach the bridge the more the upper overtones, and the nearer the neck
at greater or less distances

the more the lower overtones will be favoured.

In the

first

instance, the resulting

tone resembles that of the trumpet; and in

the second, that of the horn

and

clarinet.

With a heavy bow,

slight assistance
is

in forte passages, only

needed from the hand.

In piano passages, the
partially

The
little

wrist

is

not cramped or stiffened in pro-

ducing the pressure.

finger

should

sustain

the

weight,

and the

stick

should be inclined

toward the neck, so that only part of the

hairs act
"

upon the

strings.

The great stiffness and elasticity of the heavy bow gives a freer, cleairer tone than can be produced by one of a lighter and
more sluggish
"

nature.

The

length of the

bow

is

ft.

inches,

the length of the hair, 2

ft.

4 inches.

The

number of
It is

hairs

is

about 160. Half the hairs

are put in one way, the other half the other.

known
have

that the hairs, as seen

little

when mag-

nified

saw-like teeth running in

The Remaining
one direction.

Accessories.

123

By

thus dividing the hairs,

they present the same friction on either the

up or down

stroke.
It

The

best hair

is

from

Normandy. and not flat

should be round and even,

in places."

The importance of a suitable bridge is paramount, and to further aid the amateur
in its selection I

tation

append the following quofrom Mr. Davidson

a far more important
it.

"The bridge plays

part than
incisions
is

generally attributed to

Its

and form have a great

of
the

influence
It

upon

the quality

instrument.
If

merits, therefore, all our attention.

take a piece of wood, cut like a bridge,

we and we

glue

it

upon a

violin, the
It gets

instrument nearly
little better if

loses its sound.

form

feet to the bridge; if

we make

lateral

incisions

in

it,

the sound

improves, which
until
It is

improvement increases gradually

bridge assumes the ordinary form.
astonishing thing that by trial
arrive at the

the

an

we gradually
any

form of bridge usually adopted,

to be better than
trials

and which appears

other.

multitude of

have been made

124

How

to

Make a

Violin.

before this important piece arrived at perfection.

Everything

heis

led to this result,

the established

that

we cannot depart from

of the instrument.

form without detracting greatly from the

quality

Bridges have

been

made of

deal with their fibres perpen-

and parallel to the belly, but the sound was found to be altered. The size and shape of the openings have been altered,
dicular

but the beauty of the instrument has always

been impaired.

Let us examine the move-

ment of the molecules of the bridge. If we take a plain bridge with two feet and a single string, the movement is tangential,
parallel to the face of the bridge.
If

we

make two incisions in it, the nature of the movement changes, and the sand is seen to move in several directions at once, while the
bridge
lation,
itself

experiences movements of oscilits

and

molecules appear to execute

vibrations in a direction normal to the belly.

The

effect

appears

to

be

to

confirm

the

normal movements of the

tables.

The bar

to which these oscillations are imparted, pro-

duces in the belly a similar movement over

The Remaining
its

Accessories.

12$
it

entire

surface,

and
All

prevents

from

dividing
versal

into

ventral
lines.

segments by transthe parts of the

nodal

instrument enter at once into vibration.

us see

Let

how we can modify

By placing
is

the effects of the

bridge, by interfering a
lations.

little

with

its oscil-

a mute on the bridge

the sound

almost null, and the bridge

It

seems no longer to vibrate.

the instrument.
lations,

even appears

to arrest the vibrations of the other parts of

The mute

arrests its oscil-

and no longer produces the vibration of the belly. If we clamp the right foot of the bridge, the sound is weakened, but not
to so great

an extent as with a mute.

On

the other hand, if

we

repeat the experiment

with the left foot, which ought to communicate

its

movement

to the bar^ the

It is

sound

is

incomparably weaker.
left foot

evident that the

of the bridge produces the shocks

which occasion the movement of the bar and

of the belly."

Fig. 43.

bbioge of a viol with seven stbings, the body of which is not cut out except at the two bides.

ff

Fig. 45.

bridge of a SMALL-rAXTERN VIOLIN OF THE ANCIENT SCHOOL OF ANTHONY AMATI

Fig. 44.

bridge of a viol with five strings cut through

in evert tart.

Fig. 46.

bridge op a Nicholas amati.

Fig. 47.

bridge of a stradivarius.

Lowe and Brydone

Printed in Great Britain by (Printers) Limited, London, N.W.io