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Engaging

the

Mind's

Eye

The Use of Inscriptions in the Architecture of Owen Jones and A.W.N. Pugin

CAROL A. HRVOL Ball State University

FLORES

architecturefulfills mong its other characteristics, the dual role of satisfying practicalrequirements and demonstrating the thinkingandvaluesof society and the state of technology prevalent at a particular period in time. Consequently, built works communicate manymessagesthroughtheir scale,orientation,andplan,as well as throughthe choice of style, method of construction, and the textureand color of the materialsselected.1Ornamentation is another powerful tool for communication, emphasizingthe intentions of the designer or the patron. One type of ornamentation of particularimportance in architectural iconography,and the subjectof this article,is the use of inscriptionsas a significantcomponent in both the visual and symbolic expression of an architectural scheme. For the purposeof this discussion,three types of architectural inscriptions will be identified: informative, aesthetic, and emblematic.2In the first type, inscriptionsare used to impartbasicinformationabouta builtwork,including the name and purpose of the structureor the significance of the site. Informativeinscriptionsmay also provide a dedicatorymessage or commemorateindividualsimportant to the work,includingthe designer,builder,or patron. Familiarexamplesof commemorativeinscriptions appear in the data etched in cornerstonesmarkingthe construction of buildings and the lists engraved on memorials recordingthe names of war casualties. In the second type, inscriptionsare meant to enhance

the aestheticimpact of a building and may advocatea particularstyle throughthe scale, spacing,andtype of lettering selected, as well as throughthe mediaused and the location of the text. The selection and placementof text can be one of the most important decorative elements in a structure communicatingstyle. Obvious examplesare found in the medievalletteringstyleson Gothic Revivalchurchesor academic institutions, the Roman lettering on Beaux-Arts buildings, and the sans serif lettering on contemporary structures.3 The promotion of a particular aestheticis also significant in the third type, inscriptionsproduced for emblematic, or symbolic, ornamentation. In this final category, to stimulateparticepigraphsare displayedon architecture ular responsesor develop associationswith ideas and concepts beyond the literal meaning of the text provided;for example,mottoes on coats of arms and other inscriptions displayed on medieval, Renaissance, and later buildings evokedconceptionsof ownershipand familystatusin much the same way that companylogos communicateownership and corporate power today. Emblematic inscriptions can also be used to instigateassociations with broaderconcepts, or more deeper meanings, powerful emotions. For examarchitects ple, many contemporary rely on emblematic inscriptions in designing public spaces and memorials, replacingthe expressivefiguralsculpturespreferredin earlier eraswith messagescapableof eliciting responsesin the viewer.4

Most publicationsconcerningwriting on architecture do not addressthe emotional impact or emblematicintentions of inscriptionsor the importantrole writtenmessages playwithin our visualculture.Instead,the majorityof texts discuss the craft of lettering, carving, and composition, material valuablefor underforminga body of instructional standing the methods of creatingwriting on architecture. The remainingpublicationson inscriptionscan be classified as theoretical,historical,or documentary. Theoretical texts by major scholars,including Oleg Grabarand Ernst Gombrich,investigatethe subjectof inscriptionswithin the broader contexts of ornamentation and perception. The respectedIslamicistOleg Grabarprovidescritical analysis and insights on ornamentationin severalbooks, including TheAlhambra, TheFormation Art, and TheMediaofIslamic tion of Ornament, and the noted art historianErnst Gombrich developstheoriesof perceptionand ornamentation in The Senseof Order.5Questions and issues raised by both these expertsare importantto the concernsof this article. Other writings on architecturalinscriptions furnish skilledinvestigations andinterpretations of epigraphs within andtheoreticalcontexts.Neil Levine's specificgeographical "The Book and the Building:Hugo's Theory of Architecture and Labrouste's BibliothequeSte-Genevieve"remains a seminal work, combining analysis of Labrouste'suse of inscriptionsin the decoration of the Bibliotheque SainteGeneviieve with a broaderdiscussionof the role of architecture in society and the nature of the relationshipbetween architectureand text. David Van Zanten's "Architectural Polychromy:Life in Architecture" providesspecific examof the use of within the largerdiscussionof ples inscriptions architecturalpolychromy, and Armando Petrucci'sPublic citesnumerousexamplesof epigraphs on the buildLettering of to Rome his thesis that ings develop writing on architecture is one of the instrumentsof publicpower.6In addition, severalhistoricalstudies focusing on a particularperiod, a specific building, or the work of a single architectcontain of the functionandintentionof passagesexhibexplanations ited on the architecture discussed. Models of this type of historicalscholarshipincludeMeyer Shapiro's Art Romanesque and two monographson buildingsby FrankLloyd Wright: FrankLloyd Larkin JackQuinan's Wright's Mythand Building: FactandJoseph M. Siry'sUnityTemple: FrankLloydWright andArchitecture for LiberalReligion.7 The fourth and final includes category guidebooks that discuss the inscriptions exhibitedon a particular building, giving the location and, the usually, source of the passages. John Y. Cole's On These Walls: andQuotations in theBuildings Inscriptions of theLibrary demonstrates the comprehensivedocumentation of Congress that can be presentedin guidebookformat.8

The following exploratoryessay approachesthe topic of architectural inscriptionstheoreticallyand from a sociocultural perspective, emphasizing the role of inscriptions within the studyof architecture andornamentation as a rich resource into the mentality of a particularperiod and as a significant expression of the intentions and complex aesthetic schemesdevelopedby individualpatronsand designers. Specifically, I investigatethe significanceof inscriptions within the decorative schemes of the British architects OwenJones (1809-1874) and AugustusWelby Northmore Pugin (1812-1852) and advancethe position that although Jones and Pugin had different motives for using inscriptions, both displaya comprehensionof Islamicornamentation as understood and explainedby Jones. In addition, I introduce new information on the relationship between Jones and Pugin and stress their mutual agreement and involvement in many concerns important to nineteenthcentury architectureand the decorative arts. Finally, the ideas and terms presentedin this essay are comparedwith the findings and theoretical concepts proposed by Oleg Grabarin the texts cited above. Admittedly,the ubiquitoususe of homilies and quotations on all types of domesticobjectsduringthe last century mayhaveled to their dismissalas examplesof the sentimental moralizing popular with Victorians rather than contributing to the perception that inscriptions used on buildingscan be a powerfultool and an importantelement in carefully orchestrateddecorative schemes intended to evoke particularassociations. The publication of Owen can be identifiedas Jones'spioneeringstudyof the Alhambra a critical source introducing the concept of profuse epigraphicprogramsinto Victorian design.Jones, one of the earliestand strongestadvocatesfor a new style of architecture to reflect nineteenth-centuryvalues and technology, criticizedhistoricism,in general,and the Gothic Revival,in as anachronisms for contemporary particular, inappropriate architecture.This position did not prevent him, however, from admiring, collecting, and studying works produced medievalilluminated during the Middle Ages, particularly In and the French architectJules manuscripts. 1834,Jones undertook a six-month on-site Goury investigationof the Alhambra,Granada, Spain. As Europe's oldest surviving medievalpalace,the Alhambra was a favoritesubjectfor conwriters and temporary painters, including the American author Washington Irving and the French writer Victor Hugo; both had successfullypopularizedthe exoticismand romance of the complex built by the Moors.9 Although awareof the prevalentorientalistinterpretation, Jones and chose a different Goury approach,seriously studying the Alhambraas a built work. Their researchinvolved detailed
OWEN JONES AND A.W.N. PUGIN 159

Figure 1 Detail, Patio de la Alberca,from Jules Gouryand Owen Jones, The Plans, Sections, Elevationsand Details of the Alhambra, vol. 1 (London,1842) from Gouryand Figure 2 Medieval script on walls of the Alhambra, Jones, The Plans, Sections, Elevationsand Details of the Alhambra

Plans, Sections,Elevationsand Details of the Alhambra, issued

in partsbetween 1836 and 1845, and a secondvolume entitled Details and Ornaments from the Alhambra, distributed in

identification and documentation of the materials, patterns, and colors in the palaceand an astuteanalysisof the methods of construction used to achieve spandrels and diaphanous screens in walls that denied materiality and domes that appeared to float overhead(Figure 1). In addition to preparingdetailed plans and measured drawingsof the palace,Jones produceda paper tracing or plaster cast for each of the thousandsof inscriptionsthat coveredthe wallsin orderto createa permanentrecordfor later translation. Jones believedthe inscriptionswere critical to his investigation since they would provide direct insight into the attitudesand convictionsof the architects, patrons,and buildersof the palace;consequently,he documented the placementof the texts and the style of lettering used, observing the dual nature of the texts, which added beauty and decorationto the surfaceof the buildingwhile the thinkingand sentimentsof its creators.After expressing to returning London, Jones gave a revolutionarylecture entitled"The Influenceof ReligionUpon Art"to the Architectural Society.'oIn this address,he introducedthe concept of a correlationbetween cultureand architectureand arguedthat the buildingsand ornamentproducedby a society were a direct reflection of the mentalityof the culture that producedthem. The results of the Alhambrastudy appeared as The
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two partsin 1842 and in 1845. Both texts receivedcritical acclaimfor their comprehensivescholarship,for the qualillustrations ity of the polychromatic reproducedmechanito the architectural cally,andfor theirvaluablecontribution
profession. 1

One of the images in the first volume depicts a commemorative to the takeover of the Moorepigraph referring ish palaceby Ferdinand andIsabella(Figure2). The passage is carvedon the Bab al-Shari'agate to the Alhambra,the place where the triumphantChristiansovereigns entered the medieval complex. The text is written in the Gothic script,called "blacklettering,"found in illuminatedmanuscripts and buildings produced throughout the Middle shift from forAges. Gothic letteringrepresentsa dramatic mal Roman carving in both style and technique. While Romanletteringinvolveda high degree of technicalability to carvethe V-cut lettersin stone andthe abilityto compose balancedconfigurationslegible at great distances,Gothic lettering follows the formatof a book, exhibitingcrowded letters in dense lines of text. Unlike outdoorpublicRoman Gothic configurations were developedfor inteinscriptions, rior spaces and were intended to be read at close range. Medieval epigraphsseen at a distance,or high on ceilings andwalls,wouldhavebeen recognizableas scriptbut would havebeen illegible or difficultto readdue to the height and distancefrom the viewer,poor lighting conditions,and the density of the text. Since Gothic lettering on architecture

Figure 3 The Song of Songs, illumination by Owen Jones (London,1849)

sharedthe sameformatand stylizedlettersused in the elaborate illuminated manuscripts prepared in scriptoria throughout Europe, it is not surprisingthat Jones's reintroduction of this style of lettering, and his remarkable in chromolithography, advances launcheda new industryof "illuminated" texts and gift books, enabling Victoriansto own editions containing excerptsfrom the Bible or verses by popular contemporarypoets, such as Tennyson, rendered in the rich colors, gilding, and stylized ornamentation prevalentin medievalmanuscripts. black Subsequently, lettering would become a significantelement in achieving the preindustrialaesthetic essential to both the Gothic Revivaland the Arts and Craftsmovements. Jones's publishing activities are not only important examples of a nineteenth-century architect pursuing the craft and art of the book, but his beautifullyembellished textsarealso relevantin the studyof inscriptions,since they and graphicexperexemplifythe new interestin calligraphy imentation evident duringthe first half of the nineteenthcentury and the strong interest in the printed word prevalent during the period.12In Printing 1770-1970, Michael Twyman,an authorityon typographyand graphic describesthe new interestin calligraphy as communication, a development out of the regard for archaeology and all things Gothic prevalentin the earlynineteenthcentury.He notes that the discoveryof the RosettaStone in 1799 andits ensuingtranslationsparkedattemptsto producefacsimilies of the Egyptiantext and other foreign languages.Twyman

explainsthat the scrutinyof the letterscomposingthe unfamiliartextsinstigatedthe experimentations andinnovations of the period. Twyman singles out Owen Jones, Henry Shaw,John Weale, and Noel Humphriesas the majorfigures leading this effort in England, citing their significant of alphabets, ornamental letters,andmanuscript publication pages duringthe 1840s.13 In producingthe lavishlyembellishedgift books,Jones drewupon his knowledgeof medievalmanuscripts, his masand his versatilityas a designer tery of chromolithography, to createthe modernequivalentof the opulentornamentation andcalligraphy achievedby scribesduringthe medieval in both Christian andIslamicsocieties.Jones's"illuperiod minated"editionspopularized the rebirthof blacklettering and contributedto the growing enthusiasmfor collecting and displayingbooks.14 The gift books containedreligious, or material historical, literary arrangedwithin richly colored borders composed of delicate geometric or vegetal ornamentation(Figure 3). Examplesof the religious texts include an ornate Psalterfor Queen Victoriaand excerpts from the Bible, as well as TheBook (1845, of Common Prayer ontheMount(1844,1845, etc.). 1846,1850) and TheSermon The literary editions, presenting Victorian favorites, included Gray'sElegy (1846), Lockhart'spopularAncient Ballads (1842, 1842, 1856), Thomas Moore'spoem Spanish Paradise andthePeri(1860), andScenes from the Winter'Tale to (1866).While the religioustextsappealed by Shakespeare the Victorian penchant for moralizingand for public disOWEN JONES AND A.W.N. PUGIN

161

play of sentimentand piety and the nonreligioustexts gratified Victorianliterarypreferences,all of the texts fed the desire to amassand displayextensivecollections of expensive objects as testimony to the owner'swealth, status, and learning.15 In Victorian Things,Asa Briggs, a noted authority on the nineteenth century,describesthe reign of Victoriaas a a seriesof "collectingage,"where the habitof accumulating was or such as Staffordshires, coins, books, stamps, objects, introduced and encouraged in children at school. Books were especially prized as "the cheapest luxury"and "the most rational enjoyment, within the reach of all classes"; Carlyleviewed books as "scouts... penetratingthe whole habitable globe."16 Jones's artistic volumes of poetry and were too biblicaltexts expensivefor all but a limited audiand wealthy collectors, however, and ence of antiquarians cannotbe consideredpartof the extensiveeffortsby church and state to improve the morals and level of literacyof the masses.Nevertheless, the gift books were consequentialin makingan importantcontributionto the state of publishing The style of and to the visualcultureof VictorianBritain.17 and the designs, and medievallyinspiredpatterns lettering, the techniquesof color printingthey exhibitedwere copied extensively,sometimesleadingto the overwroughtexcesses the High Victorianera. of decorationthat characterize It is interesting to note that Jones is also believed to have been involvedwith W. Henry Fox Talbotin designing the cover and interior page decoration for The Pencil of Nature,"the first commerciallypublishedbook to be illustratedby photography."18 Jones was interestedand involved in photography, belonging to the Royal Society of Arts and contributingimages for the society'sexhibitionsof photog9 It is logical that Talbot, as a leading designer and raphy. fellow photographicenthusiast,would turn to Jones to prepare the graphics for his text. Jones designed covers and page decoration throughout his life. His clients and projects were diverse, ranging from factual materialprepared by Henry Cole to the popularfiction of George Eliot, but his best-knownpublishingeffortsremainhis own exquisite art books.20 Although the establishmentof the gift book industry, the reintroductionof black lettering, and the advancesin color printing are substantial achievements, Jones's unprecedentedanalysisof Islamic ornament and his decision to reproducethe thousandsof inscriptionsdecorating the walls of the Alhambraare of greater significance to architectural history and theory.While some earlierpubliin Upper andLower cations, such as Vivant Denon's Travels had illustrated architectural Egypt(1802), inscriptionsand even presentedreconstructionsof missing letters, they had
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failed to reveal the meaning of the texts indicated.21 James of the most comMurphyprovidedtranslations Cavanaugh mon inscriptions in the Alhambra,such as "There is no and "Praisebe to God!" conquerorbut God" (Plate XXTV) (Plate XIV), in the ArabianAntiquities of Spain(1815), but Jones excelled Murphy'stext by tracing every inscription and having the Arabic scholar Pasqual de Gayangos (1809-1897) translateeach passage.22 While contemporaryexplanationsidentify the Arabic calligraphy adorning the Alhambra'swalls as Kufic and Naskhid-Thuluth scripts, Gayangosdescribedthe charac23Gayangosidentiters as "Arabic," "Cufic,"or "African." fied three categories of subjects in the inscriptions:aya't, verses from the Koran;asja',pious or devout sayings not from the Koran;and ash'ar,poems that praisethe builders, patrons, or spaces within the palace. Gayangos observed that the pious passagesof the aya'tand asja'usuallyadopted formedso that each inscriptioncould be "Cufic" characters or forwardand up or down without altering read backward the meaning(Figure4). He noted that otherversesand long unique to the Moorish poems were composedof characters Some this and called of script "African." conquerors Spain of these epigraphsare associatedwith particularspaces or objects, and Professor Grabar notes that many of these poems are written in the first person so that the building itself seems to be speaking; for example, writing on the throne in the Hall of the Ambassadors explains,"Fromme thou art welcomed every morning and evening, with the tongues of blessings, prosperity, happiness, and friendin a niche for a waterappearing ship ...," andan inscription cooler in the Hall of the Two Sistersreads,"The watervase + within me, they say is like a devoutman standingtowards the Kiblah of the Mibrab, readyto begin his prayers."24 the realized Jones importance of the inscriptions in Islamicornamentationon severallevels. At the most basic, he understood that the messages replaced the mimetic images and the symbolism of other religions and cultures and that the texts brought pleasureto the onlooker in various ways. To explain, he described the quotations at the upper end of the Hall of the Two Sisters(Figure 5), saying themselvesto the eye of the observerby the they "address beautiful forms of the characters;exercise his intellect by the difficultyof decipheringtheircuriousandcomplexinvolutions; and reward his imagination, when read, by the beautyof the sentimentsthey express,andthe musicof their In TheSenseof Order, Ernst Gombrichdiscomposition."25 tinguishes the theories of Jones from those of Ruskin, Semper, and Pugin, observing that Jones introduced the psychology of perception into the study of nineteenthcentury architecture.Well before Gestalt and information

Figure 4 Kuficinscription,from Gouryand Jones, The Plans, Sections, Elevationsand Details of the Alhambra Figure 5 Detail, Hallof the Two Sisters, from Gouryand Jones, The Plans Sections, Elevationsand Details of the Alhambra

theories had been developed,Jones realizedthat individuals activelyengage in viewing and interpretingtheir world and assessinginput accordingto a predilection for order. He understood that this process is made easier and more agreeablethroughrecognitionandrepetitionand described the secret of creatingsatisfyingornamentas the repetition of a few simple elements to producea broadgeneraleffect. He knew, however, that too simple a design, endlessly would lead to monotonyandboredomandthat reproduced, a sense of pleasureandbeautyresultsfromviewingpatterns that require "a higher mental effort to appreciatethem." Like Hogarth,Jones believed that the eye readsscript and ornament in the same way and that the eye would follow the continuouscurvesof Arabicscripts,therebyexperiencing a line of beauty that is sensuouslypleasurableto view and mentallystimulatingto translate.26 Gombrich and Grabar observe that written images have universalaestheticappealindependentfrom comprehension of the meaning of the text. To demonstratetheir point, they cite examplesof ChineseandIslamicscriptsthat have won international admirationfrom people who are unableto readthe text but aredrawnto the aestheticappeal of the charactersand the style of writing. Gombrich and Grabar continue their argument by citing instances of prominentinscriptionscomposedof meaninglesscombinations of letters.27 In addition,Grabarnotes that calligraphy, or writing intended to be beautiful,usuallyconfusesinterpretationthrough the manipulationof the charactersand the additionof excessiveflourishes.The title page from the

first edition of Jones'sThe Grammar is a piece of Ornament in the style of medievalscripts,with of Westerncalligraphy and embellishment(Figure6). ornateletters,backgrounds, The modificationsto the characters to producethe luxuriant text does make decipheringthe letters a challenge,and Jones includeda second title page in standard type. He also in prepared unintelligibleinscriptions foreignlanguagesfor the Fine Arts Courts of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, and these will be discussedlater. ornamentation Jones'sinvestigationof the Alhambra's went beyond the study of inscriptions,concludingthat the amazinglyvariousdesigns in the palacewere derivedfrom two basic principles. He illustratedthese principles with simple diagrams(Figure7).28 The first(on the left) shows a composition of equidistanthorizontal and perpendicular lines crosseddiagonallyon each square,and the second (on the right) indicates diagonallines intersecting each alternate square. Jones pointedout thatthese two arrangements, based upon simple grids, demonstratedthe potential for infinite variety in ornamentalpatterns.He explainedthat the number of variationscould be increasedby changing the coloration of the ground, the surface lines, or both, resulting in variationsof effect by "bringinginto prominence differentchainsor other generalmasses."29
OWEN JONES AND A.W.N. PUGIN

163

of Ornament(London, gure 6 Titlepage, Owen Jones, The Grammar B56) gure 7 Diagrams,from Gouryand Jones, The Plans, Sections, Elevations ndDetails of the Alhambra

customary passages "redundant"and explains that the Islamicviewer would be familiarwith the quotationsfrom the Koran or with the common phrases.31 Jones identified numerous examplesof these well-known passages,maintaining that they fulfilled the dual function of stimulating piety or literary contemplation, while providing a rich tapestry of ornamentation;examples include "Praise [be given] to God, the only one. Thanks be likewise [returned] to God," "Thereis no conquerorbut God," and "Gloryto Jones further analyzed perception, explaining that God! God is eternal!God is [our]refuge in everytrouble." vision was affectedby distance,coloration,lighting,andthe Jones understoodthat the repetition of these passagessatdetailof ornament.He observedthat at a distanceonly out- isfied the biological eye with their familiarcurving forms lines of forms are recognizableand that coloration is dis- and pleasantlyengaged the mind'seye through their easy torted. He argued that balancedcompositions of primary recognition and pious sentiment, creating beauty that he colors viewed from afar produce a lively "bloom"effect, described as the "repose which the mind feels when the while combinationsof secondariesand tertiariesdissipate eye, the intellect, and the affections, are satisfied by the into lifelessshadow;but at close rangeall colors are distinct absenceof any want."32 and small detailsbecome obvious.30 The use of inscriptions becamean importantdecorative he did not articulate the of redunandassociational elementin the GothicRevival, the Artsand Although principle dancy, or the ability of a listener or viewer to anticipate Crafts,andthe Aestheticmovements. Althoughotherfactors words or sounds in a particularcontext and to complete a may have contributedto this trend, TheAlhambra's widely word after seeing or hearing only the first partof the mes- acclaimedpublicationand the text's unique focus on the sage, this tendency is importantin the use of emblematic beautyandcontentof the writtenmessagesin Islamicarchiarchitectural drewthe inscriptionsin allowingthe designerto incor- tecturesuggestthatJones's insightsandpublication to both the precedent and porate a wealth of epigraphsthat enrich the visual pattern, attentionof the designcommunity the nature of the and stimulate the of as decorative a device in archiproclaim space, particular potential usingwriting behavior or responses without overwhelming the viewer tecture and that they influencedthe acceptanceand prevawith too much information. This occurs because the lence of this type of ornamentation. inscriptions are quickly recognizable by their initial eleJones utilized inscriptions as emblematic decoration ments and their appropriateness and do not require throughout his career. Examples from his early work individualinterpretation. painstaking Oleg Grabarexplains includethe competitionentryfor SaintGeorge'sHall, Livthat in Islamic architecture,the poets responsiblefor dec- erpool (1839), which prominently displayed a frieze of oration repeated familiarpassagespraisingAllah, or sup- inspirational text, and the interior schemes for Christ Sutton plying good wishes or aphorisms. Grabar calls these Church,Streatham (1851), and SaintBartholomew,
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Waldron(1854), exhibitingboth biblicalversesandthe customary displayof the Apostles' Creed and the Ten Commandments(Figures 8-10). At midcareer,he emphasized inscriptionsin the Fine Arts Courtsfor the redesignedand reerected Crystal Palace at Sydenham and in the guidebooks thatinterpreted them. Examplesof text in Jones'slate workincludeornatemonogramsfor AlfredMorrisoninlaid in furniture designed for Fonthill and a motto in Portuguese for the home of JamesMason, a client who made a fortunemining copper in Portugal. The SydenhamCrystalPalacesymbolizedthe utopian passion of nineteenth-century progressives intent upon improvingsocietyby educatingand elevatingthe mindsand tastes of all the people, particularlythe working classes. This moral purposegenerateda new building type known as a "Palaceof the People,"incorporatingthe benefitsof a museum,concerthall, winter garden,exhibitionspace,and beautifullylandscapedgrounds.The press recognized the "honestintention on the part of the directorsto make the CrystalPalacesomethingfarbeyonda mere placeof amusement," and conceded that if the directors'intentions were successfullycarriedout, they would "producepermanently beneficial results on the great masses for whom the new structureis mainlyintended."33

Figure 8 Owen Jones, decoration of ChristChurch,Streatham (London),1851, showing text behind the altar ChristChurch,Streatham (restored) Figure 9 Interior, Figure 10 Owen Jones, decoration (restored)of Saint Bartholomew,Sutton Waldron,Dorset, 1854, showing panel with an excerpt from the Ten Commandments

OWEN

JONES

AND A.W.N.

PUGIN

165

Figure 11 Owen Jones and Joseph Bonomi, EgyptianCourt, CrystalPalace at Sydenham (destroyed), 1854

The principalattractions of the buildingwere the Fine Arts Courts designed by Owen Jones, Matthew Digby Wyatt, and James Fergusson.Jones designed the Greek, Roman,andModernSculpture courts, Egyptian,Alhambra, and his close friendand colleagueM. Digby Wyatt created the Italian, Renaissance,Medieval, and Byzantinecourts; the historian James Fergusson planned the Assyrian Court.34 These architectural were aimedat reconstructions "a historical of the arts of illustration producing complete from the earliestworksof Egypt sculptureand architecture, and Assyria, down to modern times, comprising casts of every celebrated statue in the world, and restorations of some of its most remarkablemonuments."35 Jones and Wyatt, the principaldesigners,believed that the Fine Arts Courts offered them the opportunityto affect public taste by capturing people's interest in a living museum that depicted the manners and monuments of different countries in appropriatecontexts, as opposed to the isolated objects exhibitedin the BritishMuseum. their own considerable Jones and Wyatt supplemented with advice from other authorities and traveledto expertise the finest museumsand collectionsin Europeand the Middle East to obtaincastingsof the sculptureand ornamentto be displayed.The cost of the displayswas unprecedented ?161,617). The directorsplannedto cover (approximately their enormouscosts throughticket receiptsand rentalson retailandindustrial exhibition the projspace.Unfortunately, ect was nevera financialsuccess,but, culturally, the millions who visitedthis storehouseof humanknowledge,beforeits destruction benefits.36 by fire in 1936, gainedincalculable
166 JSAH / 60:2, JUNE 2001

In devising the decorativeschemes for the Egyptian, Roman,Greek, andMoorish Courts,Jones includedinformative,aesthetic,and emblematicinscriptions.His workin the EgyptianCourt providesan illustrationof inscriptions rendered in a foreign language and script, since the text sentimentswaswrittenentirelyin deliveringcontemporary the symbolismand 11). hieroglyphics (Figure Jones admired of art and architecture and mirrored beauty Egyptian in dedications the decoration of the court.On the Egyptian facadehe re-createda Ptolemaictemple embellishedwith a winged globe, the protectingdivinityof entrances,and cartouchescontainingthe namesof Queen VictoriaandPrince Albert. Beneaththese emblems of divinityand majesty,he displayeda hieroglyphicfrieze, proclaiming:
In the 17th year of the reign of her Majesty, the ruler of the waves, the royal daughter Victoria lady most gracious, the chiefs, architects, sculptors, and painters, erected this palace and gardens with a thousand columns, a thousand decorations, a thousand statues of chiefs and ladies, a thousand trees, a thousand flowers, a thousand birds and beasts, a thousand fountains (tanks), and a thousand vases. The architects, and painters,and sculptors builtthis palace as a book for the instruction of the men and women of all countries, regions, and districts. May it be prosperous.37

Jones repeatedthis messageon the sides of the outer court, addingsymbolsof VictoriaandAlbertand the phrase,"life, stability,purity,stability,and life."This visualcomposition formed an identicalpatternfrom either right to left or left

to right, comparable to the "Cufic"arrangementsJones observed in the Alhambra.38 By offering contemporary informationin hieroglyphics,Jones offered the challenge of a game, igniting the curiosity of visitors and engaging both their eyes and minds in an attempt to recognize the patterns formed by the charactersand to decipher their messages.The pleasureof the activity,made easier by the guidebook'stranslation,rewardedthe viewer with a new understandingof hieroglyphic writing, and promoted an appreciationof the CrystalPalace. The Fine ArtsCourtsat Sydenhamwere celebratedfor their archaeological accuracy,since scholars and experts workedfrom plastercasts,measureddrawings,and exacting elements studiesto producethe architectural archaeological and sculpture exhibited. Although the examples were reducedin scale and arrangedwith fragmentsfrom different places and periods displayed in close proximity, the wealth of materialand the supportingsense of context and chronology won universal admiration. The courts were praisedfor displayingmore wondersthan the averageindividual could experience in a lifetime in an accessible and affordablemanner.They were esteemed as serious educational materialand enlightening recreation,giving delight and drawingpraisefrom visitors as diverseas John Ruskin and Le Corbusier.39 The popularauthorityand acclaimthat the Fine Arts Courts achieved in the middle of the 1850s paralleled success with chomolithographyand Jones's extraordinary in the 1830s the widespreaddistributionof TheAlhambra and 1840s. The original subscriberlist to The Alhambra records the names of members of royalty and institutions of higher learningin Prussia,Spain,and Ireland,as well as architects in Germany, Scotland, the United States, and England.40 British architects on the list included A. R. C. Carpenter, Bartholomew, Phillip Hardwicke,A.W.N. Pugin, Lewis Vulliamy,andT. H. Wyatt. Subscribingengineers and buildersincluded I. K. Brunel, the Cubitts, and the Messrs.GrissellandPeto. In addition,copies of the text, together with tracings and casts assembled by Jones and Goury, were distributedfor study in art and architecture schools in England and abroad.41 TheAlhambra's immediateacceptanceas an authoritative reference in matters of polychromy, ornament, and Islamic architecture led many who had never visited Granadato speakwith confidence about the palace and its architecturebased on their familiaritywith Jones's findings.42One interestingexampleof Jones'sinfluence occurs in the workof WashingtonIrving,in particular, own Irving's work titled The Alhambra.A comparison of the original 1832 edition of this book with the 1865 revision revealsan

insertion in the later edition of a section entitled "Note on In this section, the Americanauthor MoriscoArchitecture." discussesthe Arabs'use of stucco in the palaceand the brilcolors used, and observesthat the liancy of the "primitive" same colors were used by the Egyptians,Greeks,andArabs "in the early period of art."43 Although Irving does not the of origin these ideas can be found acknowledgeJones, in the text accompanyingPlate XXXVIIIin Jones'sAlhambra,where the authorsays that
. .. among the Arabs, the Egyptians, and the Greeks, the primarycolours, if not exclusively employed, were certainlynearly so, duringthe periods of art;whilst, duringthe decadence, the secondary colours became more of importance.Thus, in Egypt, in the Pharonictemples, we find the primarycolours predominating;in the Ptolemaic temples, the secondary; so also on the early Greek temples are found the primarycolours; whilst at Pompeii every variety of shade and tone was employed.

Jones promoted the concept that antecedentsocieties used primarycolors in earlyand high periodsof art,but selected secondaryand tertiaryhues in periodsof culturaldecline.44 Irving repeated this belief and continued, saying that the pillarsin the Court of the Lions were supposedto be "originally gilded."45Since Jones was alone in promoting the idea of gilded columnsin ancientarchitecture, controversial Irvingbetraysboth his source and the widespreadnatureof Jones'sauthority.46 In addition, TheAlhambra contributedto the study of architectureby introducingmajoradvancesin color printing, enabling architects to illustrate their arguments on polychromy and to demonstratetheir designs more accuratelythroughthe additionof color. A good exampleof the significanceof this change can be observed by comparing in A.W.N. Pugin'sGlossary the colored illustrations ofEcclesiasticalOrnament, with his published after TheAlhambra, earlierblack-and-white As mentioned earlier, engravings.47 the qualityof the images in TheAlhambra was so extraordithat and others interested in artists, literary figures, nary graphicdesign petitionedJones to producetitle pages,border designs, and covers for their publications. Payments from Pugin to Jones in the 1840s suggest that the Gothic revivalistmay have been in this group.48 The influenceof the medievalIslamicaestheticand the emblematic inscriptions introduced into architecture through Jones's publication is evident in the work of A.W.N. Pugin, an originalsubscriberto both volumes and the majorproponentof a returnto an archaeologically correct Gothic style of architecture.Pugin'sextensiveknowledge of the Middle Ages developed under the tutelage of
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his father, Augustus Charles Pugin, a French 6migre to his Englandnoted for his books of illustrations, particularly The young depictions of Gothic structuresand details.49 Pugin assistedhis father in the preparationof these texts, accompanying him on extensive travels in England and Franceto study,sketch,and collect artifacts.By age fifteen, the son'sknowledgeand skill were so advancedthat he was given a commission to design Gothic-styled furniturefor Windsor Castle.0s At twenty-two,he hadconverted to RomanCatholicism
and produced a book entitled Contrasts; or,a Parallel between the Noble Edificesof the Fourteenthand Fifteenth Centuries,and Similar Buildingsof the PresentDay: Showing the PresentDecay influofTaste(1836).This acerbic polemicestablished Pugin's

ence and initiated his archaeologicallycorrect revival of Gothic architecture.In Contrasts and his other writings, condemned ideas and institutedwithinsocipractices Pugin and the Roman Catholic Church during and after the ety Reformation.While these texts reveal that Pugin shared as the embodimentof a specific Jones'sbelief in architecture also indicate culture, they Pugin's unique conviction that and sublime architecture couldbe achievedagainonly grand by total reformationof society to the level of harmonious integrationpresentduringthe MiddleAges.51 was emotionalratherthanintellecPugin'smedievalism based the on tual, passionof his religiousconvictionandnot on scholarship. He readvery little, hadminimalformaleducation, and his librarycontained"fewtheoreticaltreatises, eitherreligiousor architectural."52 It is not surprising, then, that Pugin would have acceptedJones'sstudy of Europe's medievalpalaceas a textbookofferingwellbest-preserved documentedevidenceof a styleuncontaminated by the ideas of the Renaissance and the Reformation like Gothic, to and, some extenta derivative of Byzantinearchitecture.53 Pugin would have observedtexts in Gothic buildings before readingJones'sbook, and in fact his firstbuilding,a house for himself at Saint Marie's Grange (1835/6; Figure 12), exhibitsa religious scripturein the place normally reservedfor a decorative frieze.54 He also emphasized moral in his first the commission, inscriptions major Gothicizing

Figure 12 A.W.N. Pugin, Saint Marie'sGrange, near Salisbury, Wiltshire,1835/6

to the Moors' repetitionof verses in variousArabicscripts 55What is more important, as describedin TheAlhambra. is that the fact the isolated moral references however, Hall are adopted in Saint Marie'sGrange and Scarisbrick replacedin the work Pugin producedafter TheAlhambra's publication by a tapestry of quotations from the Bible, excerptsfrom the CatholicMass, and phrasesfrom hymns of praisecoveringeverysurface.Here, as in the Alhambra, phrasesand words become a calligraphicpart of the pattern, and the method of design emphasizesthe importance of Scarisbrick Hall (1837). In The VictorianCountryHouse, of the associationsstimulated by the visual presence and Mark Girouardspeculatesthat Pugin'sliberaluse of pious appearanceof the text and not the meaning of each inditexts in the decorationof Scarisbrick is an earlyexampleof vidualline. Other significantchangesin Pugin'swork that whatwould become an obsessiveVictorianhabit. Girouard are consistent with the ideas and techniques explainedin cites the text embellishing the great hall, which reads, Jones'stext include the introductionof strongprimarycol"Exceptthe Lord buildeth the house, they labour in vain ors and gilding.Pugin'sworkalso exhibitsa new preference thatbuildit,"as an exampleof a quotationthatbecamefash- for the abstractornamentation,placement of decoration, ionable in both English and Latin. Pugin's decorative and two-dimensional designs discussed and illustratedin schemes include English and Latin versions of this quota- Jones'sstudy.In addition,as mentioned,Puginincorporates visualvarietyanalogous chromolithographedplates in his books, sharingJones's tion, producingan effect of familiar
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Figure 13 A.W.N. Pugin, Saint Giles, Cheadle, Staffordshire, 1840-1846, exteriordetail

desire to depict accuratelythe coloration and patterns of the designs discussed. Medievalarchitecture, the DecoratedStyle particularly in Britain(1240-1360),wasinformedandtransformed by the art of the book.56 BuildingsthroughoutEurope influenced by the Decorated,or "Illuminated," Styleexhibitedthe same bold use of primaries, blacklettering,decorativediaperpatuse of gilding characteristic of conterns, and extravagant scholasticbooks,with one majordistinction: the temporary medievalmanuscripts weremeantto be readandwerevalued for their content as well as for their beauty.In contrast,the inscriptionson medieval architecturewere decorativeand subordinate to the figuralsculpture andvastnarrative mosaic schemes advocatedby Gregory the Great, the ecclesiastic who promoted"sacred imagesas the writtenlanguageof the illiterate."57 Gothicscriptappeared in captions Consequently, identifyingreligiousfiguresor labelingparticular placesand in scrolls within narrativepanels on windows, walls, and Eventhe sculpture, indicatingspokenwordsandprophecies. illiterate understood these phrases as the word of God,

addingsacrednessto a particular place. However,the high level of illiteracyand the difficultyof deciphering the small, within the lit words interiors affirm the packed tightly dimly subordinateposition of inscriptionswithin the decorative schemesof the medievalperiod.Petrucciappropriately summarizestheir role as commemorativeand symbolic rather than transmissive and expressive.58 The best exampleof Pugin'sintendedliturgical,archireformoccursin the churchof tectural,andiconographical Saint Giles, Cheadle, Staffordshire (1841-1846), built for John Talbot, the 16th earl of Shrewsburyand Waterford. sympatheticideology and generous financial Shrewsbury's the supportgave young architectthe chance to realize his vision of" 'an English parishchurchrestoredwith scrupulous fidelity',to which people might come for artisticand religiousinspirationin the moment of the birth of admiration for 'Catholic antiquity.'" Consequently,investigation of this idealized "fourteenth-century" churchpresentsthe dual opportunity of studying the sources and methods in the Pugin used to arriveat his conceptionof "perfection whole and in every detail"and identifying the numerous changesand elementsthat suggestthe influenceofJones.59 Recentscholarship revealsthat Pugin drewfrom a wide of range German,French,Flemish, and English sourcesin of Cheadle.He assempreparingthe plansand furnishings bled casts of medievalsculptureto serve as carvingmodels and acquiredreligiousartifacts,such as a fifteenth-century Flemishcorona,to be reusedin the new sanctuary. He also madean intensestudyof Norfolkparishchurchesandincorporatedmanyof the elementshe observedin the objectshe designedfor Cheadle;for example,the patternof the brass embellishments on an antiquehymnalowned by the cathedralat Mayencereappears in his designfor a missal. By 1840, he had completedthe constructiondrawings for Saint Giles, producinga scheme for "a plain parochial country church"with unpaintedwalls. This scheme is in markedcontrastto the richlyembellishedcompletedwork. The Pugin authority Phoebe Stantonoffersseveralexplanationsfor the change.First,she observes thatPuginmadebold with in his scale later experiments designs for Cheadle to his evolvingvisionfor the Gothic Revival.She communicate fromthe cites,for example,the overscaled gilt lions, adapted earl'scoat of arms and applied to the west doors of the andlegchurch,as Pugin's wayof sayingthat"magnification ible meaningwould play an importantpartin the design of the building" (Figure13).Moreover,her studyof the correspondencebetween Pugin and his patronrevealsthat "the to decoratehad come from a buildingor project inspiration withwhichthe EarlandPuginhadbecomeacquainted while the churchwasunderconstruction." The most obviousprojOWEN JONES AND A.W.N. PUGIN 169

ects during this period includeViollet-le-Duc'srestoration of the SainteChapellein ParisandJones's of The publication of Alhambra. was aware both certainly projects.He Pugin traveledto Francefrequently, where he noted the architecture being built and the restorationeffortsundertaken, and, as mentioned earlier,he was an original subscriberto The as theywereproduced.60 Alhambra, receivingthe installments A review of the completed decoration of Cheadle is essentialto determinehow these contemporaryevents may have influencedthe ardentPugin to revisehis thinkingand replace his simple devotionalscheme with an intense proof painted gram of symbolismachievedthrough "hundreds with each its patterns specialiconographicmeaning."61The initial powerfulimpact results from his adoption of strong colors.The interiorblazeswith brilliantred, bold blue, and is consistentwith brightgilding.Pugin'suse of the primaries the DecoratedStyle,with Viollet-le-Duc'srestoration of the Sainte Chapelle, and with Jones's discussion of the use of The richly painted walls, primaries in The Alhambra.62 deeply stained glass, encaustic-tiled floors and risers all explode with color. The encaustic tiles, suggestive of the mosaics and pavementsused in the medieval structuresof Islam and Christianity,were introduced into nineteenthcenturyarchitecturebyJones and Pugin, who workedwith to produce tiles with two-dimensionalpatmanufacturers terns and inscriptions.For Cheadle, Pugin commissioned Minton to manufacturethe tiles for the floors and for the Islamic-styled4-foot dado on the walls of the sanctuary. The texts appearingin the floor tiles of both porches initiate the preparationfor worship, stating, "We will go into the house of the Lord with gladness." Immediately inside the doors, the floor tiles read:GOOD CHRISTIAN
PEOPLE PRAY FOR THE GOOD ESTATE OF JOHN XVI EARL OF SHREWSBURY OF WHOSE GOOD

identify specific spaces, actions, and appropriateattitudes for worship.A typicalexampleof his method occurs in the where everyelement repChapelof the BlessedSacrament, resents a Eucharistictext or emblem (see Figure 16). Although Pugin boasted of a faithful restorationof a fourteenth-centuryparish church, reinterpretationwould be a betterdescription, since the BlessedSacrament Chapel, to the main altar,was his own creation.In the same adjacent way, the decorativescheme of the interior is Pugin's own design. The chapel'sdecorationbegins with a quotationin Latin on the risers of the steps leading into the chapel, translatedas "He gave them bread from heaven. Man ate the bread of angels" (Psalm 77: 24-25). Once inside the chapel,the theme of communioncontinueswith the words
SANCTUS, SANCTUS, SANCTUS carved into the altar,

gilded on the walls, and inlaid in the floor in tributeto the portion of the Mass reserved for the consecration of the bread and the wine. Above the chapel'saltar, the central windowdepictsan image of Christover a quostained-glass tation from the sixth chapter of St. John deciphered as "Amen,Amen. I say to you I am the living bread which came down from heaven."Finally,when exiting the chapel, the worshipperis encouragedto "Let us adore for ever the most BlessedSacrament."65 This method of decoration,the and the of the textualmestheme, iconographic redundancy sages are consistent with the practiceand creationsof the Islamicarchitectsin Granada describedbyJones. For examof the Gate ofJustice, the principal ple, Jones'sdescription entrance to the ancient fortress, contains the inscription over the doorwayreading:"This gate... -may God prosper through it the law of Islam! as he made this a lasting
monument of glory-. .. . May the Almighty make this

THIS CHURCH WAS BUILT (Figure 14). The tiles used for the floor of the naveand side aislesdisplayexcerptsfrom the consecrationof the church,includingthe passage"Bene fundata est domus Domini supra firmam petram" (The Lord'shouse is well founded on a firmrock), adaptedfrom Matthew 7:25, and the floor of the Blessed Sacrament Chapel revealsthe message "Domine non sum dignus ..." (Lord I am not worthy that thou shouldst enter under my roof. Say but the word and my soul shall be healed). Tiles also exhibit prominentscriptureson the risers of the steps in the chanceland in the entranceto the BlessedSacrament Chapel (Figures 15,16).63 Pugin'sdecorativescheme for the churchhe called his "perfectCheadle"also relies upon excerptsfrom the liturgy and phrasesfrom hymns of praiseto adorn the walls, winThe architect used the texts to dows, and furnishings.64
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[gate] a protecting bulwark,and write down [its erection] In the same among the imperishableactions of the just!"66 the text Plate in volume XXI, way, 1, demonaccompanying stratesthe Moors' use of inscriptionsto distinguishparticular spaceswith the quotation,"I am the garden,and every morn am I revealedin new beauty.Observeattentivelyhow I am adorn'd,and thou wilt reap the benefit of a commenMoreover,Jones'stext includes examtary on decoration." ples of inscriptions embellishing column capitals, architectural elements,and objectssuch as vasesin the same manner employed in Pugin'sChapel of the Blessed Sacrament. Pugin'sserious commitment to a scheme displaying to stainedglass inscriptionson everythingfrom candlesticks can be determinedfrom his decision to substitutecommon metals for silver in the church'svessels and to select some ready-madeitems in order to reserve the funds necessary for the extensivearrayof objectshe designedincorporating religious texts.

Figure 14 A.W.N. Pugin, Saint Giles, Cheadle, interiordetail Figure 15 A.W.N. Pugin, Saint Giles, Cheadle, interior Figure 16 A.W.N. Pugin, Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, Saint Giles, Cheadle

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The profusion of text representsone of the principal differencesbetween Pugin's"perfectCheadle"and Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc's decorative scheme for the restorationof the SainteChapelle.Scholarshave suggested that Pugin may have been influenced by Viollet-le-Duc's contemporarywork in Paris;certainly,both schemes offer dazzling interiors enriched through luminous coloration, gilding, and two-dimensional flat-surface patterns. The majordifferencebetween the two works,however,is in the methods chosen to create and embellish the sacred spaces and to communicate with the devout. Viollet-le-Duc's scheme restoresthe French RayonnantStyle of the chapel built by Louis IX (1241-1248) to house prized fragments from the True Cross and the Crown of Thorns.67In the chapel'ssecond story,the substantial feeling of masonryhas been replaced by screens of stained glass creating a transcendental,glitteringboundaryand infusingthe spacewith the mystical beauty of colored light. Huge statues of the apostles were mounted on piers around the perimeter of the chapel to involve the worshipperin the beliefs of the Church.This type of directnarrative contrasts with the indirect associationsestablishedthrough Pugin'sextensiveuse of text. Pugin'swork differs substantiallyfrom the typical subordination of text in Christianmedievalarchitecture. extensive use of inscriptionsis also characterisPugin's tic of his elaboratescheme for the decorationof the Palace of Westminster(Houses of Parliament), where text appears on ceilings, walls, floors, and furniturein carving,gilding, stained glass, paint, tiles, and painted canvas. Pugin prepared the plans and instructionsfor the palace'sornamentation as Superintendentof the Works of Wood Carving under Sir Charles Barry.Although Barry,the architect of this momentous commission, had final approval,Pugin's input in the decorativedesignwas critical.Not surprisingly, he advocatedan ecclesiasticaliconography,but Barryprevailedwith a programof heraldry.68 This theme emphasized and coats of arms epigraphs symbolizing Queen Victoria and earlier monarchs.The queen is indicated throughout by the prominentdisplayof her monogram,VR, for Victoria Regina;Dieu et Mon Droit, the royal motto of England; plus Latin and English versions of "God save the Queen" and "Long live the Queen." At first,the effusiveuse of text on both the interiorand exteriorof the Palace of Westminsterpresentsthe impression of an encyclopediaof quotations,but repeatedsite visits suggest that what appearscomplex is, in actuality,the successfulrepetition of a few inscriptionsoffered in different languages, media, and composition. For example, the phraseDieu et MonDroit(God and my right) is engravedin the brass gates and over the door at the entrance to the
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House of Lords. This same phraseis repeatedin diagonal bandsin the stained-glasswindows along the corridorsand is imprintedin white letters on a deep blue backgroundin the Minton floor tiles of the Peers Lobby.Inside the House of Lords, this motto is carvedin a blue horizontalband on the canopy of the throne, carved and gilded on ceiling beams, and paintedin armorialpanels in between the ceiling beams. Furtherillustrationsof this repetitionof an inscription presented in different formats can be identified with the other phrases listed above as well as mottoes referringto the German-bornPrinceAlbert(IchDien and Treu undFest) and other monarchs,and even with the familiar"Exceptthe Lord buildeth the house, they labourin vain that build it." As in Cheadle, the way the inscriptionsare displayedsugof the new Palaceof gests a link betweenthe ornamentation Westminster and Jones's analysisof the decoration in the medievalpalacein Spain.In both cases,patternsareformed by repeating a familiarword or phrase modified through changesto the backgroundor alterationsin the appearance of the quotationitself. In the Spanishpalaceof the Alhamvaried the presentationof the familbra, the calligraphers iar phrases"Godis our refugein everytrouble"and "There is no conquerorbut God" by presentingthem in both regular and highly stylized Arabic scripts; in the Palace of Westminster,Pugin achievedvarietyby displayingthe mottoes "God save the Queen"and "God and my right"in different languages.69 Once this concept is understood,it is easy to see that this method of design emphasizesthe importanceof associations stimulatedby the visual presence and appearance of the text. Pugin introduced writing on the walls of his churchesto inspirepiety and establishbonds with the simple devotion andunadulterated liturgyof the preindustrialized world, rejecting the bare walls and revised thinking representedin the architectureof the Reformation.Likewise, by exhibiting inscriptions and heraldic emblems he createdan atmosthroughoutthe Palaceof Westminster, phereredolentof a long and rich historyof chivalryandtradition, investing the monarchy with the dignity and to ceremonies of state. authorityappropriate Finally, Pugin incorporatedboth religious scriptures and heraldicemblemsin the decorativeschemesfor his last home and the adjoining Church of Saint Augustine in Ramsgate,Kent (1846-1851). The Ramsgatecomplexwas intended to serve as a residence, a place of worship, and a demonstration of the architect's designs to prospective clients.70The unusual dining room frieze, exhibiting the names of importantpatrons and commissions(Figure 17), may have been meant to impressclients by evoking associ-

Figure 17 A.W.N. Pugin, dining room frieze, The Grange, Ramsgate, Kent, 1843

ationswith Shrewsbury and other notablesand, at the same to remind of time, Pugin his favoriteclients and projects. Other ornamentationin Ramsgatealso suggeststhe intenin the repeateduse tion of representingstatus,particularly of martlets,Pugin'sinitials,and the phraseen avant,meanwhich Pugin'sfatherhad adoptedas the faming "forward," motto. (Likemanyself-madeVictorians,the elderPugin ily a family coat of armsthat he subsesuddenly"discovered" The quentlydisplayedto markhis proudsocial standing.71 emblem also features the a martlet, bird Pugin appropriately known for hauntingold cathedrals.)72 Pugin producedthese heraldicelements in a varietyof similarto the variation in the designs patternsandmaterials, for the Palace of Westminster.Unfortunately,the Ramsgate wallpaperno longer exists, but correspondencewith shows that Pugin specifieda patCrace,the manufacturer, tern composedof the martlet,the motto, and a monogram, placed in diagonalbands against a backgroundof foliage. Pugin orderedthis patternin red for the dining room, blue for the drawingroom, and green for Mrs. Pugin'sbedroom, saying that he felt the change of colorationwould achieve sufficientvarietyto enable him to repeat the patternin all of the principalrooms.73 Examinationof schemes by Jones and Pugin indicates that the techniqueof changingcolorationandmanipulating a few words or phrasesto create new ornamentationwas fundamental to their designs,enablingthem to createhun-

dreds of patterns for wallpaper,textiles, and carpets in a brief period (Figure 18). By varying the same motif or phrasesthrough changes in coloration, materials,and the secondarydecorativeelements,both architects surrounding quicklygeneratedschemesthat appeared original,complex, and infinitely detailed.They were the earliestnineteenthof the method outlined centuryadvocatesandpractitioners byJones to createtwo-dimensionalpatterns,and both men developed substantialbusinesses producing distinguished designs for a wide rangeof decorativearticles. Jones andPugin reformedBritishdesignthroughtheir method, their output, and their writing.Their texts articulated and sharedmany principlesof design, including the tenet that "constructionshould be decorated;decoration should never be constructed."74 They played key roles in the Great Exhibitionof 1851, and when Jones praisedthe superiordesign qualitiesof the Turkishcarpetsand other items exhibited by Islamic nations, Pugin agreed. They workedtogether until Pugin'sdeath in 1852, selecting and purchasingobjects displayedin the exhibitionto form the nucleusof the decorativeartscollection at the South Kensington Museum (now the Victoria and Albert Museum). Their writing and thoughts on many points were so close that a strong case can be madefor collaborationon-or for eitherof them as authorof-the firstcatalogueof the South Kensington Museum; the catalogue explains the objects they purchasedfor displayand for instruction.They also
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Figure 18 J. G. Crace for A.W.N. Pugin,trialceiling designs for the House of Lords, 1846

joinedJohn Weale in one of the earliestscholarlyarchitecturalpublications,Quarterly onArchitecture. Papers was to dedicated developingarchitecAlthoughJones ture reflectingnineteenth-centurytechnology and culture and Pugin was devoted to reviving a medieval past, they sharedmanyfundamental beliefsin theory and design.One of events sequence suggeststhat their intellectualrelationship began in the 1830s,when both establishedreputations by making exceptional comparisons between prevailing practiceand paststyles.In 1832, Pugin produceda drawing
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of three house facades,labeling the first two houses 1470 and 1532 and the third, a less satisfactorycomposition, 1832. Three years later (August 1835), he continued this but he comparison,beginninga book to be calledContrasts, this work to aside take on for Charles put projects Barryand Graham.75 As a records show that he wasin result, Gillespie London on the evening Jones delivered his lecture "The Influenceof Religion Upon Art"to the Architectural Association and that he may have been in the audience.Phoebe Stanton, Pugin biographer,indicates that he returned to

on his mind, and Salisburyon 5 December with Contrasts submitted a text for the book for publication in January 1836, completingthe drawingsbetween 23 Februaryand 5 Marchand finalizingthe manuscript between2 May and 30 the this text seems to respond to interlude, Despite May.76 the remarksmade byJones in his lecture to the Architectural Society the previousDecember. In that lecture,Jones emphasizedthat the architecture of the Egyptianswas "fullycapableof handingdown to posterity a complete chronicle of the manners, customs, and feelings of a people," and that he found this practice in markedcontrast to the "inexpressivestyles" prevailingin contemporary Englisharchitecture. Pugin repeatedthe idea of the importanceof feelings as a generatorof architectural form in the title of his first chapter in Contrasts: "On the which Produced the Great of Edifices the Middle Feelings Ages." Pugin also agreed that there had been a decline in architecture duringthe last three centuriesand saidthat the causes of this "mightychange"would form the subject of his text. He continued by proposing "thatthe great test of Architectural beautyis the fitness of the design to the purfor which it is intended, and that the style of a buildpose should so with its use that the spectatormay ing correspond at once perceivethe purposefor which it was erected."This Jones'scensureof the contemporary concept parallels practice of appropriatingthe temple form as the style for a "Christianchurch, a theatre of pleasure,or an hospital for the sick." Pugin repeats another position expressed by nationshave given birth to Jones, sayingthat the "different so manyvariousstyles of Architecture,each suited to their climate,customs,and religion;and as it is among edificesof this latter class that we look for the most splendidand lasting monuments,there can be little doubt that the religious ideas and ceremonies of these different people had by far the greatestinfluencein the formationof theirvariousstyles of Architecture." He continues to reflect the ideas of Jones that the elementsused by the Egyptians"were by affirming not mere fanciful Architectural combinations and ornaments, but emblems of the philosophy and mythology of that nation"and expandsthis idea of "Architecture resultfrom belief" to embrace all societies.77 ing religious Both men extolled the superiorityof Christianityand praised the buildings it inspired during the medieval Both men also alludedto the contemporarypracperiod.78 tice of disparagingChristianfaith as "superstition." Jones refers to pre-Reformationbelief as "thatunity of action of faith,now called superstition,which causedour forefathers to erect such splendid piles," and Pugin notes that he is "wellawarethatmodernwritershave attributed the numerous churcheserected during the middle ages to the effects

of superstition."79 Numerous examples,like this, of analogous terminology and logic, abound in these two works; what separatesthem is Jones'sdecision to defer from developing a discussion of medieval architecture, which he which existsbetween explainsby sayingthat the "sympathy the Gothic cathedraland the Christianreligion"was "too powerfully felt by all to need comment." Pugin's text, on the other hand, focuses on the symbolism in the plans, structure,and decorationof medievalbuildings. Professor Stanton notes that Pugin's "text seems to have been secondaryto the trenchantmessage of the illustrations . . . and seems weak only because of the strength

and assertivenessof the plates."80 There can be no doubt that the plates are more cutting than the text and that both exceed the criticism expressed by Jones. Where Jones genericallyscolded his countrymenfor building churches "with every attention paid to the comforts of the creature and so little to the glory of the Creatorin whose dwellingplace he is supposed to be," Pugin's illustrationsattacked the work of specific architects and society as a whole.81 Pugin juxtaposed images of the Inwoods' Saint Mary Somerstownwith Bishop Skirlaw's Chapel at Skirlaughto demonstratethe paucityof modern buildingsin relationto those raisedfour centuriesearlier.No publisherwas interested in producingPugin'sattackon the professionand on modernsociety,so he producedthe book himselfin August 1836. Sales exceeded his expectations and brought him notoriety.Some praisedhis "pungencyandwit" and "boldness and freedom,"while others chargedthat his work was the outpouring of a "fearfullydiseasedmind" and accused him of "Jesuiticallydistorting facts."82 He responded in
1837 with An Apologyfor a work entitled "Contrasts"; being a the assertions in advanced that defenseof publication,against the various attacks lately made upon it.83This text offered ideas

more extreme than those expressedin the earlierpublication and stressed that a "returnto the ancient faith is the only means by which a restorationof the long lost feelings for art of every description can be achieved." Although some of his ideas continuedto concurwith those expressed by Jones, for example,in Pugin'sstatementthat "architecture is a noble science, resulting from moral principles,
and . . . there is a forcible association between all works of

genius and religion,"he differs from Jones in statements indicating that "[I]t is the broad principle of erecting the most glorious temples to the worship of God, and consecratingthe highest efforts of art to his honour, for which I am contending. These are feelings which I assert belong exclusively to Catholicism, and they have entirely disappearedwhereverProtestantismhas been established."84 The religious differences aside, the two-dimensional
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patterns,the use of inscriptions,and the similarprinciples and method of design adopted by Jones and Pugin testify to their mutualrespect on many levels.Jones incorporated studieswith The stylisticanalysisinto English architectural Alhambra;he emphasized the influence of religion upon architectureand introducedthe perceptionof architectural history as culturalhistory. The fact that Pugin's Contrasts repeatsand addressesthe same ideas, althoughusing them to recommenda differentdirectionfor architecture,is significant and suggests the influence of Jones's analysisand ideas on the work of Pugin. Regardless of whether this premise is accepted, it is obvious that Owen Jones and A.W.N. Pugin shared an appreciation of text demonstrated through their artistic publicationsand in their use of inscriptionsin architecture. Each was a bold innovatorin theory and design, resolute in informing clients, the public, and the architectural profession about his convictions, and each appreciatedinscriptions as a valuabletool in this effort. Although emblematic text does not appearas the chief symbolic and decorative element in every one of their commissions, the examples cited aboveindicatenumerouscomprehensive schemesthat devised to communicate theirbeliefs,andthose of their they clients, through the use of emblematic texts. In addition, their decorativeschemes reflect the range and characteristics of the use of inscriptions exclusive to Islamic art and architecture. In TheAlhambra, TheFormation Art, and The of Islamic Mediation Grabar identifies the properOrnament, of Oleg ties of text used in medieval Islamic art and architecture. Although this article does not presume to do justice to his scholarship,it is importantto review many of the ideas he presents in order to enlarge our understandingof inscriptions, to observe how the work of Jones and Pugin is consistent with ideas and practices exclusive to Islamic architecture,and to confirm the designationsof "informative," "aesthetic,"and "emblematic"inscriptions. In The ProfessorGrabardefines the inscriptionsfound Alhambra, in the palace and in Islamic art and architectureas "inforand "iconographic." He observesthat mative,""redundant," officialpoliticalbuildingsusuallycontainnames, dates,and explanatory messagesconsistentwith the categoryof "informative"inscriptionsdescribedearlier.85 While the informative passagesarepresentedin legible Arabic, Grabarnotes other inscriptions containing transformed, rotated, and manipulatedletters, sometimes converted into animals,cartoons,and other images, to present a challengein decipheringthe messageor to createan artistic composition.These "aesthestic" images give pleasureto the viewer through their artisticform and composition and
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through the satisfactionof solving the puzzle of the message. In these inscriptions,the content is secondaryto the visualimpactof the text, and Grabarpointsout thatin many instances,the sentimentsexpressedare so simple,the translation is not worth the effort. These calligraphicinscriptions can be consideredin the same category as epigraphs composed of unintelligible letters or combinationsof letters that do not form a word. Such inscriptions,createdto offer beauty and pleasure to the observer, fit within the broader definition of "aesthetic"inscriptions, which can refer to a specificgroup of epigraphsor to propertiesarticulating a particularstyle that enhances informative and emblematicpassages. In addition to informativeinscriptions, Grabarnotes that a complete inscription may contain elements from "redundant" and "iconographic" classifications. He distinas "redundant" the that guishes repetitious passages proclaim the power of a ruleror of God, the familiarreligiousquotations and statementsof piety, and the poems and populist phrasesproclaiminggood wishes, aphorisms,and personal sentiments;he notes that this type of inscriptionis used frequentlythroughoutthe Islamicworld andis especiallycharacteristic of late medieval Islamic culture. He interprets these passages as constant reminders of the fundamental beliefs of Islam conveying "a sense of the permanentpresence of the divine."86 Since they representthe beliefs and attitudes of the faithful and help to establish the desired mood for a particular place, the redundantinscriptionsfall within the categoryof "emblematic" inscriptions. Grabarexplains"iconographic" inscriptionsas statements that emphasizea purposeor make an associationnot a priori. He cites the Koran as the earliestand most common source for the iconographic inscriptions adopted in IslamicSpainandnotes thatpoetrywas addedlater.His definition of iconographicinscriptionsis consistent with the definition of the term "emblematic"in this article, and although he does not use the latter term specifically,the concepts he introducesand his analysissignificantlyarticulate and expandour understanding of emblematics andsymbolism in writing. In The Mediationof Ornament,Grabar describeswritingas an intermediary, firstin Derrida's terms of the signifierof the signifierand then from his own perspective of an intermediarythat allows the viewer to experience something beyond what is contained in the writing itself. He explainsthat when a viewer readsa message on a wall or object, he or she enters a mode of perception and creation "thatdirectsthe intellect or emotions into a wide In this way,writing goes range of possible interpretations." a vehicle for the transmission of specificinforbeyondbeing mation and conveys or stimulates something other than

itself. While writing can be a neutral means to an end, either suggesting a particularinterpretationor promoting free association, writingcan also be a catalyst,mirroringthe of the maker or viewer.87 thoughts Jones understood that inscriptions are capable of adding beauty to architectureand of stimulatingthoughts that go well beyond the built work. He believed that mankindcould be enlightened and improved through the visual stimulus of good art and architecture,and he promoted interest in Islamic architectureand the decorative artsin particular. His writingsandmethodsof designreflect his understandingand sympathywith Islamic principles. in Pugin'swork also reveals Islamic practices,particularly the constantrepetitionof familiarpious or popularphrases until they become iconographic.He selected passagesthat did not have to be read,since their meaningwas known and anticipated.In this way,passagescan be displayedin profusion without overwhelming the viewer, since the text is quicklyrecognizableand unchallenging.The content was not important; instead, the phrases contributed to the atmospherePugin was creatingand stimulatedresponsesin the viewer. Just as the Moors coveredtheirwallsand domestic objects with pious phrases and proclamations on the power of God, Pugin ornamentedhis buildings and their contents with well-known passages and aphorisms. It is observationthat the decoration interestingto note Grabar's of domestic objects with populist poetry and aphorisms began in the Muslim world in the ninth century and appearedin the West duringthe reign of Queen Victoria.88 One of the intentionsof this articlehas been to suggest that and his promotion of Islamicarchitecture Jones'sAlhambra and the decorativeartsare an obvious source for the transfer of Islamicideasand practicesto mid-Victoriandesign.89 Takenat face value, the text of the passagesadoptedby Jones and Pugin may appeartrite andmay be interpretedas evidenceof the Victorianpenchantfor moralimprovement and Philistine sentimentality,but these inscriptionsshould not be dismissedlightly,since they exhibitexamplesof passages intended to lend beautyto architectureand to stimulate associationswith ideas and emotions beyond the text provided. In our current era of poststucturalism, such inscriptionsshould be understoodas multivalentsignifiers representing more than a direct translation of the words signified.They functionedas symbolsof an idealizedworld where artistic,spiritual,and philosophicalbeliefswere unified and integrated in a harmoniouslifestyle and culture. Whether the designers'intention was the stimulationof a simplerreligiousdevotion,the creationof a traditionof heraldryand chivalry,or an attemptto educateand elevate the taste of a nation and develop a new style of architecture and

ornamentationappropriateto the age, inscriptionsserved as importantemblematicdevices in the work of Jones and Pugin and should be valued as a significantcomponent in the analysisof their work and in the socioculturalanalyses of other works of architecture.

Notes
The authorwishes to expressappreciationto the ReverendChristopher Ivory for providingaccess and informationon Christ Church,Streatham, andto Prof. Gavin Stampand the VictorianSociety (United Kingdom)for andthe Palace tripsto SaintGiles (Cheadle),SaintAugustine's (Ramsgate), of Westminsteras part of the 1994 Summer School itinerary.She is also gratefulto the VictorianSociety (U.S.), ChristopherForbes,and Ball State Universityfor assistancein makingthis researchpossible.In addition,she would like to thankRonaldLewcock,GeorgiaInstituteof Technology,for reviewing the first draft of the text; Nicholas Olsberg, Centre Canadien for encouragingpublicationof the topic, and especiallythe d'Architecture, reviewerand Zeynep Celik for their questionsand insights,which made a significantcontributionto the substanceof this article. 1. This list is not meant to be comprehensive. 2. The Romansidentifiedseveralclassifications including:Dedicatoryand VotiveInscriptions (TituliSacri),Sepulchral (TituliSepulchrales), Inscriptions on PublicWorks(Tit(TituliHonorarii), HonoraryInscriptions Inscriptions uli Operum Publicorum), Inscriptionson Movable Objects (Instrumentum), and Wall Inscriptions(Inscriptiones Edward Parietariae); Johnston, Writing & Illuminating & Lettering (New York,1995), 305. 3. FrederichFriedl, Nicolaus Ott, and BernardStein, Typography-When WhoHow:An Encyclopedic Surveyof Type Designand Techniques throughout 48-49. York, (New 40-42, 1998), 8, History 4. The Bartholomew CountyMemorialfor Veteransin Columbus,Indiana memori(Thompson and Rose Architects,1997) and other contemporary als displayletters from some of the soldierscommemorated to elicit reflections upon the lives of ordinaryhumanssacrificedin war. 5. Oleg Grabar,TheAlhambra Mass.,1978);TheFormation (Cambridge, of Islamic Art (New Haven and London, 1973;reprinted., 1987);TheMediationof Ornament (Princeton, 1992). 6. Neil Levine,"The Book andthe Building: Hugo'sTheory of Achitecture and Labrouste'sBibliotheque Ste-Genevieve," and David Van Zanten, "Architectural Life in Architecture," in RobinMiddleton,ed., Polychromy: The Beaux-Arts and Nineteenth-Century FrenchArchitecture (Cambridge, LetMass., 1982), 138-173, 198-200, 203, 205; ArmandoPetrucci,Public tering(Chicago, 1993). 7. Meyer Schapiro,Romanesque Art (New York, 1977; reprint ed., 1993); LarkinBuilding: Jack Quinan, FrankLloydWright's Myth and Fact (New York,Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1987);JosephM. Siry,UnityTemple: FrankLloydWright andArchitecture for Liberal Religion (Cambridge,1996). 8. John Y. Cole, On These Walls: andQuotations in theBuildings Inscriptions of theLibrary of Congress (Washington,D.C., 1995). 9. John Sweetman,The OrientalObsession: Islamic in Britishand Inspiration American Art andArchitecture 1500-1920 (Cambridge, 1987), 4; Grabar, 18. Alhambra, 10. Deliveredto the Architectural Societyon 1 December 1835, "American vol. 5, January1836, p. 75. Society"(column),Gentleman's Magazine, 11. MichaelJacobs,Alhambra (New York,2000), 192, saysthatJones'stext
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as an illustrated "remains recordof the Alhambra's decorations." unequalled 12. Grabaridentifies calligraphyand the subsequentdevelopmentof the art book as an Islamicphenomenonand maintainsthat as vehicles for the divine Word, the art books became more sacred to the Muslim than a 129. Formation, mosque;Grabar, 13.MichaelTwyman, History Printing1770-1970:An Illustrated ofItsDeveland Usesin England (London, 1998), 72. opment 14. "IllustratedPublications,"Chambers' vol. 5 (London, Encyclopaedia, 1877). 15. Paul Goldman describesVictorian gift books as the precursorto the "nowreviledgenre-the 'coffee-table PaulGoldman,Victorian Illusbook"'; tratedBooks 1850-1870 (Boston, 1994), 71. 16. Asa Briggs, Victorian (Chicago, 1988),47, 172. Things 17. Bamber Gascoigne, Milestones in ColourPrinting 1457-1859 (Cambridge, 1997), 38-39. 18. LarryJ.Schaaf,W H. Fox Talbotauthority, in telephone conversation with author, 18 May 1998; W. H. Fox Talbot, The Pencilof Nature(London, 1844). 19.A Catalogue Exhibited at ofan Exhibition Specimens ofRecent ofPhotography theHouse oftheSociety ofArts, December1852,Societyfor the Arts,London. 20. Cole diary entry, 19 March 1844, Henry Cole manuscriptfile, The National Art Library,Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Architects' experimentationwith art books continued in the twentieth century with texts such as those preparedin the Bauhausand in TheHouseBeautiful (c. 1895), with ornamentationby FrankLloyd Wirght. See William C. GanBeautiful nett, TheHouse (RohnertPark,Calif., 1996);MaryJaneHamilton, FrankLloydWright& theBook Arts (Madison,Wisc., 1993). 21. Dominique-VivantDenon, Travels in Upper andLower Egypt,vols. 1-3 (1802; reprinted., New York,1973). 22. "Toinsureperfectaccuracy, an impressionof everyornamentthroughout the palacewas taken, either in plasteror with unsized paper";advertisement for TheAlhambra, London, 25 July 1842. 23. AntonioFernandez-Puertas, TheAlhambra, vol. 1 (London, 1997), 106. 24. Grabar, 103. Alhambra, 25. Jules Goury and OwenJones, ThePlans,Sections, Elevations andDetails vol. 1 (London, 1842), P1.XXI. of theAlhambra, 26. Gombrich,Senseof Order, 51, 54, 102. 27. Grabar, 237. Mediation, 59; Gombrich,Senseof Order, 28. Goury andJones, Plans... of theAlhambra, vol. 1 (1842), P1.XXXVII; Owen Jones, "MoresqueOrnament,"The Grammar (1856; of Ornament reprinted., New York,1986), 73. 29. GouryandJones, Plans... oftheAlhambra, vol. 1 (1842), Pls. XL-XLII; 72-74. Jones, Grammar, 30. GouryandJones, Plans... oftheAlhambra, vol. 1 (1842), P1.XXXVIII; Jones, Grammar, Proposition22. 31. Grabar, 97. Mediation, 32. Goury andJones, Plans... oftheAlhambra, vol. 1 (1842), PI.XXXVIII; Owen Jones, "On the True and False Principlesin the DecorativeArts," lecturegiven at Marlborough House,June 1852,The NationalArtLibrary, VictoriaandAlbertMuseum,London;Jones, Grammar, Proposition4. 33. "The New CrystalPalace,"Daily News (London), 23 July 1852. The calprospectus promised"APalaceof the People"with "refined recreation, culatedto elevatethe intellect,instructthe mind,improvethe heartsof, and welcomethe millionswho now haveno otherincentivesto pleasure but such as the gin-palace, the dancingsaloonandthe ale-houseaffordthem"; Ericde 1851:TheYear Exhibition Mare,London oftheGreat (London, 1973). 34. Philip H. Delamotte, Photographic Viewsof the Progress of the Crystal Palace (London, 1855). Sydenham 35. The CivilEngineer 17, no. 244 (July1854):32. andArchitect'sJournal
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36. Over 2 million people visitedthe CrystalPalaceat Sydenhameachyear for the first thirtyyearsit was open; Michael Darby,"OwenJones and the EasternIdeal"(Ph.D. diss., Universityof Reading,1974), 345. 37. OwenJones,Description Erected in theCrystal Palace Court; oftheEgyptian (London, 1854), 14-15. 38. Ibid., 13-15. 39. "ATribute: Review (London)81 (1932):72. by Le Corbusier,"Architectural 40. First-editionsubscribers includeMessrs.Asher(Berlin),W. Burn(Edinburgh), and Messrs. Cary and Hart (Philadelphia),as well as the British Museum, the London Institution,the Royal Dublin Society,and the Garrison Library, vol. 1 Gibraltar; Goury andJones, Plans... of theAlhambra, (1842), "Listof Subscribers." 41. Jones donatedcasts,tracings,andtextsto the Instituteof BritishArchitects, the ArchitecturalAssociation, and London University; Grabar, 19. Alhambra, 42. CharlotteGere andMichaelWhiteway,Nineteenth-Century from Design (New York, 1994), 67; Sweetman, OrientalObsession, Pugin to Mackintosh 128 (see n. 9). 43. Washington A Series Alhambra: andSketches Irving,The ofTales oftheMoors andSpaniards 1832);Irving,TheAlhambra (New York,1865). (Philadelphia, 44. Jones, "The Influenceof Religion Upon Art"(see n. 10);MichaelHall, "WhatDo VictorianChurchesMean?" JSAH 59, no. 1 (2000): 80. 45. Irving,Alhambra (1865), 60. 46. TheDictionary vol. 1 (London, 1848), 41. of theArchitectural Society, 47. A.W.N. Pugin, Glossary & Costume Ornament (London, of Ecclesiastical 1844, 1846, 1868);Phoebe Stanton,Pugin,(New York,1972), 142, 211. 48. AlexandraWedgwood, A. WN. Pugin and the Pugin Family(London, 1985), 54. 49. A. C. Pugin, Specimensof GothicArchitecture,2 vols. (London, 1821-1823); A. C. Pugin, Pugin'sGothicFurniture[c. 1827]; Alexandra in Paul Atterburyand Clive Wainwright, Wedgwood, "The EarlyYears," Passion A Gothic eds., Pugin: (New Haven and London, 1994),23-25. 50. JonathanGlancey,"The Great Goth,"Perspectives onArchitecture, June 1994, p. 26. 51. Clive Wainwright," 'Not a Style but a Principle':Pugin and His InfluandWainwright, A Gothic ence,"in Atterbury eds.,Pugin: Passion, 1;A.W.N. theNobleEdifices between and or,a Parallel Pugin, Contrasts; of theFourteenth andSimilarBuildings thePresCenturies, Fifteenth of thePresent Day;showing ent Decayof Taste (Salisbury,1836; reprint ed., New York, 1969); Phoebe Stanton,"The Sourcesof Pugin'sContrasts," inJohn Summerson, ed., ConArchitecture: onArchitectural Writers and Writing Presented to cerning Essays NikolausPevsner(London, 1968); Carol Flores, "OwenJones, Architect" (Ph.D. diss.,GeorgiaInstituteof Technology,1996),28-36; Rosemary Hill, "Reformation to Millennium:Pugin's Contrasts in the History of English Thought,"JSAH 58, no. 1 (1999): 26-41. 52. Wainwright, " 'Not a Style,"'6, 7;John KrestenJespersen, "FromSymbolicto AestheticOrnament: Studiesin the TheoriesandDesignsof A.W.N. Pugin and OwenJones"(master's thesis, BrownUniversity,1977),2. 53. The idea that Byzantinearchitecture was the basisfor both Gothic and Arabicart and architecture was a popularconcept. See Joseph Gwilt, The (1867; reprinted., New York,1982), 53. Encyclopedia ofArchitecture 54. Stanton,Pugin, 104. 55. MarkGirouard,The Victorian House(New Haven, 1985), note Country of "Exceptthe Lord .. ."is Nisi Dominus aedp. 112. The Latin translation domumin vanumlaborant eam. Pugin prominently ificaverit qui aedificant exhibitedthis psalmverse in Latin in the CentralLobby, Palaceof Westminster. 56. Nicola Coldstream,TheDecorated Style(Toronto, 1994). 57. Shapiro,Romanesque Art, 16-17 (see n. 7); Petrucci, PublicLettering,

12-13 (see n. 6). 2. 58. Petrucci,Public Lettering, 59. Stanton,Pugin, 104. 60. Ibid., 106-107, 109-110. 61. Ibid., 107. 62. W. G. Short, Pugin'sGem: A BriefHistory Catholic Church of theRoman (Stoke-on-Trent,1981), 11. Gilding is substitutedfor ofSaintGiles,Cheadle yellow, a changethatJones often made as well. ad eam 63. The riser of the lowest step near the rood screen says Venient omnes Venite et ascendamus admontem Dominiet addomum Dei genteset dicent: Jacob(All nationswill come to it andwill say:Come and let us go up to the mountainof the Lord and the house of the God of Jacob), and the upper et estdomus Dominisupraverticem montium riserdisplaysthe wordsFundata omnes colles exaltata estsuper (The house of the Lordis builton the top of the mountainsandexaltedaboveall the hills)fromIsaiah2.2-3. The steps leading into the chapel read "He gave them breadfrom heaven. Man ate the breadof angels,"takenfrom Psalm 77; Short,Pugin'sGem,12, 15. 64. RoderickO'Donnell, "Puginas Church Architect,"in Atterburyand Passion, 73; Stanton,Pugin, 108. Wainwright,eds., Pugin:A Gothic 65. Short, Pugin'sGem,15. 66. Goury andJones, Plans... of theAlhambra, vol. 1 (1842), P1.II. and IsabelleHyman,Architecture, 67. MarvinTrachtenberg fromPrehistory to Post-modernism (New York,1986), 247-248. 68. RobertCooke, ThePalaceof Westminster (New York,1987), 87-88. 69. Pugin alsoused Old Frenchfor inscriptions on the exteriorand interior of the palace. 1768-1899 (Brighton 70. Megan Aldrich,ed., The Craces: RoyalDecorators and London, 1990), 74. 71. RosemaryHill, "The Microcosmof London:Pugin'sParentsand His EarlyLife,"paperreadat the conferenceon Pugin andthe Gothic Revival, VictoriaandAlbertMuseum,July 1994. 72. Wainwright," 'Not a Style,"'1 (see n. 51). 73. Alexandra Wedgwood,PuginandHis Family(London, 1985), 232.

74. Jones, Grammar, Principle4. 120 (see n. 51). 75. Stanton,"Pugin'sContrasts," ibid. 76. A.WN. Pugin, Contrasts; 77. Pugin, Contrasts, 1-2;Jones, "Influenceof Religion,"15 (see n. 44). 78. Jones, "Influenceof Religion,"16, and Pugin, Contrasts (1969), 5-6. 79. Jones, "Influenceof Religion,"19-20; Pugin, Contrasts (1969), 6. 80. Stanton,Pugin,25-26 (see n. 45). 81. Jones, "Influenceof Religion,"21. 82. MargaretBelcher,"PuginWriting,"in Atterbury andWainwright, eds., 105 (see n. 49). Passion, Pugin:A Gothic 83. A.W.N. Pugin,An Apology (Birmingham, for a workentitled"Contrasts" 1837). 84. Ibid., 4, 7. 100 (see n. 5). 85. Grabar, Alhambra, 86. Ibid., 135. 110 (see n. 5). 87. Grabar, Mediation, 88. Ibid., 98, 117-118. in Jones'sworkincludeMichael 89. Textsthat focus on Islamicassociations Darby,"OwenJonesandthe EasternIdeal"(see n. 36);MichaelDarby,The Obsession Islamic (see n. 9). (London, 1983);Sweetman,Oriental Perspective

Illustration Credits
Figures 1, 2, 4. Steve Talley,photographer,Ball State University,Special Collections vol. 1 Figures 3, 5-7. From Goury and Pugin, Plans... of theAlhambra, (1842), photographicreproductionby author Figure 8, 13-17. Photographsby author Figures9, 10. Photographby ChristopherIvory Figures 11, 18. VictoriaandAlbertMuseum Figure 12. Presentwhereaboutsunknown;illustrationreproducedfrom S. from Sketches Ayling,Photographs byA. W.N. Pugin(1865)

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