Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(
V
)
Force(N)
Loading
Unloading
31
Table 3.2 Static calibration results.
Another approach that was performed for static calibration was using an impulse
hammer (PCB Model 086C01) and averaging the output for different input hammer forces. For
this method, piezoelectric films were used to measure the dynamic strain. Since these
piezoelectric films measure dynamic forces, the output forces were averaged. Given that the
output of the piezoelectric film gages oscillates around zero, the average would give values
close to zero, therefore the rms value of the output voltage was calculated. Thus the sensitivity
constant can be determined. The trendline equation of V=7E-05F +0.003, R
2
=0.953 of figure
3.17, shows the linear relation formed by averaging output of different hammer hits, with
different force values.
Mass(lbs) Force(N)
Straingageoutputvoltage(V)
Loadingofweight Unloadingofweight
0 0.0 0.000 0.000
20 88.9 0.025 0.030
40 177.9 0.047 0.054
60 266.8 0.071 0.077
80 355.8 0.097 0.101
100 444.8 0.119 0.132
120 533.7 0.141 0.156
140 622.7 0.167 0.178
160 711.7 0.188 0.209
180 800.6 0.212 0.232
200 889.6 0.232 0.257
220 978.6 0.254 0.280
240 1067.5 0.276 0.304
260 1156.5 0.298 0.321
280 1245.5 0.320 0.339
300 1334.4 0.349 0.355
320 1423.4 0.369 0.373
32
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.045
0.050
0 100 200 300 400 500
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
d
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
V
)
Force(N)
Figure 3.17 Plot of average film output versus applied hammer force.
3.2.2 Dynamic Calibration
Dynamic calibration is performed to characterize the balance behavior when a sudden
load (impulse force) acts on a system. Dynamic calibration is performed by different methods
including hammer impulse excitation. A perfect impulse will excite all the frequencies of a
system, which consist of the model and the force balance. Other ways of calibrating is creating
a step load by hanging weights from a wire and cutting the wire. This type of calibration can be
done both horizontally and vertically. Drop test calibration is a procedure of suspending the
balance and cutting the wire above the balance, thus creating a step response. For the drop test
calibration, care must be taken to prevent damage from impact. Figure 3.18 is a sketch of a cut
weight test. The balance and model system are attached from the top and a known mass is
suspended from the end of the model through a pulley. The wire is then cut near to the model
creating a step response, measured with the gages.
33
Figure 3.18 Sketch of a cut weight test.
Cut weight test was also performed vertically, since vibrations can occur in the step response
when using a pulley as support. This arrangement is seen in figure 3.19.
Figure 3.19 Vertical cut weight test
as th
A sc
hamm
483A
outpu
Appe
tips,
Tests
damp
tips w
and t
signa
the im
smal
Dynamic
he transfer fun
chematic of th
mer was used
A) was utilize
ut strain. Da
endix C for d
consisting of
s showed tha
ped higher fre
were used to
the strain out
al takes more
mpact hamm
l pulses due t
calibration is
nction. Calibra
his calibration
d with the mo
ed for the ham
ata were reco
details). The s
f metal, plasti
at the metal
equency and
create the im
put. A detail o
e than 1 ms to
er care was t
to the bounce
Figure 3.2
performed to
ation is done
n is shown in
odel installed
mmer signal.
orded using
sampling rate
c and rubber
tip excited t
created impu
mpulse. Figur
of the pulse w
o reach back
taken to obta
e of the hamm
20 Schematic
34
o find the for
by striking th
n figure 3.20
in the test se
The piezoel
an oscillosco
e for the calib
r were tested
he system w
ulses of larger
re 3.21 illustra
with the metal
to its steady
ain a good pu
mer.
c of impulse h
rce balance c
he model with
. A PCB Mo
ection. A signa
ectric films w
ope (Tektron
bration was 2
to determine
with higher fre
r pulse width.
ates the raw
tip is shown
state, right a
ulse. A poor s
hammer calibr
characteristics
h an instrumen
del 086C01
al conditioner
were used to
ix Model DP
25MS/s. Diffe
e one that is m
equencies. T
Both the met
data of a ham
in figure 3.22
after the pulse
strike will crea
ration
s, also known
nted hammer
impulse force
r (PCB Model
measure the
PO 4054, see
erent hamme
most suitable
The rubber tip
tal and plastic
mmer impulse
2, the hamme
e. When using
ate a string o
n
r.
e
-
e
e
er
e.
p
c
e
er
g
of
Figur
taken
F
re 3.21 Raw
n over duratio
Figure 3.22 Sa
data of a ha
on of 150 ms
ample hamme
ammer impuls
(below).
er impulse cre
35
se (above) an
eated by strik
nd the respon
king the metal
nse of the ha
l tip on the mo
ammer impac
odel cone.
ct
36
To form the transfer function (impulse response), the obtained strain output is
deconvolved with the hammer impulse. As mentioned before, a poor hammer strike can result in
obtaining an inaccurate transfer function. The hammer strike can be verified, since theoretically
convolution of an ideal impulse with a unit step results in a perfect step response. Matlab was
used to create a unit step (start at t=0) as shown in figure 3.25. The hammer impulse was
convolved with this unit step. The resultant convolved signal is illustrated in figure 3.23. This
signal was compared with a simulated step response, which is formed by convolving a modified
impulse with the unit step [9]. This modified impulse was created by padding zeroes right after
the pulse of the hammer strike, as shown in figure 3.26. The pulse was identified to have a
width of approximately 487s, as illustrated in figure 3.27.
Figure 3.23 Check signal of both raw hammer signal and modified hammer signal.
A detailed view of the check signal is shown in figure 3.24. The error bar shows the
deviation of the signal from the modified pulse signal. The hammer check signal agrees with the
perfect step response. An error estimate on the signal shows variation of 0.6 %. It may be
conc
pulse
cluded that the
e of the hamm
ese variations
mer strike, (fig
Figure
Fi
s in the hamm
gure 3.22) is n
e 3.24 Detaile
igure 3.25 Si
37
mer check sig
not zero.
ed view of che
imulated unit
gnal is becaus
eck signal wit
step input.
se the mean
th error bar
right after the
e
from
Figur
appro
The pulse
200 to 500
re 3.27 Enla
oximately 487
e width chang
s.
Fig
arged view o
7s.
ges for each
gure 3.26 Mo
of the pulse
38
hammer impu
odified hamm
of the modi
ulse, the calib
mer impulse.
ified hammer
bration pulse
r impulse. P
width ranged
ulse width is
d
s
was
was
using
figure
each
deco
frequ
Figur
JMEC
funct
Througho
found by dec
tested in two
g functional m
e 3.28 it can
h other. Both
onvoluted sign
uency compon
re 3.28 Com
CG)
The impu
tion (FRF). F
out this work,
convolution o
o ways, one u
minimization w
be seen tha
methods ca
nals had to b
nents. A ten-p
mparison of
ulse response
From the FRF
Matlab wa
of the pulse o
using FFT alg
with extended
at both the sig
an be used in
be filtered aga
point moving-
the impulse
e in the frequ
F shown in fi
39
as used for d
output with th
gorithm and th
d conjugate g
gnals, obtaine
n determining
ain, since the
-average filter
response ob
uency domain
igure 3.29, th
data processi
he hammer im
he other itera
gradient algo
ed by FFT an
g the impulse
e deconvoluti
r was used fo
btained using
n is known a
he higher fre
ng. The impu
mpulse. The d
ative deconvo
rithm (JMECG
nd JMECG ag
e response.
on method a
or this samplin
g two metho
as the freque
quencies mig
ulse response
deconvolution
lution method
G) [16]. From
gree well with
The obtained
amplifies high
ng rate.
ods (FFT and
ncy response
ght be due to
e
n
d
m
h
d
-
d
e
o
intern
syste
spec
Figur
frequ
nal reflection
em character
ctrum of the si
re 3.29 Powe
uencies.
Figure 3
of stress w
istics. A deta
ignal is illustra
er spectral d
3.30 Enlarged
aves. The re
ailed view of t
ated figure 3.
ensity plot of
d power spec
40
esulting frequ
the first 12 k
31.
f frequency r
ctral density p
uency respon
kHz is shown
response fun
lot of FRF for
nse describes
in figure 3.3
ction showin
r the first 12 k
s the balance
0. The phase
g the various
kHz.
e
e
s
which
trans
frequ
red. T
Figure
Matlab
h is shown in
sform. The s
uencies are e
The first mod
e 3.31 Enlarge
was used to
n Figure 3.32
pectrogram s
xcited, this is
e shows the
F
ed view of ph
o create a spe
2. The spectr
shows the fre
s due to the h
maximum am
Figure 3.32 Sp
41
ase spectrum
ectrogram of t
rogram was c
equency vari
ammer impul
mplitude.
.
pectrogram o
m of FRF for t
the frequency
calculated us
iation with tim
lse. The mod
f the FRF.
he first 12 kH
y response fu
sing the shor
me. At any p
es of vibratio
Hz.
unction (FRF)
rt-time Fourie
point of time
n are seen as
),
er
e,
s
42
3.3 Shock Tunnel Testing
The experiments were conducted with the UTA Hypersonic Shock Tunnel, using air as
the driver gas. Steel diaphragms were used in the double diaphragm section as mentioned in
chapter 1. The secondary diaphragm was made of mylar (0.010 in. thickness). For the tests, a
Mach 10 nozzle insert was used.
CEA (Chemical Equilibrium with Applications) was used in calculating reflected shock
conditions. The flow was considered a frozen composition. Shock velocity was calculated using
two pressure transducers (PCB Model-111A23), which were located 82.5 cm (32.5 in.) and
219.7 mm (86.5 in.) from the end of the driven section. The free stream flow conditions were
found using the perfect gas relations, which are summarized in table 3.3. For the experiments
all the signals including the pitot pressure, force data and pressure transducers in the driven
tube (CH1 and CH2) were recorded simultaneously using an oscilloscope (Tektronix Model
DPO 4054, see Appendix C for details). A rising edge trigger was used for the first pressure
transducer (CH1) for a level of 300 mV. It was set to ensure no loss of data and capture all
signals. The data were sampled at 25 MS/s and for a duration of 40 ms.
Table 3.3 Test conditions.
Condition
No:
M
P
0
(MPa)
o
(kg/m
3
)
T
0
(K)
p
(Pa)
(kg/m
3
)
T
(K)
V
(m/s)
H
0
(MJ/kg)
Condition
1 9.441 2.68 10.22 914.6 72.89 4.95E-03 51.3 1344.9 0.65
Condition
2 9.427 2.705 10.21 923.7 73.76 4.93E-03 52.0 1352.3 0.66
43
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Force Measurement Prediction
4.1.1 Modified Newtonian Theory
Newtonian theory assumes that the oncoming flow can be considered of as continuous
stream of particles. When the particles hit a surface at high speeds, they lose all their
momentum perpendicular to the surface. The pressure coefficient predicted by Newtonian
theory is given by
C
p
= 2sin
2
0 (4.1)
This equation shows that the pressure distribution is related to the square of the inclination
angle. The modified Newtonian theory was proposed by Lees in 1955 so that the pressure is a
function of M
:
C
p,mux
= j
p
t2
p
-1[
2
yM
2
(4.2)
where, C
p,max
is the maximum pressure coefficient behind a normal shock wave, at the
stagnation point.
p
t2
p
= j
(y+1)M
2
2
[
y
(y-1)
j
(y+1)
2yM
2
-(y-1)
[
1
(y-1)
(4.3)
44
The axial force coefficient is calculated by the following relation [17],
C
A
= 2C
p,t
2
[
R
N
2
R
B
2
j (u.2S cos
2
o(1 - sin
4
0
c
) (4.4)
+u.12S sin
2
o cos
4
0
c
)
+ton 0
c
(cos
2
o sin
2
0
c
+u.Su sin
2
o cos
2
0
c
)
_
(R
B
R
N
) -cos0
c
tan0
c
cos0
c
+
((R
B
R
N
) -cos0
c
)
2
2tan0
c
__
where,
R
N
is the nose radius of the blunt cone
R
B
is the base radius of the blunt cone
c
is the half cone angle
is the angle of attack
The normal force coefficient is calculated by the following relation [17],
C
N
= 2C
p,t
2
[
R
N
R
B
2
_ (u.2S sin o cos o cos
4
0
c
) (4.5)
+sin o cos o sin 0
c
cos 0
c
)
_
(R
B
R
N
) -cos0
c
ton0
c
cos0
c
+
((R
B
R
N
) -cos0
c
)
2
2ton0
c
__
The following relation is used to calculate Lift-to-Drag ratio:
L
=
C
N
cos u-C
A
snu
C
N
snu+C
A
cosu
(4.6)
Drag
Eqns
The
of an
Figur
attac
g is calculated
s. (4.8) and (4
axial and nor
ngles of attack
re 4.1 Plot of
ck.
d by using the
4.9) into (4.7)
rmal force co
k from 0 to 15
(a) coefficien
e relation
yields
efficients, coe
5 deg which a
nt of drag vs.
45
B =
1
2
v
2
I
2
= H
2
y
p =
P
R1
=
1
2
yPH
efficients of li
are summarize
angle of atta
2
S C
D
yRI
H
2
S C
ift and drag w
ed in Tables 4
ack and (b) co
were estimate
4.1 and 4.2.
oefficient of li
(4.7
(4.8
(4.9
(4.10
ed for a range
ft vs. angle o
)
8)
9)
)
e
of
46
Table 4.1 Force prediction using modified Newtonian theory using condition 1.
Angle of Attack
()
C
a
C
n
C
l
C
d
L/D
0 0.2697 0 0 0.2697 0
5 0.2736 0.1427 0.1183 0.2850 0.4152
10 0.2852 0.2780 0.2243 0.3291 0.6814
15 0.3041 0.3991 0.3067 0.3971 0.7725
Table 4.2 Force prediction using modified Newtonian theory using condition 2.
Angle of Attack
()
C
a
C
n
C
l
C
d
L/D
0 0.2692 0 0 0.2692 0
5 0.2732 0.1427 0.1184 0.2846 0.4160
10 0.2848 0.2781 0.2244 0.3287 0.6826
15 0.3038 0.3991 0.3069 0.3967 0.7736
4.1.2 Coefficient of Drag Calculation using Pitot Pressure
The following equation shows how force coefficients are found by normalizing the force
history by the pitot pressure using a suitable scaling factor [9],
From equation 4.7
C
=
1
2
p
2
S
(4.11)
The Rayleigh-pitot formula given in equation 4.5 can be also written as [9],
p
pt
= p
j
(y+1)M
2
2
[
y
(y-1)
j
(y+1)
2yM
2
-(y-1)
[
1
(y-1)
(4.12)
47
For high values of M
, when 2yH
2
(y -1) , equation 4.12 can be approximated as,
p
pt
= p
j
(y+1)
2
[
(y+1)
(y-1)
y
1
1-y
H
2
(4.13)
p
= p
RI
(4.14)
H
2
=
2
yR1
(4.15)
Substituting these into equation 4.13 we get
p
pt
= j
y+1
2
[
(y+1)
(y-1)
y
y
1-y
p
2
(4.16)
Substituting p
2
in equation 4.16
C
= _
2
[
y+1
2
(y+1)
(1-y)
y
y
y-1
S
_
p
pit
(4.17)
For a given flow condition y and S remain constant, therefore drag coefficient is expressed as
C
= const
p
pit
(4.18)
Measuring the pitot pressure along with the force during an experiment can be used to estimate
the force coefficient, which also varies with time.
were
recov
secti
the fl
decre
decre
which
on th
trend
The pred
e compared.
vered force o
on 4.1.2. An a
Figu
It can be
low arrival the
ease. This is
ease in the c
h would also
his low freque
d as the pitot s
icted values
Figure 4.2
of condition 1
average take
ure 4.2 Coeffi
seen that ap
e drag coeffic
due to increa
coefficient of d
account for
ency vibration
signal.
4.2 Expe
using the mo
is a plot of
. This data w
n from 175 s
cient of drag
pproximately t
cient remains
ase in pressu
drag [9]. A lo
the unsteady
. Figure 4.5 s
48
erimental Res
odified Newto
the coefficie
was normaliz
s to 275 s is
from the reco
the first 120
steady for a
re at the base
ow frequency
y drag force.
shows that the
sults
onian theory
ent of drag h
ed with the p
s also shown
overed force (
s is the flow
period of 100
e of the cone
oscillation w
Further inves
e recovered fo
and the reco
history obtain
pitot pressure
in the figure.
(condition 1).
w commencin
0 s and is th
, which would
was found in t
stigations nee
orce data follo
overed forces
ned from the
e as shown in
ng stage, afte
hen noticed to
d describe the
the test signa
ed to be done
ows the same
s
e
n
r
o
e
al
e
e
The r
s is
raw pitot pres
shown in figu
Figure 4.3
ssure signal is
ure 4.5. The d
3 Recovered d
s shown in fig
data was filter
Figure 4.4
49
drag force an
gure 4.4, a de
red using a 2
4 Raw pitot s
nd theoretical
etail of the pito
0 kHz low-pa
ignal.
force.
ot pressure fo
ss Butterwort
or the first 400
th filter.
0
Figur
Coef
the re
re 4.5 First 40
The resu
fficient of dra
ecovered forc
Figu
00 s of the p
lts for condit
g history obta
ce.
ure 4.6 Coeffi
pitot pressure
tion 2 are sh
ained from th
cient of drag
50
and drag. A 2
hown in figur
he recovered
from the reco
20 kHz low pa
res below. F
force of con
overed force (
ass filter was
igure 4.6 is
dition 2. Figu
(condition 2).
used.
a plot of the
ure 4.7 shows
e
s
The r
4.9. T
raw pitot pres
The data was
ssure signal is
s filtered using
Figure 4.7 R
s shown in fig
g a 20 kHz low
Figure 4.8
51
Recovered dra
gure 4.8, a de
w-pass Butte
8 Raw pitot s
ag force.
etail for the firs
rworth filter.
ignal.
st 400s is shhown in figuree
From
meas
table
varia
detai
C
Figure 4.9
m the experim
sured pitot p
e 4.3. % i
ations seen in
il in chapter 5
Conditionno
1
2
9 First 400 s
mental results
ressure. The
is the differe
n the recovere
5.
Table 4.3 C
: Drag
e
(N)
16.98
13.61
s of the pitot p
s it is seen
e experimenta
ence betwee
ed drag, migh
Comparison o
exp
Dra
8.9% 1
9.6% 1
52
pressure. A 2
that the reco
al to theoretic
en the theor
ht be due to
of experimenta
ag
theory
(N)
17.9
18.0
0 kHz low-pa
overed drag
cal drag com
retical and e
several facto
al to theoretic
%
5.9
32.3
ass filter was u
is in accorda
mparison is su
experimental
ors, which are
cal drag
Coefficient
coeffic
0.199
0.128
used.
ance with the
ummarized in
values. The
e discussed in
tofdrag
ient
7.8
27.9
e
n
e
n
53
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Due to the short duration in impulse hypersonic shock tunnels, it is difficult to measure
accurately the aerodynamic forces. Since the test time is very small, force equilibrium may not
be reached between the model and the balance structure. The stress wave force balance
(SWFB) is a method used to analyze the stress waves formed during aerodynamic loading.
5.1 Force Balance in the UTA Hypersonic Shock Tunnel
A force balance was designed for measuring forces on aerodynamic models. In the
present work, drag was measured for a blunt cone using the force balance. The force balance
system included the model, which was fabricated in steel and the force balance, made of 6061
aluminum alloy. Several designs were investigated before the actual fabrication. Some of the
limitations in the design included the size of the balance, amount of load the balance must
withstand, model and support attachment and machining simplicity. The force balance was
designed to fit in the hypersonic shock tunnel test section, allowing room for support
attachments, model attachment and wiring. FEA (Finite Element Analysis) was used to
determine the dynamic characteristics of the force balance under high impact loading. It was
also performed to be certain of the maximum loads the force balance could resist.
Piezoelectric film gages and strain gages were used to measure forces. Both static and
dynamic calibrations were performed. The static calibration involved loading the force balance
with increments of known weights and measuring the strain for each weight. The same
procedure was also done for unloading the weights. These results were plotted to obtain a
linear relationship. Dynamic calibration was done by pulse excitation using an impulse force
hammer. The input by a hammer hit and the output was obtained from the piezoelectric film
54
gages. From the impulse hammer tests an impulse response/ transfer function was determined.
Another dynamic calibration carried out was vertical and horizontal cut weight tests. These tests
involved hanging known weights to the model by steel wires and cutting the wire, thereby
creating a step load. These step loads were deconvoluted with the obtained transfer function to
recover the step input.
The model used in experiments was a blunt cone made of steel. It was designed such
that a pitot pressure measurement was taken simultaneously. The model and balance assembly
was then installed from the top in the test section. The required wiring was taken out of the test
section through drilled bolts, which were sealed. The instrumented gages were shielded to
prevent electromagnetic interference and sealed in rubber and electrical tape. Tests were
conducted with conditions mentioned in chapter 4. All the data signals including the pitot
pressure, force data and pressure transducers in the driven tube (CH1 and CH2) were recorded
simultaneously using an oscilloscope ( see Appendix C).
The strain data was processed and deconvolved with the transfer function, to recover
the drag. Deconvolution was performed using an iterative algorithm [16]. A low frequency
vibration was noticed in the signal of the measured force, before the incident shock reached the
pressure transducers in the driven tubes. From each of the primary tests, this mentioned
vibration occurred, which led to the conclusion that a vibration is due to the test section
movement. An approach was made to tighten down the test section using steel wire rope and
turnbuckles. Tests showed that these oscillations persisted. Therefore, it may be concluded that
stress waves formed by the sudden rupture of the diaphragms have affected the drag
measurements.
55
5.2 Future Work and Recommendations
The following points may be included for future work for force measurements:
Develop an isolation system to reduce the initial vibrations in the force signal.
Force measurement with other models
Analyzing the flow with CFD simulations.
Tests at different enthalpy levels.
Calculate three components of force, such as, lift, drag and pitching moment.
Compensation of inertial forces due to tunnel movement using accelerometers.
Analyze signals in time-frequency representation using wavelet transform.
From the recovered drag, it can be seen that the signal follows the pitot pressure but
that there is also a fluctuation in drag, which is accounted by the occurrence of these low
frequency vibration. Further investigations need to be done on developing methods to decrease
these low frequency oscillations, by using springs, rubber dampers etc. Some of the
recommendation include, but are not limited to tests with simple shield design and compare the
results. Also, test the model at different angle of attacks and compare the drag. Care must also
be taken with the piezoelectric films, since they are very sensitive to EMI (electromagnetic
interference). Any power source close to the tunnel must be avoided, which can result in
erroneous values.
56
APPENDIX A
LIST OF DESIGN DRAWINGS
5
7
Figure A.1 Force balance drawing.
5
8
Figure A.2 Blunt cone model drawing.
5
9
Figure A.3 PCB pressure transducer holder drawing.
6
0
Figure A.4 Hinge joint part 1 drawing.
6
1
Figure A.5
5 Hinge part 2 drawwing.
6
2
Figure A.6 Scoring pattern on steel diaphragm drawing (courtesy Tiago Rolim).
63
APPENDIX B
MATLAB PROGRAM FOR FORCE ESTIMATION
64
%xxx Program to calculate Axial, Normal force coefficient and L/D xxx%
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
clc
clear all
for j=1:4
in=input('*********************\nTo find Axial,Normal force
coefficient and L/D press 1: \nTo find Cpt press 2:\nTo find Pressure
ratio press 3:\n********************* ');
Rb=1.65;
Rn=0.355;
theta=9;
phi=asin(cos(theta));
r=0;
L=0;
d=Rb/Rn;
gamma=1.4;
M=4.3;
if in==3
%%%xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx pressure ratio calculation xxxxxxxxxxxxx
Cpt=input('Enter Cpt , if known : ') ;
gamma=input('Enter specific heat ratio : ');
M=input('Enter Mach no: ');
pressure_ratio =(((gamma+1)*M^2)/2)^(gamma/(gamma-
1))*((gamma+1)/((2*gamma*M^2)-(gamma-1)))^(1/(gamma-1))
x=pressure_ratio;
plot(M,x ,'*b');
xlabel('Mach no: ,M')
ylabel('Pressure ratio , Pt2/P1')
%xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Cpt calculation xxxxxxxx
elseif in~=(1:3)
return
elseif in==2
x=input('Enter pressure ratio : ');
gamma=input('Enter specific heat ratio : ');
M=input('Enter Mach no: ');
Cpt=(((x)-1)*(2/(gamma*M^2)))
%%%xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx L/D xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
elseif in==1
65
for i=1:1
Cpt= input('Enter Cpt: ');
Rb=input('Enter Base Radius: ');
Rn=input('Enter Nose Radius: ');
theta=input('Cone half Angle : ');
phi=asin(cos(theta));
r=0;
x=0;
L=0;
d=Rb/Rn;
gamma=input('Enter specific heat ratio : ');
M=input('Enter Mach no: ');
alpha=-15:0.5:15;
Cp=Cpt*(sind(theta))^2
plot(alpha,Cp,'*r')
hold on
xlabel('Angle of Attack,Alpha')
ylabel('Axial Force Coefficient, Ca')
a=2*Cpt*((Rn^2)/Rb^2);
b=0.25.*(cosd(alpha).^2).*(1-
(sind(theta)^4))+(0.125.*(sind(alpha).^2)*(cosd(theta).^4));
c=((tand(theta).*((cosd(alpha).^2)*(sind(theta).^2)+0.5.*(sind(alpha).
^2).*(cosd(theta).^2))).*((((d-
cosd(theta)).*cosd(theta))/tand(theta))+(((d-
cosd(theta)).^2)/(2*tand(theta)))));
Ca=a*(b+c);
plot(alpha,Ca,'*-r')
hold on
title('Axial Force Coefficient vs Angle of Attack (Alpha)')
xlabel('Angle of Attack, Alpha')
ylabel('Axial Force Coefficient, Ca')
p=2*Cpt*((Rn^2)/Rb^2);
q=0.25.*sind(alpha).*cosd(alpha).*(cosd(theta)^4);
r=(sind(alpha).*cosd(alpha).*sind(theta).*cosd(alpha).*((((d-
cosd(theta)).*cosd(theta))/tand(theta))+(((d-
cosd(theta)).^2)/(2*tand(theta)))));
Cn=p*(q+r);
figure
plot(alpha,Cn,'*-black')
title('Normal Force Coefficient vs Angle of Attack (Alpha)')
xlabel('Angle of Attack,Alpha')
ylabel('Normal Force Coefficient, Cn')
CL=((Cn.* cosd(alpha))-(Ca.*sind(alpha)));
CD=((Cn.* sind(alpha))+(Ca.*cosd(alpha)));
L_D= CL./CD
figure
66
plot(alpha,L_D,'*-g')
drawnow
title('L/D ratio vs Angle of Attack (Alpha)')
xlabel('Angle of Attack,Alpha')
ylabel('L/D ')
hold on
end
end
end
67
APPENDIX C
INSTRUMENTATION DETAILS
68
C.1 Data acquisition
Manufacturer: Tektronix Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope.
Model: DPO 4054
Features: Analog bandwidth 500 Mhz
Sample rate 2.5 GS/s
Record length 20 M points
Analog channels 4
C. 2 Strain measurements
Manufacturer: Measurement specialties
Model: DT1-052k
Features: Min. impedance 1M
Output voltage mV to 100s of volt
Operating temp -40 to 60C
Manufacturer: Omega engineering, Inc.
Model: SGD-3/120-LY13
Features: Max Vrms 4.5
Nom. Resistance 120
Gage Factor 2.0 5%
Operating temp -75 to 200C
C.4 Pressure Transducers
Manufacturer: PCB Piezotronics, Inc.
Model: 111A23
Features: Measurement range 10kpsi
Sensitivity 0.5mV/psi
Maximum pressure 15kpsi
Operating temp -73 to 135C
69
Manufacturer: PCB Piezotronics, Inc.
Model: 113A21
Features: Measurement range 200psi
Sensitivity 25mV/psi
Maximum pressure 1000psi
Operating temp -73 to 135C
C.7 Strain gage amplifier
Manufacturer: Paine instruments, Inc.
Model: Strain gage amplifier
Features: Excitation voltage range 0-10V
Gain 100
Amplifier circuit diagram used for piezoelectric films
Figure C.1 Circuit diagram of piezoelectric film amplifier. Circuit uses a LM-386 IC.
70
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72
BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Pravin Vadassery graduated with a Bachelors degree in Aeronautical engineering, his
endeavor to learn new things, lead him to the Masters degree in Aerospace engineering. His
passion for experiments and hands-on jobs helped him during his research at the Aerodynamic
Research Center. He has worked on many projects during his undergraduate and graduate
years, which included areas of design, analysis, and comparative studies. He plans to start his
career with all experience he gained and eventually establish his own company.