Heat Transfer

Heat transfer mechanisms

There are three distinct mechanisms by which heat transfer can occur:

Conduction
is the ow of heat through a solid material from a region of higher to lower temperature.

Convection
is the transfer of heat by means of the actual movement of a stream of uid (can be a vapour or liquid).

Radiation
is the transfer of heat by means of the straight-line passage of electromagnetic waves through space between objects of diering temperatures, without the intervention of any intermediate solid or uid material (can occur across a vacuum).

Heat transmission by conduction

The equation for heat transmission (or ow) through a single element by conduction is as follows:

Heat transmission by conduction

Alternate formula when conductivity and material thickness are combined, and presented as conductances:

q=

t Q = kA l

q=

t k Q 1 = kA = At = CAt = At l l R

where: q = rate of heat or energy ow (J/s or W) Q = total heat transmitted (J) = time during which ow occurs (s) k = conductivity (W/C m) A = cross-sectional area of ow path (m2) t = temperature dierence (C) l = length of ow path (m)

q A t1 l t2

where: q = rate of heat or energy ow (J/s or W) Q = total heat transmitted (J) = time during which ow occurs (s) k = conductivity (W/C m) A = cross-sectional area of ow path (m2) t = temperature dierence (C) l = length of ow path (m) C = k/l = conductance (W/C m2) R = 1/C thermal resistance (C m2/W)

q A t1 l t2

Heat transfer coecients

Thermal conductivities
Thermal conductivity values (k) for some common construction materials:
material still air polyisocyanurate polyurethane spray foam extruded polystyrene expanded polystyrene mineral wool breglass batts cellulose bre straw bale vermiculite k (W/mC) 0.026 0.027 0.022 - 0.037 0.029 - 0.039 0.037 0.038 0.042 0.039 - 0.046 0.059 0.066 material plywood softwood lumber gypsum wallboard common brick window glass concrete stone steel aluminum copper k (W/mC) 0.115 0.12 0.16 0.72 1.00 0.77 - 1.32 1.3 3.0 45 220 390

Combining materials into assemblies

Construction assemblies are typically comprised of a number of components made of dierent materials, requiring the determination of combined thermal conductances or resistances. In general, components are either combined in a manner which results in series heat ow, or in parallel heat ow.

Heat ow in series
When materials are in series, note that heat ow through each component must be the same, though the temperature drop across each component is dierent. If the intermediate temperature is t, heat ow through each component is as follows:

q1 =

1 A(t t1 ) R1

and

q2 =

1 A(t t2 ) R2

These heat ows must be equal, or q = q1 = q2 Solving each equation for t:

At1 R1 + q t = A R1
equating:

and

At2 R2 + q t = A R2

R1q R2q t1 + = t2 A A
1 q = At + R R 1 2

t1

A t t 2 l1 l2

series heat ow

parallel heat ow

solving for heat ow:

Note that in series heat ow, the total thermal resistance is simply the sum of the individual resistance values.

Example: Series heat transmission

Calculate the overall thermal conductance (and resistance) of a wall assembly comprised of 200 mm solid concrete, 38 mm thick polystyrene insulation and 12.5 mm thick GWB. The basic equation for series heat ow is:

example continued
Since the heat ow through each element of the assembly is equal: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1/Ctotal
thermal properties 200 mm thick concrete 38 mm thick polystyrene insulation 12.5 thick gypsum wallboard totals: conductances (C) 6.6 W/m2C 0.763 W/m2C 12.5 W/m2C 0.649 W/m2C resistances (RSI) 0.15 m2C/W 1.31 m2C/W 0.08 m2C/W 1.54 m2C/W

1 1 A t = q = At R + R + R R 1 2 total 3

q
where: q = rate of heat ow (J/s or W) R = 1/C thermal resistance (C m2/W) A = cross-sectional area of ow path (m2) t = temperature dierence (C)

A t1 t2 l1 l2 l3

R or RSI of the assembly = 1.54 m2C/W Ctotal = 1/(1.54 m2C/W) = 0.649 W/m2C

(8.74 R-value in Imperial units)

Thermal resistance of air lms & cavities

Thin air lms on surfaces, as well as air pockets within cavities can contribute signicantly to the overall thermal resistance of a building assembly.

Air lms
The thin lm of air adjacent to any surface actually provides a resistance to heat ow, and to simplify calculations, we usually characterize this lm as possessing a sort of pseudo thermal conductance. The thermal conductance value is dicult to predict in real building situations, but depends on several factors: slope of surface direction of heat ow whether air movement is by natural means or is forced emissivity of surface

The heat transfer mechanisms are quite complicated to analyze, involving a combination of conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer.

Air lms
The following thermal conductance (C or U) values have been determined for various surface congurations:
conguration horizontal surface heat ow up 45 surface heat ow up vertical surface heat ow horizontal 45 surface heat ow down horizontal surface heat ow down still air 9.3 9.1 8.3 7.5 6.1 moving air (12 km/hr) 23 23 23 23 23 moving air (24 km/hr) 34 34 34 34 34

Air cavities or spaces

Air trapped within a cavity can also provide quite a signicant thermal resistance, which is also dependent on: slope of surfaces direction of heat ow emissivity of surfaces size of cavity

Air cavities or spaces

The following average thermal conductance (C or U) values have been measured for various air space congurations:
conguration horizontal position heat ow up 45 position heat ow up vertical position horizontal heat ow 45 position heat ow down horizontal position heat ow down 19 mm airspace 6.8 6.3 5.8 5.7 5.5 92 mm airspace 6.3 6.1 5.8 5.3 4.6

Multiple glazed assemblies

Multiple glazed assemblies are the most common examples in buildings where air lms and air cavities provide a signicant role in improving the thermal resistance of the enclosure.

Thermal Gradients though Assemblies

When an assembly is subject to conductive heat ow, the distribution of temperatures throughout its various elements is knows as a thermal gradient.

Example: Thermal Gradients through Assembly

Assuming the following conditions: in winter, an interior temperature of 20C and an exterior temperature of -10C (with 12 km/hr wind), and in summer, the same interior temperature, but an exterior temperature of 30C with the same wind, calculate and plot the thermal gradient through the insulated cavity of the following wood frame wall assembly: 12.7 mm gypsum wallboard, painted 6 mil polyethylene air/vapour barrier 140mm wood studs @ 400mm o/c with breglass batt insulation 15.9 mm plywood sheathing 60 minute building paper 19 mm stucco with 2 mm acrylic nish

Summer & winter thermal gradients

30C

Impact of insulation on thermal gradients

20C

10C

0C

-10C

Impact of insulation on thermal gradients

Impact of insulation on thermal gradients

Impact of insulation on thermal gradients

Impact of insulation on thermal gradients

Heat Flow in Parallel

When materials are in parallel, note that the temperature dierence across each component is the same, and the total heat ow is the sum of the individual heat ows through each component, therefore the thermal conductances times their respective areas are additive:

Thermal Bridging of Wood Studs

1 q = CAt = At R
q = q1 + q2 A1 A2 q = ( C1A1 + C2 A2 )t = + t R1 R2

q1 q2 t1

A1 A2 l t2
0 40 m

The text and images used in this presentation have been obtained from a number of di erent sources. This information has been assembled speci cally for the delivery of the course CIVL 478 Building Science & the Building Enclosure, and forms an integral part of the course material which is required for examination. The presentation is intended for educational purposes only, to be used solely by students enrolled in the course. It is not to be distributed electronically or in hard copy format to any other party. Greg Johnson

1000 mm