A Defense of Utilitarian Policy Processes in Corporate and Public Management Author(s): F.

Neil Brady Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Feb., 1985), pp. 23-30 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25071468 . Accessed: 21/10/2012 22:20
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A Defense
in Corporate

of Utilitarian

Policy Processes
F. Neil Brady

and Public Management

ABSTRACT.

The

growing

awareness

that

corporate

and

public policy forming processes are intensively utilitarian has provoked a variety of criticism. The procedural dif are well known; less well ficulties of utilitarianism
known charges important paper defends but that potentially utilitarian relationships utilitarian more policy and methods devastating processes societal against is a set of intrude processes. these upon This charges.

Traditionally, (to choose subjective assumption objective Horkheimer below:

This view

the proper function that truths ?

of reason function objective over the ends) held priority and reflected the common careful thinking produced in ethics. Max especially some of its uses describes

(1947)

specifically, two criticisms are singled out for examination. The first is the claim that utilitarian policy More
processes systematically discriminate against the rights

asserted

the

existence

of

reason

as a force

not
and in

only in the individual mind but also in the ? in relations among human beings objective world
between nature and social classes, in social institutions, The could be degree determined and of its manifestations... of a man's life

of non-human
or obligation

life and suppress any feelings of sympathy

humans might have for animals or plants.

The second is the argument that utilitarianism

circumvents considerations of process which

ultimately
are essential

reason-ableness

according
theory ordination however the human ultimate idea of

for the development of individual and societal identity. Given these criticisms, the goal of this paper is to
defend public the policy role of utilitarian processes in corporate techniques such against charges. and

to its harmony
objective of behavior reason and

with
did aim,

this totality...
not but focus on on the concepts ?

The
co ? on of of

to us sound they today mythological on of the greatest the good, problem on and the way of realization destiny, goals.

Classically, of reason roughly

reason was

the have

functions been

of

the human into

divided

reflecting
to choose

the means-ends

faculty two realms, distinction

(Kant, 1985; Whitehead,

1929). One function of

human ends,

appropriate

the other to select the means for achieving what ever purposes one may have. Kant's (1785) dis tinction between the categorical and hypothetical uses of reason is typical of the classical position. to this view, the two however, According not functions of reason were regarded. equally

great placed a 'center provide point' of individual preferences twentieth seems however, reason's claim to The

So, the reason

classical

view

of

the human in its

faculty promise the propriety

of to

trust could

from which

be assessed.

world, in confidence to Hork according objectivity, heimer. His diagnosis for recurring western crises to of nihilism in and despair points capitalism the pervasive mistrust of reason to human clarify ends and the resulting with the preoccupation century to have lost utilitarian Daniel "There also echo
"One of

industrialized

F. Neil

at is Assistant Professor of Management San Diego the College of Business Administration, State University. He is the author of 'Feeling and Brady A Moral
Administration

calculation reaffirms center; is no

Bell

personal preferences. this view when he writes, there are only peripheries'

of

Understanding:
Servants', Public

Psychology
Quarterly

for

Public
7, and

(1976, p. 104). Scott and Hart

this concern
the distinctive More than

(1973, p. 419)
our

when
features one

'Ethical Theory for

Management of

the Public Administrator:

Interests',

The

they write:
of is its society of western

Competing

American

Review of Public Administration

15, pp. 119?126.

goallessness.

observer

Journal of Business Ethics 4 (1985) 23-30. ? 1985 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.

0167-4544/85/0041-0023*01.20.

24
culture questing instrumental has noted for better ends... the ceaseless and It busyness means better assumed of its to that

F. Neil Brady
people, achieve ultimate

process This sophical

which

are essential to show

to the development that from a philo

of individual and societal identity.

paper point hopes of view 'hold utilitarian own' policy-analytic certain

is

ends will
be taken

take care of themselves,

for granted."

and they tend to

techniques

their

against

Therefore,

is whether the the largest question reason as found in the of function subjective or instrumental utilitarian pro predominantly cesses world of the administrative excessively distorts and others suggest. life, as Horkheimer its the need to resolve great difficulty Despite issue administrator the leaves the thoughtful

In and that powerful specific complaints. on the back of the monkey is placed event, are so critical of the predominantly those who utilitarian what to to show nature of policy processes and add of reason the objective function con the processes present policy beyond tribution of utilitarian techniques.

with

Are discomfort. significant philosophical utilitarian flawed, techniques fundamentally Does one serve society well biased, or distorted? merely unexamined ferent of resources in the service of manages whether wants, without considering in fact they now are? The link

Utilitarian

theory

and homocentrism

who

Even if the widely

of applying in making public it does overcome, culties

recognized procedural diffi

utilitarian and theory to decision

things (especially preferences) should be any dif

from what and public policy little or no with axiomatic, or to given recognition philo goals objective same At its the time, sophical purpose. procedures have been severely and are well-known criticized to 1977; Tribe 1972; (Maclntyre, policy analysts not go away, Such will Tribe, 1974). problems serve to of but will keep makers continually corporate is theory virtually with utilitarian

prove satisfactory. has argued that utilitarian in the law and in public sys techniques policy certain of kinds values suppress tematical concern some for which individuals' express life. That natural and non-human is, objects as a of decision utilitarianism system public making tends to and sympathy animal life and, translating by human interest. suppress other felt of expression toward obligations the those

which technique of human preference Laurence Tribe (1974)

were corporate policy not follow that a perfected all manifestations encompasses will

policy
the fluid the

firmly

if uncomfortably
of human wants goes beyond difficulties

immersed in
and needs. Yet, these well to defend

focus

reality of this paper procedural

known utilitarian

against techniques policy-analytic to human nature of alleged distortion charges in its use. If procedures have flaws, that inherent a one is but if method intrudes matter; upon or modifies essential important relationships social processes, that is quite another.

feelings of expressions or of Any obligations feelings intrinsic worth, human from self-interest, apart are in the unimportant policy comparatively
*

distorts instead, into mere them

game.

cannot this Therefore, paper although to Horkheimer's head respond large assertions to two made on, it does respond charges specific of cor in the world processes against utilitarian porate claim atically human pathy animals The first is the and public policy making. that utilitarian processes system policy the rights of non discriminate against of sym life and suppress any feelings or obligation The humans second circumvents for feel might is the argument of considerations

leaders and business year, Every public issues for face where executives, example, some that the animal argue 'rights' of higher or life that one's initial for the sympathies intrinsic over for worth of an countervailing is an important Japanese industry if the general be hurt severely felt to super toward the whale were obligation of of millions interests sede the first order directly whale the system or indirectly benefit from take priority eco-system interests. human Whaling,

example, which could

or plants. that utilitarianism

who Japanese the traditional Tribe argues,

industry. in which

Unfortunately, such issues are

A Defense debated

of Utilitarian

Policy For crucial processes

Processes the defender issue

25 of the utilitarian utilitarian faith, the

one. As a result, any felt is a utilitarian or for whale life are obilgations sympathies to into be the under translated great pressure are wherein such issues language currently a was what Thus, processed. genuine initially stance is reduced to an argument selfless playing to the motive of human self-interest: future only to not will be able whales, generations experience to science will lose the opportunity study and etc. learn from a significant mammalian species, The of shrubs plastic inadequacy 'planting' aesthetic equivalent highways or of Parthenon the species replacing to with with material piece-by-piece designed along to living stand the corrosive effects of twentieth pollution satisfaction somehow policy any to the claim that testify is of human aesthetic preferences not to the whole these story public Historically, other utilitarian analytic century the utilitarian our as the

is whether

policy-forming against because interests

discriminate systematically sentiments, 'higher order' human merely inferred represent they sympathetically of non-human life. The of the development history to allow room appears Even sympathies. though of utilitarian for the

of utilitarian 'higher the originating in Bentham's

theory order'

expression

(1789)

work

was

theory

purely
seemed

hedonistic,
of

Mill's
to allow human

(1859) arguments for even the most

successfully form idealistic scheme.

preference the distortion Tribe calls our Nevertheless, to does exist, but it has been induced attention not so much social by utilitarian theory. Rather, choice have been strategies anticipated by who the understand persons competitively nature democratic of whether policy-making, or corporate public. In institu utilitarian theory, policy-forming to elicit first hope those involved. However, reflective beings which tions cipate outcomes, and order human assess make preferences from are also beings anti prospects, tactical (and not

in the utilitarian

issues. interests

techniques have had difficulty

Ironically, strongly utilitarian legitimating by consenting

taking seriously

than irreducibly human ones. even who feel most those however, of values the kinds suppressed by may procedures policy the distortion inherent to play: may
which as to erode,

be

further

in the game

[The environmentalist]
a system of and discourse feeling thought

be helping
so over

to legitimate
human long run, the

structures

the very sense of obligation which provided the initial impetus for his own protective efforts. (Tribe, 1974, p. 1221) So, there current about something policy if Tribe is dis techniques, right, which the adoption of positions that appeal is which transcend useful mere and

In other necessarily personal) preferences. as Tribe and others have words, shown, correctly the traditional system, corporate policy-making cannot and public, of the translation control into tactical If personal preference preference. as a to this distortion is always be regarded of human then Tribe's sentiment, degradation concerns would be on target. What Tribe fails to see is that the kinds of distortion occur which ? work both ways both to the possible degrada as well as to the tion of sentiment of enhancing
motive.

analytic courages to feelings and obligations human self-interest. This flawed

conclusion, however, in important ways. the kinds

is both It is

As of the widely jobs, a

for

the

latter

illuminating in public flawed causes consist such of

of distortions

in useful occur that but it is

'malicious of

alternative, whaler' whose pain, whales but who by

consider primary openly

the case motive defends to more

is to cause whales hunting it

processes, analytic policy to utilitarian in attributing them wholly to in supposing the distortions and in neglecting arise not non-human from se per the but interests.

accepted

reasons:

only distortions

Rather, the following discussion will show how

utilitarian theory of social choice. application from the

strategies

supplies products etc. Here, it is not the utilitarian nature of place, a that distorts one's true motives, process policy it is the awareness of what kinds of arguments seem to have wider to those who solicit appeal one's consider the Further, preferences.

appealing creates the industry in the market needed

26 arguments used to

F. Neil commonly a collection

Brady today, public presumably sympathy be far stronger, but it is at least plausible to suppose too much water that has simply to under the make such passed easy bridge to reform attempts public policy. Similarly, with to corporate seem to businesses respect policy, show little interest in historical Tradi relations. tion means less than innovation, and precedent less than performance. future representing developments in utilitarian discussions. impotent similarly A present oil crisis seems far more important than one faced Likewise, by future generations. over the domination of the present future Sympathies are interests The emphasis is a well-known in corporate is also easy to see. policy on short-term over long-term goals of American weakness corporate occurred

justify

of

industries of doubtful

social utility.

The

would

and distribution of production is justified for example, material, status as an art form, its alleged outmoded liberalizing its social function by ship and control. The insight list could that emerges and public of human more in attitudes to challenge much

pornographic to by appeal by its influence toward sex, or state censor

be made

corporate the lowest

longer, is the recognition that both can transform even policy preference to into expressed

but

the

preferences contexts. Whereas policy-analytic expressions examples sions of are also whales of

acceptable policy-making Tribe argues that insightfully can suppress techniques as the above sentiments, 'higher' it may also be true that expres forms of human for preference

show, the 'lower'

either initial feeling ('high' or 'low') is dissipated

by its transformed but the question, more of
human

losses can be likewise or artistic literary

suppressed. Sympathy disappearing to reduce may potential experiential for future generations, but base appetites publically freedoms. transformed Whether into ultimately

is an open expression public a it is not any question merely utilitarian of degradation higher

sentiments.

have

In short, utilitarian do not processes policy a selective on order' impact 'higher The both washed impact does 'higher' out occur, and in but it of 'lower'

only. preferences is symmetrical; preferences get more

favor

and widely held. preferences openly to wash This tendency of utilitarian processes out the extreme and cling to middle positions atten is also illustrated ground by the reduced are tion given to issues which removed temporally is being made from the present. When policy for are present stronger; but problems, preferences in the past or the when the issue is situated it seems to attract less attention. future, Thinking of the past, consider the plight of those citizens of the desert fallout the southwest and from who are seeking com pensation radiation tests secure of for deaths 1950s. from injuries resulting the above-ground nuclear Or consider to the attempts

strategy. In short, there is a kind of that occurs myopia in both corporate and public processes, but it is a narrowness of vision which the discourages or of extreme expression preferences unpopular or and current, solicits, instead, moderate, common That of is, expressions preferences. at the not out, get washed preference periphery as selected such for just preferences sympathies even whales. if this were true, Furthermore, that Tribe has said can convincingly nothing connect to utilitarian this flaw per procedures se. Utilitarian in principle for allows theory ? or the weighing of all preferences 'high' or And 'low', retrospective prospective. although do seem to undervalue processes policy periph eral interests, such a phenomenon may be due as to human as to much for example, socialization, a given decision-making procedure.

Utilitarian process A in a second policy

theory

and

the

circumvention

of

criticism making valuable

of utilitarian

objects to viz. the constitutive society, or for example, Marx, process. value-forming to utilitarianism from the of objects perspective a social reformer. For him, utilitarian methods process promote a static society:

theory applied to its circumvention of

for the Japanese victims of compensation internment incidents War II. World If such during

A Defense
... the of theory of what the utility exists; ... into [changes] a demonstration into

of Utilitarian
a mere that

Policy
itself

Processes
that matters

27
most to those who take part in it.

apology under among general

By focusing
some methods whatever

all but exclusively

defined thought, process end and makes ?

on how
state,

to optimize
to ?

relations the present conditions existing in the men are and most the advantageous recent in all the It interest. has this character

externally distort extent

policy-analytic sometimes action, or ought to make

economists. That

(Bottomore,

1956, p. 166)

an independent the

difference.

(Tribe, 1973, p. 631)

ethics only inquires after the is, utilitarian current values; it does not promote of strength their review or change. in promoting interest Marx's Of course, a sense of is motivated societal by dynamism a is a revolutionary direction: society dynamic in the which the will, long run, promote society one's On Marxist the other ideals. classical hand, interest in societal need not be

Thus,

nature of utilitarian fundamentally or abbreviate assessment may distort technology in order to an societal process simply important on an issue. obtain closure to describe the phenomenon Another way as involves seeing a scientific technology method. assessment In terms of procedures scientific

dynamism can be awareness and self-criticism instrumental; own sake, out of the for their prized regardless a come. More in which the process specifically, it will value is one in which chooses what society the society continuously contrasted with a system for example, determined where the constitutes itself; and of runaway values societal technology, are in part

should have an ideals, no measuring technique measure. to if it item seeks the effect upon Yet, assessment tech utilitarian is correct, Tribe niques do distort of the phenomenon virtue of the after, principally by nature of ignore the truly societal in the Daniel when course Bell he sampling at is getting writes that of structures individuals". of the nature

they inquire fact that they policy

processes

momentum of forward by con a which society development, technological or the implications studies periodically tinually of technological for its well-being development It may and do so incrementally 'chooses itself'. is all without but that important lofty vision, is that society into its own takes its development hands. Laurence utilitarian institutionalized results process higher promotion utilitarian oriented: in forms of the essential Tribe system in for has argued that the (1972) assessment of technology the the United of States the often kind of for of the the

preferences. personal same the problem "utilitarianism neglects that necessarily

the reality outside stand

(1976, p. 257)
over of the propriety Nevertheless, despair for societal processes utilitarian may techniques are at least two reasons for There be premature. the criticism supposing to above be overstated. The with of first is related utilitarian clear that the corporate constitutive reason. of utilitarianism outlined

circumvention

of human

development and rationality That

to the corporate experience It is not simply policy-making. character utilitarian traditionally the more stifles decision-making or of functions value-choosing the decision-making at least causes of phase executives

democracy. assessment techniques they

is, standard are outcome

Indeed,

what might otherwise collapse into a review of public be a values healthy the comparative regarding speedy judgment outcomes. merit of possible
'In most a symphony rules that areas to of human orchestrating constitute by its the participants endeavor a ? from ? performing the processes define quite the apart

weighing preferences to consider of cor the comparative strengths not A if absolute values, porate strengths. is which with for company, wrestling example, the the issue of expansion of facilities of must review comparative strengths interests of stockholders, short-term term survival and growth interests several

the goals: the long of the cor

society

and roles

played

and enterprise matter

from any identifiable

produced. Indeed,

'end state'
cases

that is ultimately
it is the processes

in many

of alter the sacrificing poration, image, public etc. Such discussions native uses of the capital, can be vigorous. Just because utilitarian methods outcomes for does not require that the press

28 constitutive altogether. situations question question want it?' function The of reason

F. Neil Brady
be short-circuited I want?' in the
... if the set of ultimate ends that defines a person

question

'What do

must

of conflicting goals often prompts I want it?' The latter 'How do badly do I from is not far removed 'Why

be perceived as the shifting product instrumental choice to which his subjective

to from any moment integrated to moment, notion of have the person

of the desires
we not as a

point

abandoned

I to want', which 'What ought and in its own right and respect human rationality not just for its instrumental capacities. reason is for justified The second optimism assessment nature of utilitarian the cyclical decision of utilitarian process. Descriptions a feed with conclude often making approaches

self with p. 651) That

a continuing

identity

over time...?

(1973,

from the is, the only important question 'What is of instrumental perspective rationality are the present relevant values in terms of which alternatives cerning alleged the will be assessed?' of continuity to be irrelevant. con Questions are values personal

back
loop thrust feels

loop.
on the

(Rowen, 1969) The effect of the

is to diffuse and some of the to promote continued one That is, when the result of a with

process toward closure and

reflection

assessment. discomfort

intuitive

that reality were other however, Suppose, were no con wise: that there suppose personal over one feel time... of values Could tinuity justified policy The only tasks ones in which utilitarian for techniques applying reasons? No! The results would be dated. that could be achieved would be were preference in

the cause may be failure utilitarian assessment, or utilitarian in any all of three traditional steps can be con with which completed only rarely fidence: courses of action. (1) List all alternative (2) List all relevant alternatives. (3) Weigh the criteria with of these for evaluating respect feedback earlier to the their

momentary satisfied with momentary gratifica immediately tion. in gratification imme suffer Delay might diate obsolescence. Of the

criteria inclusion of in

importance. the Presumably, prima facie of closure utilitarian So, not need

recognition inherent

the freedom

is loops and lack stages of

for animals and for some people, course, of short-term future does consist basically So and goals, which values often. may change are concerned, far as general policy decisions a real world the kind of however, reflecting be underlying is with techniques incompatible policy-analytic In order to the intent of those techniques. rely on the continued and for policy usefulness assumption alleges of a certain planning temporal one would tion's preferences, that human values about Indeed, change rapidly. to the extent is reduced over personal identity to Tribe's contrast sharp tion of personal temporal the public use of utilitarian and corporate slice of a popula to assume have Tribe to

procedures. two if these despair

arguments

process-collapsing or utilitarian policy-forming as expressed infected with ? tunities are relevant

altogether of features

one have merit, over the alleged the application in strategies of the

instrumental

Instrumental process. assessments in utilitarian

rationality is subtly oppor values

constitutive, introspective to redetermine what chances for

not most things do the meaning of 'policy' of that the assumption time is weakened. In conclusion,

how important assessing goals, further insight can be each value is, and whether and their con alternatives achieved regarding
sequences.

the assump makes possible identity for matters of methods

the asser do not end with allegations that above tion considered policy-analytic to essential processes collapse techniques so far as to He even goes societal well-being. the assert deflates that instrumental rationality He writes: notion of personal identity. temporal Tribe's

policy.

Policy

processes:

Open

or closed? initial tendency

Returning, regarding

finally, the alleged

to Marx's natural

complaint of utili

A Defense of Utilitarian Policy Processes 29

tarian might posed techniques conclude even to defend that the status quo, one to utilitarian could have

difference
the fear

between open and closed bidding is

of distorted

the alternative

thinking, to societal obstacle greater constitutive The contribution of the dynamism! ? the of rationality function is discovery iden of values or principles sustain tification which rationality, an themselves over time and lend permanence

viz. constitutive

That is, the judgment. an open process nature of competitive intensely cause a bidder sense of to inflate one's might value of judgments it is of the inflation circumstance, precisely is value which the perceived 'open promoted by can ness' of the process, which of holders delight property for to be auctioned successful but which when can result cool reflec bidders one's the glass windows initial beyond in quieter moments. In this sort of

to

individual identity. The danger lies in attributing

more of permanence constitutive and no seems have or absoluteness than times ? thought the result being institutionalized a form of 'constitutive rationality' constitutes to but merely to the products is consistent with

in

changing dogma which affirms. It would societal derived

longer fair

re

conclude,

been

stability, from the

unhappy it were whether utilitarian among

then, with due

that Marx too to of or much policies present to the

regret tion again replaces the frenzy of the moment. be 'closed' So, whereas processes may policy of certain accused 'opening' shortcomings, falls short in its own ways processes policy by to the fires' and causing 'fanning preferences be temporarily The question preference?' It is plausible 'I just wasn't inflated. 'What an to is the easy true of intensity to answer. in some

inertia men

is not

preferential

relations

privileged

status of historical

ideology. Both

cases one would I

suppose find rueful

question that at least bidders

and constitutive forms of rationality instrumental can be carried to extremes; but there is nothing to about the application of utilitarian techniques the process ly requires self-formative of policy-formation societal stagnation responsibilities. as well of societies that theoretical or abdication of The as successful

preference and the volatility of the notion of personality, so far as the upon personal depends identity of one's preferences. stability Similar policy of public occur problems as well. formation, servants to be an political their plead of in the area of public the power Perceiving object of competition, each year groups before city adminis

myself; want it that much', really didn't assessment is a distorted of individual

I lost control

to comment, for amoment; etc. The result

management corporations an uncomfortable must of upon rely balancing ? instrumental and constitutive of rationality an not in of realm operating ambiguous knowing be achieved policy ? of counterposition with formulation the of 'fell incre swoop' nature

thousands

action cases

fully what should be achieved nor how it should

mental analysis. Even of much would that the show

the traditionally though of public and corporate States is not so

'closed'

vigorously and a trators, commisioners, county legislators, wide To of officials. suppose variety public some under these conditions that simple measure of the intensity of expressed preferences would provide real wants and effort to resist reliable needs the information is naive. regarding in an Instead, of an auction,

in the United

have us believe, there the lead to 'opening' policy processes would own set is of One its such problem difficulties. escalation how of preference. 'open' processes An example might run the risk of of preference Con interests. auction and windows essential

policy-making 'closed' as some is reason to suppose

administrators ing reasonable of

regularly wants

unduly claims muffled The public, opening promote increase

influenced those who

atmosphere make judgments regard and try to avoid being either the extravagant by or the are over represented is policy that

momentary provoking which do not reflect sider open the phenomenon on some bidding development

expressions

long-term of the public stained

cries of the under-represented. to notice important point and individual corporate, assessment the utilitarian constitutive in involvement processes and public

in

from an old church which

for future

glass

is being demolished

issues, to procedures an could buy participation

of the site. The

30 and commitment with the a decrease of

F. Neil Brady
in certainty. openness in democratic, and free. remain fair, reasonably non-intrusive,

perhaps epitome contexts is advertising, utilitarian competitive in where result combative strategies marketing or confused self-deceived customers, duped a of the and degradation salespersons, general notion of personal preference.

Indeed,

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Bell, Daniel,
Basic Books,

of Capitalism,

Conclusion For a century, administrators shortcomings in applied science, and philosophers, policy-makers, aware of the procedural have been of utilitarian cost-benefit theory, analysis, economics. whether policy Human

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Bottomore, T. B., Karl Marx: Selected Writings in

ethics, or in neo-traditional

are often 'soft', incommensurable, preferences and indistinct, the pursuit of alternatives while and inex for choice is ambiguous, complex, Even do act on haustible. so, human beings of preference do make judgments preference, so do and often among alternatives, freely, being or even unrestrained precept, principle, by ? as when for toppings opinion choosing public
an ice-cream sundae.

and Social Philosophy, Sociological Mcgraw-Hill Publishers, New York, 1956. Max, The Eclipse Horkheimer, of Reason, Oxford New 1947. Press, York, University Kant, Immanuel, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Lewis Morals White Beck (trans.), Bobs (1785), Merrill,
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J. W. Parker, London,
Costs, Taylor and (eds.), Effective Program

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Budgeting and Benefit-Cost Analysis, Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear Publ. Comp., 1969, pp. 83-93. Scott, William G. and David K. Hart, 'Administrative
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(4),
or

(1973),
Ideology?'

pp.

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Laurence,

'Policy

Analysis to for

Philosophy
Tribe, Trees: Laurence, New

and Public Affairs

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2 (1972), pp. 66-84.

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1315
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Discontinuity: Southern Rationality', (1973), 631. Whitehead,

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The

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Alfred
University

North,
Press,

The Function
Boston, 1929.

twentieth century rationality. reason has yet in cases where preference principle, scenario the unlikely comes world under that the would rule rules of be!), in which

the same time, to rule on law and and short of

the day; every principle utilitarian

(What

preference a dull processes