Wafer Test and Evaluation

Transistor Layers

p-well n-well n-channel transistor p-channel transistor p+ substrate

Dr. Nowshad Amin

UKM

Final Testing Options

There are several methods used in final test to ensure that wafers are of acceptable quality. They test wafers ability to withstand exposure to different environmental conditions while maintaining performance specifications. Several of the tests used are listed and explained below.

Inline Parametric Tests

Also known as WET (wafer electrical test) or DC test Electrical test performed on test pattern structures located on the wafer not individual wafer devices. DC voltages and currents are applied while checking the corresponding voltages on the output pins. Typically done after 1st metal layer deposited and etched Allows probes to make electrical contact with special test structure pads.

Objectives
Identify process problems - save $ Pass/fail criteria - should wafers continue processing? Data Collection - asses process trends Special Tests - asses specific process parameters Wafer level reliability - as needed to assure reliability concerns of process conditions

Wafer Sort
Objectives of Wafer Sort
chip functionality - verify operation of all chip functions chip sorting - sort good chips based on their operating speed performance fab yield response - provide yield information to asses and improve overall fab process performance test coverage - achieve high test coverage of internal device nodes at lowest cost

Environmental Tests
Thermal Shock tests consist of placing the device into high temperature environments and then quickly moving them into a cold environment. Mechanical Shock tests determine the ability of the device to withstand physical impacts. Pressure Cooker tests expose the device to high temperature and higher pressures (two atmospheres) to determine the ability to withstand galvanic corrosion due to the encapsulating materials. Humidity tests expose the device to higher temperature and humidity when powered. This test measures the effects of corrosion.
Dr. Nowshad Amin UKM

Wafer Electrical Measurements

Resistance and Resistivity Resistivity Measurements Resistance, Voltage, Current = Ohms Law Four-Point Probe Four-Point Probe Operations Probe Blades (Contacts) Sheet Resistance

What is Resistivity?
A measure of the resistance to current flow in a material. A function of the attraction between the outer electrons and inner protons of a material. The more tightly bound the electrons, the greater the resistivity.

Resistivity Measurements
Relationship of Resistance (R) to Resistivity (p) and Dimensions:
R = p L/A = p L / WxD

Units of Measurements:
Resistance (R): Resistivity (p ): x cm

Ohms Law for Resistance

R = V/I = (p ) L/A = (p ) L/(W x D)
R V I p L A W D = resistance = voltage = current = resistivity of sample = length of sample = cross-sectional area of sample = width of sample = depth of sample

Four-Point Probe
An instrument used to measure resistivity on wafers and crystals. It can also be used to measure the resistivity of thin layers of dopants added into the wafer surface during the dopant processes. Has four thin metal probes arrayed in a line. (Two outside probes are connected to a power supply and two inside probes that are connected to a voltage meter.)

Four-Point Probe Operations

Current is passed between the two outer probes while the voltage drop is measured between the inner probes. The effects of probe-wafer contact resistance on the measurement are canceled out. The relationship between current and voltage values is dependent on the resistance of the space between the probes and the resistivity of the material.

p=

2 s V/I

Probe Blades (Contacts)

Characteristics:
When mounted in series, they are very rugged Large BTP-310E life is 8 million touchdowns Used with block probe assembly or custom burn in sockets. All contacts obtain a long life because they will not be damaged if a block probe were to be dropped. Ideal for testing ASIC Chips, Hybrid Circuits (thick/thin) film.

Model BTP-310E Contact

Model BVL-310E Contact

Model MTP-33E Contact

What is Sheet Resistance?

Sheet Resistance Rs:
The electrical quantity measured on a thin layer. Units: / square

Rs = 4.53 V/I
4.53 is a constant that arises from the probe spacing.

Concentration & Depth Profile

Distribution of dopant atoms in the wafer is a major influence on the electrical operation of a device. The dopant concentration profile is determined offline by two techniques
(SIMS) Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (DHE) Differential Hall Effect

SIMS
What is it? (secondary ion mass spectrometry)
A combination of ion milling and secondary ion detection methods. Ions are directed at the sample surface., removing a thin layer. Secondary ions are generated from the removed material, which contains the wafers material and dopant atoms.

Depth Profile
Test is done after doping to prepare for bevel technique. Depth is measured by two-point probes down the bevel. Vertical drop of the probes are recorded and a resistance measurement is made. Resistance value changes w/ the change in dopants at each level.

(DHE) Differential Hall Effect

Requires sequential removal of the doped layer down to the junction. As each layer is removed the resistivity and the Hall coefficient are measured. The Hall coefficient related to carrier mobility Dopant concentration is calculated from the two measured parameters

Device Electrical Measurements

Equipment Resistors Diodes Oxide rupture (Bvox or rupture voltage.) Bipolar transistors MOS transistors Capacitance-voltage plotting Contactless C/V measurement Device Failure analysis: Emission microscopy

Test Equipment
Probe Machine
Has the capability of positioning needlelike probes on the devices Switch box (to apply the correct voltage) current polarities

Equipment: Probe Cards

Probe cards are used when there are to be many devices measured. Also used in the wafer sort process. Uses curve tracer or a special digital voltmeter as a display.

Equipment: Probe Stations

Air Lift Station Step Repeat Station

Contact-less C/V Measurements

COS
Result is similar to a MOS transistor C stands for corona source. This source builds a charge directly on the oxide surface. Thus, we can calculate the charge (drift), flatband voltage, surface states, and oxide thickness.

Device Failure Analysis

Emission Microscopy
Used to locate and produce an image of trouble spots on a semiconductor device. Microscopes are fitted with sensitive detectors and charged-coupled imaging devices. Very useful for electrical measurements.

Scanning Electron Microscopes - LEO 1455VP

The LEO 1455VP is a research grade variable pressure SEM, designed to accommodate and fully maneuver large and awkwardly shaped specimens, for nondestructive imaging and analysis.

Specimen = Via hole in semiconductor material Original Magnification = 40.00 kX Accelerating Voltage = 1.91kV

Specimen = Cross section of a semiconductor device Original Magnification = 50.00kX Accelerating Voltage = 0.40kV

Internet Links
For more info about Wafer Testing, please feel free to visit these websites:
http://www.icprobotics.com http://www.jemam.com http://www.jeol.com http://entcweb.tamu.edu/zoghi/semiprog/linker.htm http://www.cea.com/cai/simstheo/caistheo/htm