Why control liquid water movement in the building enclosure?

to ensure water does not enter the interior of the building, creating discomfort for the occupants one of the basic requirements of shelter to ensure water does not inltrate into the building enclosure assembly itself, resulting in: dierential movement of the assembly elements due to moisture absorption deterioration of its components, primarily through the corrosion of metals, bio-deterioration of organic materials and altering of materials physical properties

Liquid Water Issues

Canadian mean annual total precipitation

Impact of moisture on materials

Rust & corrosion

Mold & fungus growth

Moisture & materials

Absorption Absorption is a process in which a uid the absorbate permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid the absorbent. It often involves the lling of pores in a solid. Adsorption Adsorption is the adhesion or binding of atoms, ions, or molecules from a uid on to a surface. This process creates a lm of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent. Note that adsorption is a surface process or phenomenon, while absorption involves the whole volume of the material. The term sorption encompasses both processes, while desorption is the reverse of adsorption.

Water penetration & freeze-thaw problems

Material moisture content

Most materials will absorb moisture if they are exposed to liquid water for an extended period of time.

Material moisture content

The moisture content of a material is dened as the weight of water it contains, divided by the dry weight of the material, often expressed as a percentage: MC = weight of water dry weight

Knowing the MC, the weight of water can be calculated by: weight of water = MC x dry weight

Note that MC can be greater than 100%.

Moisture content versus relative humidity

Dimensional change of materials due to moisture

The dimensional change of a material due to a change in its moisture content can be represented by:

MC L = L MCw
where:

A materials moisture content can increase not only by being immersed in water, but also by being simply exposed to a humid environment.

L = dimensional change (m) = coecient of linear expansion due to moisture (unitless) L = length of the material (m) MC = change in moisture content of material (%) MCw = total moisture content range of material over which dimensional change occurs (%)

Moisture expansion coecients

Coecients of expansion due to moisture for common construction materials:
material marble limestone clay & shale bricks brick expansion after ring sandstone lime mortar Portland cement lightweight concrete dense concrete dense concrete block mortar, initial shrinkage reinforced polyester roong felts (along length) roong felts (across width) plywood & processed wood wood (parallel to grain) wood (across grain) dimensional change (%) less than 0.001 up to 0.01 0.007 0.02 - 0.03 0.07 up to 0.02 0.03 up to 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.1 less than 0.001 0.2 1.5 0.25 - 0.50 0.1 5.0 moisture content range (%)

Wood shrinkage

Masonry materials:

0 - 8 (saturation level) 0 - 8 (saturation level) 0 - 20 (dry to saturated) 0 - 20 (dry to saturated) 0 - 20 (saturation level) 0 - 20 (saturation level) 0 - 20 (saturation level) 0 - 20 0 - 30 0 - 30 0 - 28 (saturation level) 0 - 28 (saturation level) 0 - 28 (saturation level)

Cementitious materials:

Roong materials: Wood:

Wood has unique properties when exposed to moisture, primarily due to its cellular structure

Example: Wood expansion due to moisture gain

Calculate the dimensional changes in a piece of wood with initial dimensions of 0.5 m x 0.5 m x 0.5 m when its moisture content increases from 15% to 35%. Wood typically expands linearly from 0% to about 28% moisture content, above which its bres are saturated and it shows little dimensional change. The coecients () are as follows: parallel to the grain: 0.1% = 0.001 across the grain: 5.0% = 0.05 The equation for the dimensional change due to moisture is:

example continued
a) Parallel to the grain: Dimensional change only takes place from 15% to 28% MC, and the equation becomes: 28% 15% L = (0.001)(0.5m ) = (0.0005 m)(0.46) = 0.00023 m 28% = 0.23 mm b) Similarly, for across the grain:

across grain (tangential)

28% 15% L = (0.05)(0.5m ) 28%

parallel to grain

= (0.025 m)(0.46) = 0.0115 m = 11.6 mm

MC L = L MCw

across grain (radial)

example continued
c) Calculate the weight of water in the same piece of wood before and after, if its dry density is 420 kg/m3. Since moisture content is measured as a percentage of dry weight: At 15% MC, weight of water = 15% x (420 kg/m3) (0.5 m)3 = 7.88 kg At 35% MC, weight of water = 35% x (420 kg/m3) (0.5 m)3 = 18.38 kg

Example: Wood shrinkage due to moisture loss

What is the anticipated shrinkage between each oor level of a wood frame building having the following dimensions, if the wood is initially installed wet with a moisture content of 30%, and after one year its moisture content has stabilized at 12% ?
2,762 mm 2,343 mm 286 mm

Floor-to-oor dimension is 2,762 mm, comprised of:

element plywood oor sheathing 38x286 oor joists 2x38x140 top plates 38 x 140 stud 38x140 bottom plate dimension 19mm 286mm 76mm 2,343mm 38mm 2,762mm

Example: Wood shrinkage due to moisture loss

What is the anticipated shrinkage between each oor level of a wood frame building having the following dimensions, if the wood is initially installed wet with a moisture content of 30%, and after one year its moisture content has stabilized at 12% ?
2,762 mm 286 mm

example continued
Values of : parallel to the grain: 0.1% = 0.001 across the grain: 5.0% = 0.05

Floor-to-oor dimension is 2,762 mm, comprised of:

element plywood oor sheathing 38x286 oor joists 2x38x140 top plates 38 x 140 stud 38x140 bottom plate 2,343 mm 2,343 mm 38 mm 400 mm 19 mm 286 mm 76 mm parallel to grain across grain no contribution 19 mm

2,343 mm

a) Shrinkage parallel to the grain: Shrinkage only takes place from 28% MC down to 12% MC, and the equation becomes: 28% 12% (~10% of total L = (0.001)(2,343mm ) = 1.34mm 28% shrinkage) b) Similarly, shrinkage across the grain: 28% 12% L = (0.05)(400mm ) = 11.4mm 28%

(~90% of total shrinkage)

Therefore total shrinkage is 1.34 mm + 11.4 mm = 12.8 mm (Note that shrinkage is concentrated near the oor assembly)

concentration of the shrinkage near the oor assemblies

Managing water vertical surfaces

Approaches to managing water on vertical surfaces

1) mass or storage approach (e.g. traditional heavy masonry) The water which is not shed from the surface is absorbed and released slowly.

Approaches to managing water on vertical surfaces

1) mass or storage approach (e.g. traditional heavy masonry) The water which is not shed from the surface is absorbed and released slowly. This approach relies on the absorptive ability of the elements in the assembly to resist water penetration.

Approaches to managing water on vertical surfaces

2) single element approach (e.g. face-sealed walls, tent structures)

Approaches to managing water on vertical surfaces

2) single element approach (e.g. face-sealed walls, tent structures) All the water is shed by the outermost cladding material.

Approaches to managing water on vertical surfaces

2) single element approach (e.g. face-sealed walls, tent structures) All the water is shed by the outermost cladding material. This approach relies on the complete continuity of the outermost layer of the assembly to resist any water penetration.

Approaches to managing water on vertical surfaces

3) multiple element approach (e.g. cavity walls, concealed barrier walls, drainage cavities, rainscreens, pressure-equalized rainscreens) Minor amounts of water which may penetrate the outermost cladding layers are intercepted by a secondary line of defence.

Approaches to managing water on vertical surfaces

3) multiple element approach (e.g. cavity walls, concealed barrier walls, drainage cavities, rainscreens, pressure-equalized rainscreens) Minor amounts of water which may penetrate the outermost cladding layers are intercepted by a secondary line of defence. This approach relies on multiple layers within the assembly to resist water penetration.

Approaches to managing water on vertical surfaces

3) multiple element approach (e.g. cavity walls, concealed barrier walls, drainage cavities, rainscreens, pressure-equalized rainscreens) Minor amounts of water which may penetrate the outermost cladding layers are intercepted by a secondary line of defence. This approach relies on multiple layers within the assembly to resist water penetration.

Water ingress
For water to penetrate the exterior cladding of a building enclosure, all three of the following conditions are required: 1) Water must be present on the outermost surface. 2) There must be an in ltration path. 3) There must be a driving force. Traditionally, enclosure design has focussed on the rst two of these requirements, i.e. minimizing the inltration paths (holes) through the envelope, and deecting water away from surfaces to protect critical elements of the assemblies. Only fairly recently has the importance of the third condition been recognized, i.e. the driving force.

Forces producing water entry

kinetic energy (momentum) gravity surface tension capillarity (capillary attraction) air pressure dierences

Forces producing water entry

Lets look at the impact of each of these forces on the cladding layer of a wall system

Kinetic energy (momentum)

Rain falling at an angle carries water behind the cladding due to its momentum most relevant for openings > 5 mm incorrect correct

exterior

interior

controlled by baing (joint covers), shingling, or creating a dam/labyrinth

Kinetic energy (momentum)

Gravity
The force of gravity pulls any water behind the cladding if angles of opening are incorrect most relevant for openings > 0.5 mm incorrect correct

controlled by avoiding inward sloping surfaces or properly lapping/shingling components

Gravity

Surface tension
Water adheres to the underside of the surface and is drawn behind the cladding at any opening incorrect correct

controlled by maintaining an outward slope, or adding a break in the surface such as a drip/kerf/groove

Surface tension

Capillarity (capillary attraction)

Water pulled behind cladding through narrow gap most relevant for openings < 0.5 mm incorrect correct

controlled by creating a gap larger than a drop of water can bridge (capillary gap)

Air pressure dierences

Dierences in air pressure push water behind cladding system for openings of between 0.5 mm < 5 mm incorrect correct

Air pressure dierences

The primary method for minimizing the air pressure dierence across the exterior cladding of an assembly is to ensure that there is an airtight backup element which will assume the greatest portion of the pressure dierence across the total assembly.
exterior interior

controlled by equalizing air pressures from one side of the cladding to the other

air-permeable exterior cladding (rainscreen)

pressure-equalized cavity

air-tight backup element

Air pressure dierences

This concept is referred to as pressure-equalization. Because of the openness of the cladding and the presence of a drainage cavity, the system is often referred to as a drain-screen, open-cladding assembly, or a pressure-equalized rainscreen assembly.
exterior interior

Pressure-equalized wood frame wall

pressure-equalized cavity

air-tight backup element

air-permeable exterior cladding (rainscreen)

pressure-equalized cavity

air-tight backup element

air-permeable exterior cladding

Pressure-equalized stucco-clad wall

Pressure-equalized masonry veneer wall

air-permeable exterior cladding

air-tight backup element

air-permeable exterior cladding pressure-equalized cavity

pressure-equalized cavity

air-tight backup element

Open joint cladding

The popularity of open joint cladding systems in recent years is because of its potential to operate as a pressure-equalized system.

Joint design
An alternate way to think of pressure-equalization is to consider each potential opening in a building envelope as a two-stage joint: the outer seal should be loose sometimes referred to as a bae, the inner seal should be tight which provides the primary air seal.

pressure-equalized cavity

1 outer seal (bae) 2 inner seal (air-seal)

air-permeable exterior cladding

air-tight backup element

3 pressure-equalized cavity
1-stage joint 2-stage joint

Joint design
Rather than rely on the sealant to determine which of the two seals is tighter, usually the geometry of the joint can be modied to ensure that the inner seal becomes the air seal, as shown in the following examples:

Car Door Design

1-stage joint

2-stage joint

Car Door Design

Car Door Design

Car Door Design

Car Door Design

seal 1 outer (bae)

seal 2 inner (air-seal)

3 pressure-equalized cavity
Window sealing Window sealing

traditional double-hung wood window

Window sealing

Curtain wall assemblies

seal 1 outer (baffle)

seal 2 inner (air-seal)

3 pressure-equalized cavity

Curtain wall assemblies

Curtain wall mullion components

Curtain wall mullion components

Curtain wall mullion components

Curtain wall mullion components

Curtain wall mullion components

Curtain wall mullion components

Curtain wall mullion components

Curtain wall mullion components

Pressure-equalized rainscreens
A nal element which improves performance of a pressure-equalized rainscreen is the addition of baes. Baes compartmentalize the air cavity, minimizing air movement within the cavity, and ensuring that local pressure equalization occurs with the outside air.
baes

1 outer seal (bae)

3 pressure-equalized cavity 2 inner seal (air-seal)

Baes are usually required in both horizontal and vertical directions.

Requirements of the moisture barrier in walls

It must have an ability to resist water. In a face-sealed assembly, the moisture barrier must be located at the outermost face of the assembly and forms the cladding. In an open-cladding or rainscreen assembly, although the outermost cladding sheds much of the water, it is the second line of defence which is usually considered the primary moisture barrier. It must be either continuous, or applied in a manner which baes the entry of water (shingled or lapped). Unless it is located on the warm side of the insulation, it should have a high vapour permeability to prevent it trapping moisture (often it is intentionally punctured with holes).

Materials typically used as water (moisture) barriers include:

Building paper installed in shingled horizontal strips available as 30 minute or 60 minute weights usually punctured with pin holes to ensure moisture is not trapped sometimes put on in 2 layers to improve eect of shingling

Materials typically used as water (moisture) barriers include:

Spunbonded polyolen (Tyvec) installed in large sheets, which require taping at joints available in residential or commercial weights must be installed carefully around openings to ensure water is shed properly usually also acts as primary air barrier in the assembly must minimize exposure to UV and weather, contact with cementitious products and wood resins

Materials typically used as water (moisture) barriers include:

Self-adhesive membrane (blueskin, peel & stick, etc.) installed from large rolls joints are easily sealed by lapping membrane must ensure continuity around openings to ensure water is shed properly usually also acts as vapour barrier and primary air barrier in the assembly nal installation must protect from UV and weather exposure

Drying of assemblies
It must be assumed that a minimum amount of moisture will penetrate building envelope assemblies, and provisions need to be designed in to permit drying.

Avoid trapping moisture have only a single plane of high moisture resistance. Allow the moisture to migrate to the interior or to the exterior.

exterior

interior

The text and images used in this presentation have been obtained from a number of di erent sources. This information has been assembled speci cally for the delivery of the course CIVL 478 Building Science & the Building Enclosure, and forms an integral part of the course material which is required for examination. The presentation is intended for educational purposes only, to be used solely by students enrolled in the course. It is not to be distributed electronically or in hard copy format to any other party. Greg Johnson