UM40

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals
UM40 Course
Copyright 2001 Nortel Networks, All Rights Reserved Printed in France NORTEL NETWORKS CONFIDENTIAL: The information contained in this document is the property of Nortel Networks. Except as specifically authorized in writing by Nortel Networks, the holder of this document shall keep the information contained herein confidential and shall protect same in whole or in part from disclosure and dissemination to third parties and use for evaluation, operation and maintenance purposes only. You may not reproduce, represent, or download through any means, the information contained herein in any way or in any form without prior written consent of Nortel Networks. The following are trademarks of Nortel Networks Corporation: *NORTEL NETWORKS, the NORTEL NETWORKS corporate logo, the NORTEL Globemark, HOW THE WORLD SHARES IDEAS, UNIFIED NETWORKS, BSC6000. GSM is a trademark of France Telecom. All other brand and product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Publication History
Version 01.01/EN Date March 2001 Preliminary Draft Comments
01.02/EN December 2001 Addition of Students Notes 02.01/EN January 2002 Revision and Update
"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN ii
January, 2002
UM40 Course
Introduction Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena Spread Spectrum Techniques W-CDMA Cellular Aspects Data Formatting over the Radio Interface Radio Link Components Antenna Engineering Fundamentals Glossary Exercise
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN iii
January, 2002
Volume Composition
No. 1 Title UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals - UM40 Reference UMT/TRD/CN/0012 Version/Edition 02.01/EN
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN iv
January, 2002
Course Presentation
This course provides students with the essential concepts and key elements needed to get an in-depth understanding of any activity related to RF engineering. This course should be the main starting point for any RF training path. Course Objectives
Upon completion of this course, you will be able to: discuss EM waves properties and mobile radio propagation conditions, detail spread spectrum aspects of W-CDMA, describe WCDMA cellular aspects, identify data formatting main stages, characterize radio link components and iBTS transmission chains elements, describe cellular antennas properties, characteristics and types.
Prerequisites
This course is intended for anyone working in fields having close connections with radio network planning, RF design and optimization, RF measurements or radio network implementation. Attending this course requires prior UMTS basic understanding. Attending the UM10 3-day course (UMTS System Description) is an efficient way to acquire such knowledge.
Scope
This course applies to the R99 UMTS specifications.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN v
January, 2002
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN vi
January, 2002
Table of Contents
COURSE NOTES CONTENTS PUBLICATION HISTORY UM40 COURSE VOLUME COMPOSITION COURSE PRESENTATION TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION CELLULAR NETWORK OVERVIEW 1- CELLULAR NETWORK 2- RADIO LINK 3- WIRELESS SYSTEM GLOBAL ARCHITECTURE OBJECTIVES CONTENTS UMTS RF ENGINEERING CURRICULUMS 2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND PROPAGATION PHENOMENA OBJECTIVES EM WAVES PROPERTIES 1- ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES BASICS 2- FREQUENCY - WAVELENGTH 3- POLARIZATION 4- RAYS - WAVE FRONTS ii iii iv v vii 1-1 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN vii
January, 2002
EM WAVES PROPAGATION MECHANISMS 1- FREE SPACE - FRESNEL ZONES 2- REFLECTION - REFRACTION 3- DIFFRACTION WIRELESS CHANNEL PROPERTIES 1- MULTIPATH 2- SLOW FADING 3- FAST FADING 4- DELAY SPREAD 5- DOPPLER SPREAD WIDEBAND/NARROWBAND CHANNELS 1- DELAY SPREAD - MULTIPATH RESOLVABILITY 2- COHERENCE BANDWIDTH - FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING PROPAGATION MODELS OVERVIEW 1- PATH LOSS 2- TYPICAL DECAY RATES 3- DUAL-SLOPE MODEL 4- USUAL MODELS OVERVIEW RF USUAL LOGARITHMIC UNITS 1- RELATIVE POWER UNIT - DB 2- DB ABSOLUTE UNITS 3- EXERCISE: PLAYING WITH DB UNITS 3. SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES OBJECTIVES NARROWBAND/BROADBAND WIRELESS SYSTEMS 1- TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS 2- SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEMS SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES OVERVIEW 1- PRINCIPLES 2- FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM PRINCIPLES 3- EXAMPLE OF FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM EFFECTS
2-7 2-7 2-10 2-12 2-13 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-17 2-18 2-18 2-19 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-24 2-24 2-25 2-26 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-3 3-5 3-7 3-7 3-9 3-10
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN viii
January, 2002
4- TIME FREQUENCY DUALITY 5- TIME HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM PRINCIPLES 6- DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM PRINCIPLES 7- COMPARISONS DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM BASICS 1- SPREADING FACTOR (SF) 2- PROCESSING GAIN 3- EXAMPLE DSSS EMISSION/RECEPTION SCHEME 1- OVERVIEW 2- CORRELATION DSSS AND THE RF CHANNEL 1- DSSS AND MULTIPATH 2- DSSS AND NARROWBAND DISTURBANCES 3- DSSS AND COVERAGE UMTS DSSS IMPLEMENTATION 1- MAIN PARAMETERS 2- VARIABLE COMMUNICATION RATES 3- OVSF CODE TREE GENERATOR 4. W-CDMA CELLULAR ASPECTS OBJECTIVES MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES 1- MA OVERVIEW 2- FDMA, TDMA, FDMA/TDMA 3- SPREAD SPECTRUM AND CDMA UMTS CDMA SCHEME 1- SCRAMBLING CODES 2- CODE MULTIPLEXING DUPLEX TECHNIQUES 1- OVERVIEW 2- UTRA TIME-FREQUENCY PLANE 3- UTRA FDD DUPLEX SCHEME 4- UTRA TDD DUPLEX SCHEME
3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-15 3-16 3-18 3-21 3-21 3-22 3-23 3-23 3-24 3-25 3-26 3-26 3-27 3-28 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11
January, 2002 ix
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN

DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES 1- OVERVIEW 2- DIVERSITY IN UMTS MAXIMAL RATIO COMBINING 1- OVERVIEW 2- SPACE DIVERSITY 3- POLARIZATION DIVERSITY 4- MULTIPATH DIVERSITY 5- RAKE RECEIVER BASICS MACRODIVERSITY 1- UPLINK AND DOWNLINK 2- HANDOVERS RADIO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 1- INTERFERENCE 2- DS-CDMA PROPERTIES 3- POWER CONTROL OVERVIEW 4- OUTER LOOP POWER CONTROL 5- INNER LOOP POWER CONTROL RF MEASUREMENTS 1- NEEDS 2- COMPRESSED MODE MEASUREMENTS PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT 1- HANDOVERS 2- SOFT HANDOVER - SYNCHRONIZATION 3- MULTI-USER DETECTION 4- SMART ANTENNAS 5. DATA FORMATTING OVER THE RADIO INTERFACE OBJECTIVES FROM DATA TO RF WAVES 1- OVERVIEW 2- DATA TYPES 4-12 4-12 4-13 4-14 4-14 4-15 4-17 4-18 4-19 4-20 4-20 4-21 4-22 4-22 4-23 4-24 4-25 4-27 4-29 4-29 4-30 4-31 4-31 4-32 4-33 4-34 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-3 5-4
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN x
January, 2002
SOURCE CODING 1- SPEECH CODING BASICS 2- ADAPTIVE MULTI-RATE CODER 3- RATE ADAPTATION CHANNEL CODING 1- ERROR DETECTION PRINCIPLES 2- ERROR CORRECTION PRINCIPLES 3- BUILT-IN TIME DIVERSITY 4- TIMING CONSTRAINTS MODULATION 1- DIGITAL MODULATION OVERVIEW 2- I/Q REPRESENTATION 3- QPSK 4- DL MODULATION BASICS 5- UL MODULATION BASICS 6- UL COMPLEX SCRAMBLING PRINCIPLES DEMODULATION PRINCIPLES 1- WIRELESS CHANNEL ESTIMATION 2- INFORMATION RECOVERY 3- DEMODULATOR FUNCTIONAL OVERVIEW 6. RADIO LINK COMPONENTS OBJECTIVES RADIO LINK COMPONENTS OVERVIEW TRANSMIT POWER 1- TRANSMIT POWER SPLIT & IBTS DENOMINATION RULES 2- OTSR CONFIGURATION 3- STSR CONFIGURATION 4- OTSR CONFIGURATION TABLE 5- STSR CONFIGURATION TABLE
5-5 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-8 5-9 5-10 5-11 5-12 5-12 5-13 5-14 5-15 5-16 5-17 5-18 5-18 5-19 5-20 6-1 6-2 6-3 6-3 6-4 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7 6-8
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN xi
January, 2002
RECEIVE SENSITIVITY 1- OVERVIEW 2- THERMAL NOISE POWER 3- NOISE FACTOR 4- SNR PER DIGITAL SAMPLE TRANSMISSION LOSSES 1- REFLECTION COEFFICIENT - VSWR 2- RETURN LOSS - TRANSMISSION LOSS INTERMODULATION 1- LINEAR DYNAMIC RANGE 2- INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS GENERATION 3- THIRD ORDER INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS 4- 2G/3G COLLOCATION ASPECTS
IBTS TRANSMISSION CHAIN
6-9 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-12 6-13 6-13 6-14 6-15 6-15 6-16 6-17 6-18 6-19 6-19 6-20 6-21 6-22 6-23 6-24 6-25 6-26 6-27 6-28 6-29 6-30 6-31 6-31 6-32 6-33 6-34
1- IBTS GENERIC ARCHITECTURE 2- INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE 3- TRANSMIT PATH 4- RECEIVE PATH 5- CORE CONTROLLER MODULE 6- CHANNEL ELEMENT MODULE 7- TRANSCEIVER MODULE 8- MULTI-CARRIER POWER AMPLIFIER 9- DUAL DUPLEXER MODULE 10- TX SPLITTER 11- TOWER MOUNTED AMPLIFIER 12- DIPLEXER - TRIPLEXER
E-MOBILITY MACRO IBTS
1- OUTDOOR VERSION 2- INDOOR VERSION 3- CONFIGURATION EXAMPLE: MAXIMAL STSR CONFIGURATION 4- EXERCISE: PLAYING WITH TYPICAL UPGRADE PATHS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN xii
January, 2002
7. ANTENNA ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS OBJECTIVES ANTENNA BASICS 1- ANTENNA FUNCTION 2- RADIATION PRINCIPLES 3- REFERENCE ANTENNAS ANTENNAS CHARACTERISTICS 1- RADIATION PATTERN 2- POWER GAIN 3- VSWR - BANDWIDTH 4- POLARIZATION ANTENNAS IN FREE SPACE 1- RADIATED POWER 2- FRIIS TRANSMISSION FORMULA 3- ISOLATION - DECOUPLING 4- VERTICAL DECOUPLING 5- HORIZONTAL DECOUPLING RADIATION PATTERN MODIFICATION 1- DOWNTILT OVERVIEW 2- MECHANICAL DOWNTILT 3- ELECTRICAL DOWNTILT 4- MECHANICAL DOWNTILT VS. ELECTRICAL DOWNTILT 5- EXAMPLES OF RADIATION PATTERN MODIFICATIONS 6- NULL FILL SMART ANTENNAS 1- OVERVIEW 2- MAIN TYPES 3- ARRAY ANTENNAS 3G CELLULAR ANTENNAS 1- NORTEL NETWORKS STRATEGY 2- SINGLE BAND UMTS
7-1 7-2 7-3 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-6 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 7-15 7-16 7-16 7-17 7-18 7-19 7-20 7-21 7-22 7-22 7-23 7-24 7-25 7-25 7-26
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN xiii
January, 2002
3- DUAL BAND GSM900-UMTS 4- DUAL BAND GSM1800-UMTS 5- TRIPLE BAND GSM900-GSM1800-UMTS 6- OTHER 3G ANTENNAS RADIATING CABLES 1- OVERVIEW 2- POINT SOURCE ANTENNAS VS. RADIATING CABLES 3- LEAKY FEEDERS CUSTOM ANTENNAS CAMOUFLAGE SOLUTIONS 8. GLOSSARY
7-27 7-28 7-29 7-30 7-31 7-31 7-32 7-33 7-34 7-34 8-1
9. EXERCISE EXERCISE 1- DDM TRANSMIT POWER 2- EIRP 3- DDM RECEIVE POWER 4- IM3 PRODUCTS 5- DDM TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS 6- FEEDER TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS 7- ANTENNA TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
9-1 9-2 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-5 9-7 9-9 9-11
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN xiv
January, 2002
Introduction
Section 1
Introduction
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Introduction
1-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
1-1
January, 2002
Introduction
Cellular Network Overview
1- Cellular Network
Cell
Sector
Base Transceiver Station

UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Introduction 1-2
In cellular networks the global service area is divided into multiple tiny sub-areas called cells, each of them being under the control of one Base Transceiver Station. Cells can be composed of several sectors, the above figure shows an example with 3 sectors per cell which is the most widely spread configuration (tri-sectorial cell). Other usual number of sectors per cell are 1 (omnidirectional cell), 2 (bi-sectorial cell) and 6 (sixsectorial cell). The BTS is a key element of wireless networks structure. Its the first element of the terrestrial network, it stands at the border between two worlds: fixity and mobility. The BTS is responsible for handling the radio links it shares with all the users belonging to its cell, mainly in terms of RF resource management and information signal conversion (between RF and digital). Any failure in one of these two essential tasks results in information corruption or call drop. This is the reason why cellular networks Quality of Service is highly dependent on the quality of the radio link.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
1-2
January, 2002
Introduction
2- Radio Link
Propagation Phenomena
User Equipment
Propagation Medium
Base Station
Digital Signals
Electromagnetic Waves
Digital Signals
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Introduction
1-3
There are many ways to describe the radio link established between the User Equipment (UE) and the Base Station (BS), many ways to describe the main problems to solve in order to keep it alive. From a RF perspective, one of the first question to answer is to know if the signal strength at the receiver is sufficient. One part of the problem is under control, the part dealing with equipment performance in terms of power and sensitivity. Another part of the problem is less controllable, the part dealing with RF waves propagation and propagation medium variability. On top of that, another important question is to know how to modify, protect and adapt the information signal so that it will be able to safely transit on the radio link. In other words, the problem is to efficiently convey digital signal over RF waves, and to recover meaningful digital data from distorted RF waves. These various aspects of the radio link are detailed in the following sections of the course.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
1-3
January, 2002
Introduction
3- Wireless System Global Architecture
Interference
Source
Transmitter
Transmission Medium
Receiver
Destination
Noise
Wireless Channel
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Introduction 1-4
From the Information Theory standpoint, all communication systems can be entirely described by one common global architecture. A source attempts to send some information signal to a destination via a transmission channel. In order to achieve this goal, some specific devices are needed at both ends of the channel to send and recover the information message. The above figure shows what such an architecture becomes when applied to wireless systems. Source: where the original signal is built, leading to the creation of the user (or BTS) bit stream. Transmitter: where the original signal is modified in such a way that it will be able to cross the transmission channel successfully. Wireless Channel: where the transmitted signal is corrupted by various types of disturbances, additive (noise, interference,) and multiplicative (gains, losses,). Receiver: where the transmitted signal is processed in order to obtain an estimate of the original signal. Destination: where the receive signal is used to re-build the information message sent by the source.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
1-4
January, 2002
Introduction
Objectives
Describe electromagnetic waves and mobile radio propagation environment properties Characterize spread spectrum and multiple access aspects of W-CDMA systems Explain how original data is coded and combined with radio waves Identify radio link components and detail their main characteristics Describe array techniques and antenna radiation properties
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Introduction
1-5
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
1-5
January, 2002
Introduction
Contents
EM Waves and Propagation Phenomena Spread Spectrum Techniques W-CDMA Data Formatting Radio Link Components Antenna Engineering Fundamentals
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Introduction
1-6
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
1-6
January, 2002
Introduction
UMTS RF Engineering Curriculums
Radio Site Design UM43 UM44 Radio Site Measurements UM45 UM46
Radio Network Planning UM41 UM42
RF Engineering UM40
Overview / Fundamentals Project / Practical
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Introduction
1-7
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
1-7
January, 2002
Introduction
Student notes
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
1-8
January, 2002
Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena
Section 2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-1
January, 2002

Objectives
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Waves Waves and and Propagation Propagation Phenomena Phenomena
At the end of this section you will be able to:

Describe the nature and properties of electromagnetic waves List wave characteristics Detail propagation phenomena Describe multipath effects Characterize fading types Name usual propagation model types
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-2
January, 2002

EM Waves Properties
1 - Electromagnetic Waves Basics
Monochromatic Plane Wave x E
Ux Uz
H y
Uy
Ft u x z = location on the z axis (in m) t = time (in s) E0 = amplitude F = frequency (in Hz) = wavelength (in m)
E = E0 cos 2
Wave Speed c = 3.108m/s
Wave Impedance Z0 = E/H = 120.
2-3
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Electromagnetic radiation consists of interacting, self-sustaining electric magnetic (H) fields that propagate through space.
(E) and
Electromagnetic radiation propagates nominally in straight line at the speed of light in a vacuum, and does not require any medium for transmission. Its main characteristics are: frequency / wavelength, magnitude (amplitude), polarization. E and H fields are operating synchronously in time, they are said to be in time phase: both reach their maxima and minima together and both go to zero together. E and H fields can be described by the same type of mathematical equation which gives the variation of the wave magnitude at any point z of the Z axis at any instant of time t. The speed of light in a vacuum is a fundamental constant, its value is 300 000 km/s. The ratio between E and H field amplitudes is also a constant for a given medium. This ratio is called the wave impedance. The reference value for a wave propagating in a vacuum is 120 (377 ).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-3
January, 2002

EM Waves Properties
2 - Frequency - Wavelength
=
F total cycles
c F =cT
GSM F=900 MHz =33 cm F=1800 MHz =16 cm UMTS F=1950 MHz =15 cm
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-4
Wavelength: the distance between corresponding points of two consecutive cycles of a wave. "Corresponding points" refers to two points having the same phase, or in other words points having completed identical fractions of their periodic motion. For transversal waves (waves oscillating at right angles to the direction of their motion), the wavelength is measured from crest to crest. Wavelength is usually denoted by the Greek letter lambda (). In free space, it is equal to the speed of light ( c ) divided by the frequency: = c/F In another medium, it is equal to the wave speed (v<c) in this particular medium divided by the frequency: = v/F. Frequency: the number of complete cycles per unit of time. T = 1/F is called the period of the signal. The frequency of radio waves determines many of their propagation characteristics: Objects bigger than the wavelength can reflect or obstruct RF energy, RF energy can penetrate into openings larger than the wavelength, Free space attenuation is greater at higher frequencies.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-4
January, 2002

EM Waves Properties
3 - Polarization
Circular
wave motion
Linear E
wave motion
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-5
The Polarization of an electromagnetic wave is the property that describes the orientation, i.e. time-varying direction and amplitude, of the electric field vector. States of polarization are described by figures traced as a function of time. At any time, the figure is given by the projection of the extremity of the electric vector onto a fixed plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In general, the figure (or polarization) is elliptical. If both axes of the ellipse are equal, the polarization is said to be circular. If the minor axis of the ellipse is zero, the polarization is said to be linear.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-5
January, 2002

EM Waves Properties
4 - Rays - Wave Fronts
Spherical
Plane
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena 2-6
Radio Frequency waves propagate in three dimensions. For waves radiated by a point source in an isotropic and homogeneous medium (the wave speed is the same in any direction), points located at equal distance from the source were originally transmitted at the same instant of time. Therefore their phase is constant over the spherical surfaces drawn with this point source as the center. These surfaces of constant phase are called wave fronts. Wave front types are identified according to planar for example. their shape, spherical, cylindrical or
Note that far away from the source, a spherical (or cylindrical) wave surface can be considered as being plane (used to simplify equations). Rays can be defined as the curves that are perpendicular to all the wavefronts. They represent the privileged direction for RF energy radiation. In an isotropic and homogeneous medium these curves are straight lines.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-6
January, 2002

EM Waves Propagation Mechanisms
1 - Free Space - Fresnel Zones (1/3)
Side View Reception Point Antenna
energy spreading
Antenna Reception Point
Top View
The propagation of RF waves is determined primarily by the medium of transmission. In free space RF waves travel in straight line. Theoretically, free space propagation only applies when RF waves are not influenced by any kind of reflecting or absorbing object, including the earth. In this case, there is only one signal path between the transmitter and the receiver, and this path is not obstructed. In the absence of any reflection or multipath, radio wave propagation only suffers from energy spreading due to the geometrical expansion of the original wavefronts. Since the total energy of a signal can neither grow nor shrink, the signal becomes a larger but weaker version of itself. The attenuation of the signal due to spreading loss accounts for free space signal decay.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-7
January, 2002

Fresnel Zones
P
direct path k=1 k=2 k=3 k=4
TR ( k 1 ) + TR 2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002
TP + PR +k 2
2-8
Fresnel Zones are ellipsoid volumes immediately surrounding the direct path that exists between the Emitter and the Receiver. Fresnel zones varie in thickness (minor axis of the ellipsoids) depending on the EmitterReceiver distance and on the frequency of the signal. Within the signal span, there are zones where the deflected signals are either in phase with the direct path signal or out of phase with the direct path signal. The first Fresnel Zone surrounds the direct path where the RF signal is the strongest. In this zone and in all the odd numbered Fresnel zones, deflected signals are globally in phase with the direct path signal. In the second Fresnel Zone, and all even-numbered Fresnel zones, RF signals are in phase opposition with the First Fresnel zone signals. T = Transmitter P = Point delimiting Fresnel zones border R = Receiver k = integer (characterizes the Fresnel zones) = wavelength.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-8
January, 2002

Fresnel Zone Clearance
r
E R
1 ER 2
d06r
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-9
The first Fresnel zone (white ellipse in the above figure) can be considered as containing the entire propagated energy of the wave. Contributions within the first zone are all in phase, so any absorbing obstructions which do not enter this zone will have little effect on the received signal. The first Fresnel zone clearance ensures maximal power transmission, with transmission properties similar to free-space propagation. If diffraction is taken into account, a less restrictive condition on the first Fresnel zone clearance can be derived. In the above figure, the shaded region can be considered as a forbidden region; if this region is kept clear then the total path attenuation will be the same as in an unobstructed case.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-9
January, 2002

2 - Reflection - Refraction (1/2)
Medium 1 Medium 2
Specular Reflection Diffuse Reflection - Scattering scattered energy
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-10
When an electromagnetic wave is incident upon a surface separating two media, it is partly reflected (thrown back into the original medium) and partly refracted (transmitted to the other medium). A reflection is an abrupt change in the direction of propagation of a wave that strikes the boundary between different media. A refraction is the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another caused by its change in speed. Specular reflection occurs at plane or regular boundaries. Reflection at rough or irregular boundaries is diffuse; scattering results in a disordered or random change in the incident energy distribution. Scattering is a phenomenon in which the direction or polarization of the wave is changed when the wave encounters discontinuities in the medium, or interacts with the material at a very small level.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-10
January, 2002

2 - Reflection - Refraction (2/2)
Specular Reflection
Diffuse Reflection - Scattering

Whatever the location of the Mobile Station, the coverage must be good. In front of an obstacle, the received energy is the sum of the direct wave and the reflected wave. Behind an obstacle, the received energy is only the refracted one, which is much weaker.
Even if trees or forests may appear as soft objects, they are very greedy in energy and they absorb a lot of energy, whatever the transmitted frequency. The location of forests must be considered as one of the main constraint to take into account for radio planning.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-11
January, 2002

3 - Diffraction
20 log(F) 0 Shadowed Region -6
F 1.0 Illuminated Region 0.5
-20 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
0.1 01 2 3 4 5 6 Height
2-12
The diffraction phenomenon is a modification which waves undergo in passing by the edges of opaque obstacles or through narrow slits or in being reflected from ruled surfaces and in which the rays appear to be deflected. Usually waves travel in a straight line through a uniform medium, but those waves that just pass the edges of the opaque body are bent, or deflected. This diffraction produces a fuzzy border region between the shadowed area and the illuminated area. The above diagram shows the variation of the diffraction coefficient F according to the relative height of the diffracting obstacle. Wave strength can be modified according three ways by the diffraction phenomenon: it can be attenuated, it can be increased, it can be exactly the power send by the transmitter.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-12
January, 2002

Wireless Channel Properties
1 - Multipath
Direct path
Reflection
Diffraction
Refraction
LOS
NLOS
LOS = Line Of Sight
MULTIPATH PROPAGATION CHANNEL
NLOS = Non Line Of Sight
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-13
Multipath occurs when parts of the radio wave travel along many different propagation paths from the transmitter to the receiver. According to the size and type of obstacles radio waves find on their way: some of them are reflected, some of them are absorbed, some of them are diffracted, some of them are refracted. The received signal is composed of the contribution of all these signals with: variable strength levels, different phases resulting in more or less significant fades, delay spread due to multipath and creating inter-symbol interference, Doppler frequency shift due to the mobility of the receiver.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-13
January, 2002

2 - Slow Fading
Shadowing
user travel
mean loss
distance
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-14
Shadowing is due to large scale obstacles between the transmitter and the receiver, and in their immediate surroundings. When an obstruction of the direct path occurs, less power is received on the UE. When a reflection occurs, more power can be received on the UE. These obstructions and reflections cause variations in the received signal. These kind of fades are modeled with a log-normal distribution. For example, in urban areas the usual standard deviation is between 6 dB and 8 dB.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-14
January, 2002

3 - Fast Fading
NLOS LOS
/2: 510 cm 10-15 dB
distance
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-15
Fast fading is a result of the multipath environment in which signals propagate. The composite received signal is the sum of signals arriving along different paths. Each contributing signal has its own phase and amplitude. At some points, the arriving signals combine constructively so that the aggregate signal amplitude is increased. At other points, they combine destructively so that the aggregate signal is attenuated or faded. Fast fading occurs over very short distances, the mean distance between two consecutive fades being half a wavelength. When the Mobile is in LOS (Line Of Sight), the direct signal combines with the reflected and refracted ones. But as the direct signal is the dominant one, the fading due to the reflected and refracted signals is less critical than in NLOS. When the Mobile is in NLOS (Non Line Of Sight), the direct signal is not received and only the reflected and refracted signals combine.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-15
January, 2002

4 - Delay Spread
Stationary User
relative power
Power Delay Profile
delay
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-16
The RF signal follows different paths because of multipath reflection. Each path has a different path length, so the time of arrival and magnitude is different for each signal reaching the reception antenna. The properties of the wireless channel impulse response can be described through the power delay profile, a plot giving the mean relative power of each signal arrival, contributing to the received signal on the reception antenna. The extent and shape of the power delay profile is characteristic of the wireless channel. Some particular examples of macrocell power delay profiles (Rural Area, Typical Urban, Hilly Terrain) have been adopted by the GSM system as standard test cases for assessing the performance of the equipment.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-16
January, 2002

5 - Doppler Spread
Moving User
relative power
Doppler Spectrum
FMAX = (F.v)/c
frequency
F-F1
F-F2
F+F3 F+F4
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-17
For a moving mobile, the Doppler effect results in a change of the apparent frequency of the waves, as observed by the mobile, by a factor proportional to the component of the mobile speed in direction of the incoming wave. More precisely, the apparent change in frequency, the Doppler shift F, is given by the rate at which the mobile crosses wavefronts of the arriving signal.
When multipath propagation occurs, several waves arrive with different directions on the reception antenna. Each wave has its own associated Doppler shift. The bandwidth of the global received signal is therefore spread, compared to its original transmitted bandwidth. This is the Doppler Spread phenomenon, the exact shape of the resulting spectrum depending on the relative amplitudes and directions of the incoming waves.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-17
January, 2002

Wideband/Narrowband Channels
1 - Delay Spread - Multipath Resolvability
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -5
Rural Area
One symbol = 3.7 s
Hilly Terrain
0
One symbol = 3.7 s

-5 -10
RMS
= 0.1 s
-15 -20 -25 -5
RMS
= 5.1 s
10
15
20
10
15
20
Delay [s]
Delay [s]
RMS Delay Spread Symbol Duration GSM: 3.7 s UMTS: 0.26 s t RMS = P =
T i
1 P P
i
2 Ti
P i ti t M
tM = 1 P
P ti
Ti
open area: 0.2 s urban: 1-3 s hilly area: 3-10 s
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002 Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena
2-18
Because multiple reflections of the transmitted signal may arrive at the receiver at different times, this can result in inter-symbol interference (or bits "crashing" into one another) which the receiver cannot sort out. This time dispersion of the channel is called multipath delay spread. It is an important parameter to access the performance capabilities of wireless systems. A common measure of multipath delay spread is done with the Root Mean Square (RMS) delay spread method. For a reliable communication without using adaptive equalization or other antimultipath techniques, the transmitted data rate should be much smaller than the inverse of the RMS delay spread (called coherence bandwidth). When the transmitted data rate is much smaller than the coherent bandwidth, the wireless channel is referred to as the flat channel or narrowband channel. When the transmitted data rate is closely equal to or larger than the coherent bandwidth, such a channel is called the frequency-selective channel or wideband channel. In the above example: In the Rural Area case, the delay spread is small compared to the GSM symbol duration, so the rural area model is essentially narrowband, the Hilly Terrain channel is a very demanding one, with delay spread occuring over 4 or 5 symbols.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-18
January, 2002

Wideband/Narrowband Channels
2- Coherence Bandwidth - Frequency Selective Fading
Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence Bandwidth BC 1 2 t RMS
FC
frequency frequency selective fade
open area: 1.5 MHz urban: 100-300 kHz hilly area: 25-75 kHz Coherence Bandwidth
Transmission Bandwidth GSM: 200 kHz UMTS: 5 MHz Transmission Bandwidth

The coherence bandwidth is the frequency range around the carrier Fc frequency selective interference occurs.
into which
According to the transmission bandwidth used, the part of the interfered signal can be more or less important in relation to the part of the useful signal. If the interfered part is almost as wide as the transmission bandwidth, the quality of the transmitted signal can be very bad. If the interfered part is much smaller than the transmission bandwidth, the quality of the transmitted signal remains good.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-19
January, 2002

Propagation Models Overview
1 - Path Loss
PBS PUE
Downlink Path Loss = Transmit PBS
- Receive PUE
Uplink Path Loss = Transmit PUE - Receive PBS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-20
In wireless systems, the air interface is the most uncontrollable and unpredictable stage. Between the base station and the mobile, radio waves propagate in a random open area and are affected by several phenomena such as attenuation, diffraction, shadowing... Understanding propagation mechanisms and models helps the radio engineers to properly define the location and characteristics of the BTS sites. One of the main concerns consists in computing the path loss (loss due to the propagation medium on a given path) between the BTS and the mobile, using the characteristics of the transmitters and the receivers.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-20
January, 2002

2 - Typical Decay Rates
Macrocell LOS
-50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -100 -110 -120
10 100 E/R Distance (log scale)

1000
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-21
One of the easiest ways to account for the influence of the various propagation phenomena influence on the final path loss value is to use an empirical model. To build such a model, extensive path loss measurements are needed, and then an appropriate function is fitted to the measurements. The simplest useful form of empirical models only uses a simple power law path loss. The question is then to determine what is the power exponent to be used.
The above abacus gives the typical propagation losses according to the distance from the transmitter when the receiver is in the Line of Sight. Thus, in usual RF environments, the received signal on the Mobile is inversely proportional to the distance between the transmitter and the receiver raised to the power 3 or 4.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-21
January, 2002

3 - Dual-Slope Model
Microcell LOS
R-
D 6H/
H R
distance
Break Point
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-22
In order to simulate the path loss in microcells, empirical models as described in the previous page can be used. However, measurements indicate that a simple power law path loss model usually cannot fit the measurements with a good accuracy. Two separate path loss exponents are used to characterize the propagation, together with a breakpoint distance of a few hundred meters between them, where propagation changes from one regime to the other. Typical values for these path loss exponents were found to be around =2 and =4.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-22
January, 2002

4 - Usual Models Overview
Average Path Loss Models empirical models, physical models, statistical environment characterization: loss equation coefficients. Okumura Hata Walfisch-Ikegami
Shadowing Models fade statistical distribution, statistical environment characterization: statistical law parameters. log-Normal
Fast Fading Models fade statistical distribution, statistical environment characterization: statistical law parameters. Rayleigh Rice Nakagami
2-23
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Here are some examples of commonly used propagation models: Okumura, Hata are empirical models based on numerous measurements done at different frequencies in the suburbs of Tokyo, they are mainly dedicated to macrocells, Walfisch-Ikegami is a physical model mainly used for small cells, Log-Normal model is used to simulate slow fading phenomena, Rayleigh, Rice and Nagakami models, which are also based on statistical laws, are used to simulate fast fading.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-23
January, 2002

RF Usual Logarithmic Units
1 - Relative Power Unit - dB
dB Definition linear: P2 / P1 Bel: log(P2 / P1) deciBel dB: 10.log(P2 / P1)
dB Main Properties dB is dimensionless dB is positive for gains (P2 > P1) and negative for losses (P2 < P1) dB gains/losses are additive dB is co nven iading ent to express Models variations on a large scale dB leads to absolute units definitions when a reference power is taken dB extends to power-related quantities (voltage, E field, antenna gain...)
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-24
Decibel (dB): one tenth of the common logarithm of the ratio of relative powers, equal to 0.1 B (Bel). The decibel is used to quantify a relative power ratio, rather than the Bel, because it is smaller and therefore more convenient. The dB is used rather than arithmetic ratios or percentages because when radio links are built with several elements, expressions of power level, in dB, may be arithmetically added and subtracted. Rules of thumb: a power ratio of 2 is 3 dB, a power ratio of 1/2 is -3 dB, dB power gains can be added (and subtracted) to get the overall gain, 10 dB is a power increase of 10 times (1 Watt in, 10 W out), -10 dB is a power decrease of 10 times (1 W in, 0.1 W out), -100 dB is a power decrease of 10 billion times (10-10).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-24
January, 2002

2 - dB Absolute Units
Power dBW: PdBW = 10.log(PW / 1W) = 10.log(PW) -3 dBm: PdBm = 10.log(PW / 10 W) = 10.log(PW) + 30dB = PdBW + 30 dB
dBV: VdBV = 20.log(VV / 10-6V) Conversion: VdBV = PdBm + 107 dB on a 50 impedance Voltage dBV/m: EdBV/m = 20.log(EV/m / 10-6V/m) Conversion: EdBV/m = PdBm + 20.log(F) + 77.2 dB isotropic radiation loss-free transmission line E-field Strength
F expressed in MHz
2-25
A reference value must be specified to build an absolute unit based on the dB definition. dB units are not only power units, any quantity related to power can be expressed using dB units. Below are listed some examples. dBm: dB referenced to one milliwatt. dBm is a power unit. Zero dBm equals one milliwatt. dB V: dB referenced to one microvolt. dB V is a voltage unit. dB V/m: dB referenced to one microvolt per meter. dB V/m is a field strength unit. Note The expression relating P and E takes into account the antenna gain, the cable losses and impedance and the receiver impedance. This relation is basically used for handset mobile receivers.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-25
January, 2002

3- Exercise: Playing with dB Units
dBi dBm dBc dB UE Output Power is 1 W UE Output Power is dBW? dBd UE Output Power is dBm?
dBW
On a 50 impedance: VdBV = PdBm + 107 dB Proof?
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
2-26
dB:
decibel
dBc: dB relative to carrier power dBd: dB relative to halfwave dipole gain dBi: dB relative to isotropic radiator gain dBm: dB referenced to 1 milliWatt dBW: dB referenced to 1 Watt dBV: dB referenced to 1 microVolt
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
2-26
January, 2002
Spread Spectrum Techniques
Section 3
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-1
January, 2002

Objectives
Spread Spread Spectrum Spectrum Techniques Techniques

Describe Spread Spectrum principles and types Detail Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum approach Characterize DSSS benefits over propagation disturbances Characterize DSSS influence on RF coverage Describe the way DSSS is implemented in UMTS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-2
January, 2002

Narrowband/Broadband Wireless Systems
1 - Traditional Systems (1/2)
Transmitted Signals Power Spectrum
wanted signal
noise
Fc
adjacent channel signal
adjacent channel signal
Fc-1
TX Unit co-channel signal
Fc+1
RX Unit
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-3
An example of a traditional system is GSM: it is a narrowband (NB) system. GSM means Global System for Mobile Communications. It is one of the leading digital cellular systems. Description of the spectrum To get some chance to be properly received, the transmitted signal must override interference and noise. That is why the signal must be transmitted at a higher power level than any other interference, especially extra-noise coming from other systems, resulting in adjacent channel interference and co-channel interference. For one given channel, at the carrier frequency Fc, most of the wanted signal power is contained in the Main Lobe. The adjacent channels, which transmit other signals, are the channels located at the carrier frequencies Fc-1 just before and Fc+1 just after the frequency Fc. They are shifted from +/- 200 kHz. The co-channel signal is a signal that is transmitted at the same Fc frequency but in another distant cell, and possibly interferes with the wanted signal.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-3
January, 2002

1 - Traditional Systems (2/2)
PROBLEM co-channel interference minimization adjacent channel interference management
SOLUTION secure frequency planning power control PARAMETERS Reuse distance D Reuse pattern Reuse number available bandwidth
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Spread Spectrum Techniques
Example: 1x3 reuse pattern
3-4
Frequency Planning is employed to minimize interference problems. A transmitter working on a given frequency must not be disturbed by the information coming from another transmitter, located further away but working at the same frequency. With frequency planning, the distance between these two transmitters is big enough to avoid such interference. The reuse distance D is the minimum distance between two sites working with the same frequency sets. The reuse pattern is a set of sectors where there is no frequency reuse. This pattern is repeated in order to pave the whole area to cover. The frequency reuse number is the integer giving the number of sectors in the same frequency reuse pattern. In the above example, the reuse number is 3. A cluster is a group of sectors with no frequency reuse. Available bandwidth refers to the number of carriers that are available and that can be distributed in the service area.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-4
January, 2002

2 - Spread Spectrum Systems (1/2)
Transmitted Signals Power Spectrum
noise
co-channel signal co-channel signal wanted signal TX Unit RX Unit
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-5
An example of a spread spectrum system is UMTS: it is a wideband (WB) system. UMTS means Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. It is a Third Generation (3G) mobile technology that delivers voice, data, audio and video to wireless devices anywhere in the world through fixed, wireless and satellite systems. Description of the spectrum A wideband signal is used to transmit the wanted signal, but with low energy in order to create as little interference as possible. Signals behave like Additive White Gaussian Noises, each signal contribution superimposes on the previous one. And for one given channel, the wanted signal, the co-channel signals and the noise are all transmitted in the same frequency band.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-5
January, 2002

2 - Spread Spectrum Systems (2/2)
PROBLEM co-channel interference minimization signal recovery
SOLUTION efficient spreading/de-spreading technique efficient power control PARAMETERS available bandwidth spreading factor processing gain reuse distance
Example: 1x1 reuse pattern
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-6
In a wideband system, the goal is to reduce co-channel Interference. The limitation is the total amount of power users can share. The transmitted signals must be as low as possible to have as many users as possible. To share the power spectrum, and in order to recover the transmitted signals properly, efficient processing schemes and power control are used. The main parameters are the available bandwidth and the Spreading Factor, which determine Processing Gain value. Here the frequency reuse number is 1, which means that the set of carriers is the same over the whole network.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-6
January, 2002

Spread Spectrum Techniques Overview
SPR AD
nciples (1/2) 1-Pri
original data
D ATA
SPECTRUM
SPREA DING
transmitted data
D ATA
DE -SPR EADING
rebuilt data
D ATA
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Spread Spectrum Techniques 3-7
The main idea of spread spectrum techniques is to spread the spectrum, which consists in artificially increasing the transmission signal bandwidth. Thus the transmission can benefit from the properties associated to wideband wireless channels. As a result, the bandwidth occupancy is much higher than required. Then, on the receiver side, the signal is de-spread in order to rebuild the original data. To compare with GSM transmission techniques, here there is one more step to execute in transmission (spreading) and in reception (de-spreading).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-7
January, 2002

1 - Principles (2/2)
Two Requirements Transmission Bandwidth >> Information Bandwidth Spectrum spreading scheme independent of information coding scheme Main SS Goals Interference rejection Multipath Effects protection Anti-jamming Spectral efficiency enhancement Various SS Techniques Frequency Hopping Time Hopping Direct Sequence Hybrid Methods
The spectral spreading of the transmitted signal gives its multiple access capability. It is therefore important to know the techniques necessary to generate spread-spectrum signals and the properties of these signals. A spread-spectrum modulation technique must be fulfill two criteria: The transmission bandwidth must be much larger than the information bandwidth. The resulting radio-frequency bandwidth is determined by a function other than the information being sent (so the bandwidth is statistically independent of the information signal).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-8
January, 2002

2 - Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Principles
n+6 n+5 n+4 n+3 n+2 n+1 n
DATA
D ATA
DATA
DATA
D ATA
resulting
spectrum
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN
A DA T
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7
DATA
DATA
F8
F9
F10
F11 F12
carriers frequency
average
January, 2002
3-9
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum: the carrier frequency of the modulated information signal is not constant but changes periodically. During time intervals T the carrier frequency remains the same, but after each time interval the carrier hops to another (or possibly the same) frequency.The set of available frequencies the carrier can attain is called the hop-set. An FH system uses only a small part of the bandwidth when it transmits, but the location of this part differs in time. The aim of Frequency Hopping is to spread the spectrum of the signal to minimize the impact of potential interferers: it minimizes the standard deviation of the C/I distribution law, it lowers the impact of fast fading, particularly for slow mobiles.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-9
January, 2002

3 - Example of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Effects
Receive BER CDF Slow FH @ 0.5 km/h, -104 dBm (DCS) 100 90 80
Reference BER
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 4 2 8 16 4 6 8 10
BER %
Number of frequencies
One of the main goals of Frequency Hopping is to fight against interference and fast fading (frequency selective attenuation of the signal due to multipath). According to Nortel Networks experience, FH becomes efficient when hopping on a minimum of 4 frequencies. Summary of the main benefits Up to 8 frequencies, the higher the number of frequencies in the hopping law, the smaller the fading margin taken into account in the link budget (due to fast fading). The smaller the mobile speed and the higher the number of frequencies, the higher the benefit of Frequency Hopping. The higher the number of frequencies in the hopping law, the narrower the reception quality distribution. However the mean value remains the same. Increase resistance to Rayleigh fading - re-centered distribution for slow moving mobiles, - better stability of the received signal level (smoothing effect), - completion of diversity task on uplink and full benefit on downlink, - high improvement for areas of weaker signal strength (inside buildings and on street level). Resistance to interference - spread of interference over all RF spectrum, spread of interference over time, - highly loaded sites benefit from lower load on adjacent sites, - more efficient error correction gain from digital processing.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-10
January, 2002

4 - Time Frequency Duality
Temporal Representation 1 Spectral Representation
time -T/2 +T/2 1/T 2/T 3/T
frequency
time -T/2 +T/2 1/T 2/T
frequency 3/T
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-11
Time-Frequency duality is a very important property. Such a property is based on a very simple idea: faster are the changes affecting one of the signal parameter (amplitude, frequency, phase), wider is the resulting signal power spectrum. For example, the power spectrum of a square pulse signal is composed of lobes that cut the frequency axis at multiple of the bit period T. A direct consequence is that shorter the period T is, larger is the main lobe of the spectrum (and the others secondary lobes). Another way to see this is to say that the faster the data modulation is (the smaller T is), the more the energy is spread on the frequency domain. First case A signal with a low data rate has a big period T and a narrow spectral representation. Second case A signal with a high data rate has a small period T and a wide spectral representation.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-11
January, 2002

5 - Time Hopping Spread Spectrum Principles
frame length
original data
compressed data
transmitted signal
time timeslot length
For Time Hopping Spread-Spectrum (TH-SS) technique, the information-bearing signal is not transmitted continuously. The data signal is transmitted in rapid bursts at time intervals determined by the code assigned to the user. The time axis is divided into frames, and each frame is divided into M time slots. During, each frame the user will transmit in one of the M time slots. Which of the M time slots is transmitted depends on the code signal assigned to the user. Since a user transmits all of its data in one time slot instead of M, the transmission frequency needed has increased by a factor M. Advantages (+) and disadvantages (-) of Time Hopping Spread Spectrum + Implementation is simpler than that of Frequency Hopping. + It is a very useful method when the transmitter is average-power limited but not peak-power limited since the data are transmitted in short bursts at high power. + The near-far problem is much less of a problem since most of the time a terminal far from the base station transmits alone, and is not hindered by transmissions from stations close by. - It takes a long time before the code is synchronized, and the time in which the receiver has to perform the synchronization is short. - If multiple transmissions occur, a large number of data bits are lost, so a good errorcorrecting code and data interleaving are necessary.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-12
January, 2002

6 - Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Principles
original data
spreading sequence
=
transmitted signal
time
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-13
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum technique (DS-SS) is the best known spread spectrum technique and is used in CDMA and W-CDMA. The data signal is directly modulated by a digital, discrete-time, discrete-valued code signal. It is from this direct multiplication that the direct sequence technique gets its name. To obtain the desired spreading of the signal, the chip rate of the code signal must be much higher than the chip rate of the information signal. Advantages (+) and disadvantages (-) of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum + The generation of the coded signal is easy. It can be performed by a simple multiplication. + Since only one carrier frequency has to be generated, the frequency synthesizer is simple. + Coherent demodulation of the DS signal is possible. + No synchronization among the users is necessary. - Synchronization between the code signal and the received signal is difficult to acquire and to maintain. The bandwidth is limited to 10 - 20 MHz. The near-far effect can be solved by applying a power control algorithm.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-13
January, 2002

7 - Comparisons
Frequency Hopping Time Hopping Direct Sequence
wide bandwidth band flexible use easy synchronization
simple implementation
interference robustness multipath tolerant
complex synthesizer
complex synchronization
tight/fast power control
Hybrid techniques employ combinations of these techniques All the above Spread Spectrum techniques use codes to recover transmitted data
Advantages DS-CDMA The generation of the coded signal is easy. The frequency synthesizer (carrier generator) is simple. Coherent demodulation of the DS signal is possible. No synchronization among users is necessary. FH-CDMA Synchronization is much easier. It has to be within a fraction of the hop time. The different frequency bands that an FH signal can occupy do not have to be contiguous. This allows much higher spread spectrum bandwidths. Much better near-far performance. (small probability of multiple users transmitting in the same frequency band at the same time). Offers a higher reduction of narrowband interference (possible larger bandwidth) TH-CDMA Implementation is simpler
drawbacks Synchronization has to be kept within a fraction of the chip time. For correct reception, the synchronization error must be a fraction of the chip time. The near-far effect can be solved by applying a power control algorithm.
A highly sophisticated frequency synthesizer is necessary. Turn off and on the signal when changing frequency to avoid an increase in the occupied frequency band. Coherent demodulation is difficult because of the problems in maintaining phase relationships during hopping.
Long time before code synchronization, and short time for the receiver to perform synchronization. Good error-correcting code and data interleaving are needed to avoid bit loss in case of multiple transmission.
Useful when the transmitter is average-power limited but not peak-power limited (data are transmitted in short bursts at high power). No near-far effect problem
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-14
January, 2002

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Basics
1 - Spreading Factor (SF)
Time Domain
original data (bits)
Frequency Domain
Tb
1/Tb
frequency
Tc
time
B
spreading sequence (chips)
time
B x SF 1/Tc
frequency
transmitted signal (chips)
time
SF = number of chips per input bit = Tb / Tc Input Bit Rate SF = Spread Rate = constant
B = Bandwidth. Tb = Tbit = duration of a digital sample of the original data stream. Tc = Tchip = duration of a chip = duration of a digital sample in the spreading sequence. SF = Spreading Factor = number of chips per bit in the spreading sequence. A SF composed of n chips causes a spread of the signal by a factor n. For UMTS, the spread rate (chip rate) is a constant fixed to 3.84 Mchips/s.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-15
January, 2002

2 - Processing Gain (1/2)
noise co-channel signal co-channel signal wanted signal
I0
Ec/Io
Processing Gain SNR enhancement
Ec
Eb
Eb/No
Eb/No PG
residual noise
N0
Ec/Io
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-16
N0 = Noise level. I0 = Interference level. Ec = Energy chip = power of the spread (wanted) signal. Eb = Energy bit = power of the de-spread (wanted) signal. Ec / I0 = SIR of the wanted signal. Eb / N0 = SNR required to ensure correct data recovery after de-spreading. PG = Processing Gain = gain obtained through the de-spreading process and proportional to the bandwidth of the spread signal.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-16
January, 2002

2 - Processing Gain (2/2)
PG =
de-spread signal level spread signal level transmission bandwidth information bandwidth
unwanted signal
PG =
spread signal
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-17
Note The larger the Spreading Factor, the larger the Processing Gain. This means that using high Spreading Factors allows to get efficient reductions of the transmitted power. This also means that spread signals can operate at negative Signal to Noise ratios.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-17
January, 2002

3 - Example (1/3)
Original Data Spread Data
bandwidth=18, power=1
Transmitted Data
wanted signal (Carrier)
unwanted signal (Interference)
bandwidth=1 power=18
Carrier / Interference: 1/6 = 0.167 C/I dB: =10.log(1/6) = -10.log(6) = - 8 dB negative C/I
Spread Spectrum Techniques 3-18
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-18
January, 2002

3 - Example (2/3)
Filtered Data De-spread Data
narrowband filtering
wanted signal
residual interference
C/I: 18/6 = 3 C/I dB: =10.log(3) = 5 dB positive C/I

UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-19
January, 2002

3 - Example (3/3)
Recovered Data
Transmitted Data
PG = CD / CS PG = 18/1 = 18 PG = 10.log(18) PG = 13 dB CS
/I= 0.167 = -8 dB
negative C/I
CD positive C/I
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Spread Spectrum Techniques
/I = 3 = 5 dB
3-20
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-20
January, 2002

DSSS Emission/Reception Scheme
1 - Overview
TRANSMISSION
synchronization
SAME spreading sequence
reconstructed data
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-21
The basic steps of a DSSS transmission-reception chain are summarized in the above figure (note that for the seek of simplicity multiple access properties have been omitted here). Transmitted Signal = original signal X spreading sequence. Received Signal = transmitted signal X same spreading sequence, synchronization) = Original Transmitted Signal. The correct processing of the receive signal shows two imperative requirements: 1) The spreading sequence must be known by the transmitter AND by the receiver. 2) An accurate synchronization must be kept between the received signal and the de-spreading signal. (with
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-21
January, 2002

DSSS Emission/Reception Scheme
2 - Correlation
Synchronization original signal De-Spreading
transmitted signal
=
spreading sequence
= = = =
reconstructed data
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-22
The correlation between two bit strings of the same length is defined as the degree of similarity between them: when the correlation is determined between two copies of the same string, it is called auto-correlation, when the correlation is determined between any two same-length strings, it is called cross-correlation. In the receiver, the composite signal is correlated with a replica of the code used to spread the data to recover. Thus, low cross-correlation between the desired and interfering users is important to suppress the multiple access interference. But good auto-correlation properties are required for initial synchronization and reliable separation of the multi-path components.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-22
January, 2002

DSSS and the RF Channel
1 - DSSS and Multipath
Emission
Reception 2Tb
Inter-correlation
Tb
Tc
channel impulse response
Signals Autocorrelation
2Tc
Inter-correlation
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-23
First case The original signal is sent without using a spread spectrum technique. Due to the multipath channel propagation effects, the receive signal consists of a sum of the several multi-path signals. And, due to the strong overlapping between the various copies of the original signal, the wanted signal can not be correctly extracted. Second case The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum technique chops the data into small pieces and spreads the signal on the frequency domain. Larger is the Spreading Factor (SF), tighter is the extent of the auto-correlation function. The different signals are well separated and can be easily extracted. They resist jamming and multipath interference.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-23
January, 2002

2 - DSSS and Narrowband Disturbances
Spreading
De-Spreading
interferer
Transmitting
fade
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-24
Frequency selective Fading robustness A wideband signal (which is several MHz wide) would be subject to only partial cancellation or selective fading. Depending on the nature of the signal and how information is encoded into it, it may be quite tolerant of having part of its energy notched out by the interferer signal. Tolerance of multipath-induced signal cancellation is one of the major benefits of spread spectrum transmission techniques.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-24
January, 2002

3 - DSSS and Coverage
DSSS
2 available signal 1 required Eb/No
available signal
Coverage R2 1 R1 2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-25
Reminder The required Eb/No is the minimal value under which the system generates too many errors (due to noise) to recover a signal. Case 1 The signal to transmit has a large bandwidth, and a high transmission rate. But the available signal Eb/No is lower than the required Eb/No. The transmission power required is high; the covered area has a radius R1. Case 2 The signal to transmit has a smaller bandwidth, and a lower transmission rate. Its available signal Eb/No is higher than the required Eb/No. With the same transmission power as in the first case, the covered area has a radius R2 larger than R1.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-25
January, 2002

UMTS DSSS Implementation
1 - Main Parameters
DSSS Rates Chip Rate = Input Bit Rate Spreading Factor
Fixed Parameters Chip Rate 3.84 Mcps Channel Bandwidth 5 MHz
Variable Parameters Uplink Spreading Factor 4 - 256 (OVSF codes) Downlink Spreading Factor 4 - 512 (OVSF codes)
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-26
The input bit rate depends on the information source and is therefore a variable parameter, whereas the transmission chip rate is a fixed parameter (3.84 Mega chips per second). To accommodate variable data rates, UMTS DSSS scheme has two basic properties: the spreading sequences have variable lengths, the Spreading Factor is variable. This is a 3G specific feature, and the variable length spreading codes used in UMTS are OVSF codes. The main problem with such a DSSS scheme is to create codes of different length but which remain orthogonal one with each other. OVSF stands for Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor. These are channelization codes that preserve the orthogonality between different physical channels. The 512 primary OVSF codes are defined using a code tree.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-26
January, 2002

2 - Variable Communication Rates
Maximal User Data Rate 3 kbps 12 kbps Channel Bit Rate 15 kbps 30 kbps 60 kbps 120 kbps 240 kbps 480 kbps 960 kbps 1920 kbps Spreading Factor 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4
Downlink
BTS
24 kbps 45 kbps 105 kbps 215 kbps 456 kbps 936 kbps
Maximal User Data Rate
Channel Bit Rate 15 kbps 30 kbps 60 kbps 120 kbps 240 kbps 480 kbps 960 kbps
Spreading Factor 256 128 64 32 16 8 4
Uplink
BTS
7.5 kbps 15 kbps 30 kbps 60 kbps 120 kbps 240 kbps 480 kbps
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
3-27
Here is a summary of the various possibilities to accommodate variable data rates en UL and DL.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-27
January, 2002

3 - OVSF Code Tree Generator
1111
Cch,4,0 =
Cch,2,0 =
11
Cch,4,1 = Cch,1,0 =
1 1 -1 -1
1
Cch,4,2 =
1 -1 1 -1
Cch,2,1 =
1 -1
Cch,4,3 =
1 -1 -1 1
SF = 8 SF = 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512.
3-28
SF = 1
SF = 2
SF = 4
In the code tree, the channelization codes are described as C(ch,SF,k) where: SF is the Spreading Factor of the code k is the code number, 0 < k < SF-1. A channelization sequence codes one user bit. As the chip rate is constant, the different length of codes enable different user data rates to be coded. The length of an OVSF code is an even number of chips and the number of codes is equal to the number of chips. The codes generated within the same layer constitute a set of orthogonal codes. Furthermore, any two codes of different layers are orthogonal except when one of the two codes is a father code of the other. For example C4,3 is not orthogonal with C1,0 and C2,1, but is orthogonal with C2,0. Each Sector in each BTS is transmitting W-CDMA Downlink Traffic Channels with up to 512 code channels and Uplink Traffic Channels with up to 256 code channels. It is based on the Walsh Hadamard codes sequences.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
3-28
January, 2002
W-CDMA Cellular Aspects
Section 4
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-1
January, 2002

Objectives
-CDMA Cellular W-CDMA Cellular Aspects Aspects

Detail Multiple Access techniques Characterize UMTS Multiple Access Scheme Describe UMTS duplex modes Describe radio link management aspects Detail diversity techniques
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-2
January, 2002

Multiple Access Techniques
1 - MA Overview
Single Access
dedicated transmission medium #1 dedicated transmission medium #... dedicated transmission medium #N
Multiple Access
common transmission medium
simultaneous private use of a common transmission medium by multiple independent users

UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 W-CDMA Cellular Aspects 4-3
Single Access: each resource is dedicated to one specific transmission. Multiple Access: the same common transmission resource is used by several users, who are identified at each physical end. The main challenges are independency and simultaneous use of the same resource.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-3
January, 2002

2 - FDMA, TDMA, FDMA/TDMA
FDMA TDMA FDMA/TDMA
radio link ID = carrier
radio link ID = slot number (in timeframe)
radio link ID = carrier + slot number (in timeframe)
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-4
Multiple Access Capability There are several solutions to implement Multiple Access for wireless systems: FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access divides the frequency spectrum into carriers and separates the signals of different users by placing them in separate carriers. TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access divides time into slots and separates the signals of different users by placing the signals in separate time slots. FDMA/TDMA: Frequency and Time Division Multiple Access. The timefrequency plane is divided into small separate areas defined by the association of one Time Slot and one carrier.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-4
January, 2002

3 - Spread Spectrum and CDMA
Codes Use FH-SS: carrier sequencing TH-SS: timeslot sequencing DS-SS: data scrambling DS- CDMA Transmission = = = =
users data PN codes
Random codes PN Codes
+ + +
users data + users ID
=
code multiplexed signal
PN additive properties
DS-CDMA Reception = = = = PN orthogonality properties

FH-SS: the carrier hopping pattern is decided by the code signal (PN sequence). TH-SS: the time slot hopping pattern depends on the code signal assigned to the user (PN sequences). DS-SS: the data signal is multiplied with a pseudo-random bit sequence, often referred to as Pseudo random Noise code. The PN code is a sequence of chips valued -1 and 1. Such bit sequences have noise-like properties such as spectral flatness, low cross-correlation properties and good auto-correlation properties. The rate of the code signal is called the chip rate; one chip denotes one symbol when referring to spreading code signals. After transmission of the signal, the receiver uses coherent demodulation to despread the signal. To be able to perform the de-spreading operation, the receiver must not only know the code sequence used to spread the signal, which must also be synchronized.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-5
January, 2002

UMTS CDMA Scheme
1 - Scrambling Codes
DL: sector ID scrambling <=> emitter protection/identification UL: user ID long codes (38400 chips) one sequence per radio frame long or short codes (256 chips) one sequence per radio frame or per TS
scrambling sequence
DL: scrambling rate = chip rate
UL:
scrambling sequence
bits data
chips
chips RF waves propagation
chips
chips
bits data
spreading sequence
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 W-CDMA Cellular Aspects
spreading sequence
4-6
If multiple users transmit a spread-spectrum signal at the same time, the receiver will still be able to distinguish between the users provided each user has a unique code that has a sufficiently low cross-correlation with the other codes. Correlating the received signal with a code signal from a certain user will then only de-spread the signal of this user, while the other spread-spectrum signals will remain spread over a large bandwidth. Thus, within the information bandwidth the power of the desired user will be larger than the interfering power provided there are not too many interferers, and the desired signal can be extracted. Scrambling reduces the interference with neighboring users. If good cross correlation characteristics are maintained between the different scrambling codes, no interferer is decoded. Scrambling codes do not play exactly the same role in Downlink or in Uplink. In Downlink, they identify the sectors (there is one scrambling code per sector; two adjacent sectors have two different scrambling codes). Only long codes are employed. In Uplink, they identify each user. Short codes as well as long codes can be used. Note These codes, once allocated to the UEs (by the RNC), remain the same during the whole communication. Otherwise, the Node B must be notified of the change. The scrambling sequence and the spreading sequence must be known by the transmitter and by the receiver, to extract the wanted signal.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-6
January, 2002

UMTS CDMA Scheme
2 - Code Multiplexing
Downlink BS sector scrambling code
user#1 scrambling code user #1 data user #1 OVSF code user #2 data user #2 OVSF code user #1 data user #1 OVSF code
Uplink
user #N data user #N OVSF code
user#N scrambling code user #N data user #N OVSF code
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-7
A mobile (UE) is surrounded by Base Stations, all of which transmit on the same WCDMA frequency. It must be able to listen to only one set of code channels. Two types of code are used: A Channelization code to modulate the user data. The orthogonality properties of OVSF enable the UE to recover each of its bits without being interfered by other users. This is true only if the system is synchronous, which is the case in downlink, but not in uplink. Thus, the OVSF codes are not used to separate users in uplink and therefore different users can use the same code. But, they can be used to distinguish the different physical channels of one user. A Scrambling code, which is used for base station and mobile station identification. In downlink, the same scrambling code can be used on different channels in a cell, but different scrambling codes are used in different cells. One specific set of 16 scrambling codes is allocated to each sector. In uplink, scrambling codes are used to differentiate users since orthogonality cannot be achieved with the OVSF codes.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-7
January, 2002

Duplex Techniques
1 - Overview
Simplex Full Duplex
Half-Duplex
Mobile Radio Full Duplex
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-8
Simplex: transmission is one-way only, transmitter never receives and the corresponding receiver never transmits. Half-Duplex: two-way transmission is possible, but it cannot take place simultaneously; data must first be transmitted in one direction before transmission in the reverse direction is possible. Full Duplex transmission is simultaneous transmission in both directions. Reminder: Uplink: from the User Equipment towards the Base Station. Downlink: from the Base Station towards the User Equipment.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-8
January, 2002

Duplex Techniques
2 - UTRA Time-Frequency Plane
TDD
FDD
TDD
FDD
Freq (MHz)
1900 1920 1980 2010 2025 2110 2170
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-9
UTRA means Universal Terrestrial Radio Access, it is the interface between the User Equipment and the Base Stations. In UMTS, there are two possible ways to implement full-duplex techniques: FDD (Frequency Division Duplex), where the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use 2 separate frequency bands: - Uplink from 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz. - Downlink from 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz. TDD (Time Division Duplex), where the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions are carried over the same frequency. Two frequency bands are allocated to TDD: - From 1900 MHz to 1920 MHz. - From 2010 MHz to 2025 MHz.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-9
January, 2002

Duplex Techniques
3 - UTRA FDD Duplex Scheme
Frequency Division Duplex
UL 5 MHz 190 MHz Duplex Spacing
DL 5 MHz Frequency
macrocells paired frequency bands simultaneous bands use preset constant duplex spacing
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-10
Two 60 MHz bands are paired for operation in the FDD mode. One distinct frequency of 5 MHz bandwidth is used for each transmission direction. There is a 190 MHz duplex spacing between the UL and DL carriers, the Uplink channel is 190 MHz lower in frequency than the Downlink channel. This separation guarantees isolation between the two communication channels and perfect symmetry in capacity for both directions. Whereas this is well adapted to voice communication, it can become less adapted to data services such as internet browsing or data transfer. FDD mode is the preferred mode for macro-cellular applications.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-10
January, 2002

Duplex Techniques
4 - UTRA TDD Duplex Scheme
Time Division Duplex

DL UL DL DL UL
666.67 s
5 MHz
Frequency
unpaired frequency band slotted band use easy asymmetrical link assignment
microcells
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-11
A non-paired 35 MHz (10 MHz + 25 MHz) band is reserved for UMTS systems operating in TDD mode. In TDD mode the uplink and downlink communications occur on the same carrier, without any fixed duplex separation. The allocation of codes and bandwidth is made as a function of demand in the uplink or downlink directions. The carrier still uses a 5 MHz bandwidth. In TDD, each time slot can be assigned a different direction. So the TDD mode offers a great flexibility to manage duplex and asymmetric traffic. The TDD spectrum will be used for low mobility coverage in urban areas. In this way, UMTS in TDD mode is more adapted for non-symmetrical data services.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-11
January, 2002

Diversity Techniques
1 - Overview
work with more than one single signal
Receive: process several copies of signal Transmit: provide several copies of signal
fading mitigation receiver performance enhancement
Diversity Types
time frequency space polarization macro multipath

4-12
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
The goal of diversity techniques is to provide ways to process more than one single copy of the transmitted signal. This helps to overcome bad transmission conditions such as fading, interference or transmission errors. Several types of diversity techniques are used: On the Transmitter side: Time diversity: the signal is sent more than once, thanks to interleaving techniques. Frequency diversity: the signal is sent on more than one frequency. On the Receiver side: Space diversity: the signal is received at two separate locations. Polarization diversity: the signal received on two antenna subsystems with orthogonal polarization. Macro diversity: when User Equipment is linked with several Base Stations. Multipath diversity: takes advantage of the multipath effect and the delayed multiple receptions on the receiver to re-combine the different copies of the wanted transmitted signal (Rake receiver).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-12
January, 2002

Diversity Techniques
2 - Diversity in UMTS
Fast Fading Mitigation Maximum Power Recovery
dB 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 Path #1 Time Path #2 Path #2 Path #1
diversity efficiency depends on:

Path #1 + Path #2
signal cross-correlation signal level difference
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-13
Fast fading mitigation. If several sufficiently de-correlated signals are available for one given radio link, processing all of them in parallel offers various ways to avoid to be affected by deep fades. This is mainly due to the fact that, if the processed signals are not too highly correlated, the location and depth of their respective fades are distributed differently. This is illustrated by the plot on the left part of the slide. Such an approach provides significant results only if: the correlation between the signals is low, the average amplitude of the signal is comparable. Maximum Power Recovery. If UE is connected with several BS, the corresponding radio links can be recombined in order to enhance receiver performance. Note In digital systems, diversity methods are combined with coding systems, which allow correction of errors caused by short losses of signal.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-13
January, 2002

Maximal Ratio Combining
1 - Overview
Combining Principle MRC Main Stages
signal #1
arrival synchronizing
signal #2
signal co-phasing
SNR weighting
combined signal
Summing
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-14
The MRC (Maximal Ratio Combining) system combines the different signals coherently, applying a weighting to their amplitudes in accordance with the SNR of each signal. MRC is the most effective method in a multipath environment because it makes optimal use of the total signal power received through the different paths at any moment. The method is commonly (but not universally) used in mobile radio systems. The algorithm can be divided into four main steps: Synchronization of the signal arrivals, Fine synchronization to re-phase the different signals, Weighting according to the Signal-to-Noise Ratio, Summing of the information.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-14
January, 2002

2 - Space Diversity (1/2)
Principle 10 to 20
Space Diversity Gain 4- 5 dB (typical)
Analysis
1.0
antenna 1
UE
0.7
= 10deg = 5deg antenna 2 0.0 = 30deg 10 20 30 40 horizontal spacing

January, 2002 W-CDMA Cellular Aspects 4-15
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
Space diversity technique consists in processing signals coming from sufficiently separated antennas so that the resultant signals are decorrelated enough. The decorrelation between two signals is measured by the cross-correlation coefficient varying from 0 to 1: =1 means that the signals are totally correlated (coherent signals), =0 means that the statistical characteristics of the signals are independent. The decorrelation of two signals reaching two horizontally separated antennas at the base side depends on: the separation d between the antennas, the angle between the mobile direction and the antennas common axis. It has been observed that: horizontal spacing brings better results than vertical spacing, the decorrelation tends to be better when the mobile faces the two antennas, efficient decorrelation is obtained when the antennas are spaced by at least 10.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-15
January, 2002

2 - Space Diversity (2/2)
RF Environment Influence
Scattering Volume Scatterers Mobile Squared Correlation Coefficient 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 Beamwidth 0.5
B
Base Station Antennas
0.4 03 0.2 0.1 0 0 5 10 15 Wavelength 20 25 30
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-16
The effective local scatterers involved in the reflection of the major part of the energy radiated by the mobile can be modeled as being confined in a scattering volume. The scattering volume depends on the degree of urbanization surrounding the transmitter. The more significant the scatterers are, bigger is the scattering volume and wider is the beamwidth. And wider is the beamwidth faster the signals decorrelate. In other words, space diversity is more efficient in dense urban areas than in rural areas. Results illustrated here on space diversity also apply to polarization diversity.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-16
January, 2002

3 - Polarization Diversity
Xpolar Antenna
Receive path #1
Polarization Diversity Vs. Space Diversity

cross-correlation 1
+
+45deg slant polarization
x 5
-1 0 signal level difference (dB) 10 1
Receive path #2
10 15
-45deg slant polarization
20
Rx Polarization Diversity gain 2-3 dB (typical) -10

UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 W-CDMA Cellular Aspects
0 0 +10
4-17
A polarization diversity system is a system where the signals are received on the same physical location (antenna), but filtered according to two orthogonal polarizations. The two receiving antennas subsystems are physically co-located. The interest in polarization diversity is increasing, because this setup results in lower costs and a smaller visual profile for the Base Station: the two antennas required can be housed in a single unit no larger than that required for simple vertical polarization. Polarization diversity using a receiving antenna polarization of 45 is superior to that obtained when the receiving antennas are horizontally and vertically polarized. Note The instantaneous polarization of the signal received from the mobile user is determined by the polarization of the signal radiated from the mobile and the scattering characteristics of the transmission path. Changes in orientation of the mobile unit will change the transmitted polarization. If the path is cluttered by multiple scatterers, the received polarization will change randomly with time as the mobile unit moves through the environment.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-17
January, 2002

4 - Multipath Diversity
Path Combination
Multipath LOS Environment
Received signals 1
Synchronized signals
Phased signals
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-18
In a radio channel there is not just one path between a transmitter and a receiver. Due to reflections and refractions, signal is received from several different paths. The signals coming from the different paths are all copies of the same transmitted signal, but with different amplitudes, phases, delays and arrival angles. At the receiver, when all these signals are added, it gives either a constructive sum at some frequencies or a destructive sum at some other frequencies. In the time domain, this results in a dispersed signal. Spread-spectrum techniques can combat multipath interference. However, the way in which this is achieved depends very much on the type of SS technique which is used. Direct Sequence SS technique is the only one offering means to take advantage of multipath diversity. From all the SS methods its the only one to offer continuous wideband transmission. Associated correlation functions are then narrow enough to implement multipath searching and tracking algorithms.
In LOS environments, multipath is usually minor and can be overcome easily. The amplitudes of the echoed signals are much smaller than the primary one. However, in NLOS environments, the echoed signals may have higher power levels, because the primary signal may be partially or totally obstructed, and generally more multipath is present than in LOS environment.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-18
January, 2002

5 - Rake Receiver Basics
Rake Receiver
Main Div. searching sector A
Main Div.
searching sector B
Main Div.
searching sector C
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-19
The receiver used in CDMA systems is the RAKE receiver that manages: macro diversity, multipath diversity, space diversity, polarization diversity. A RAKE receiver is a radio receiver having multiple "fingers" (each for a multipath component). It uses off sets of a common spreading code to receive and combine several multipath (time delayed) signals, to provide a more stable transmission channel. This use of the "time diversity" helps to overcome deep fades. The Rake receiver is used for the uplink and the downlink and thus exists in the BTS and in the Mobile equipment. The main difference being that space diversity is not handled by UE, as in DL there is one single receive antenna.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-19
January, 2002

Macrodiversity
1 - Uplink and Downlink
UPLINK
SRNC DRNC
DOWNLINK
SRNC DRNC
BS BS BS
BS
UE one single signal BS rake combining RNC selection combining
RNC signal splitting BS power controlling UE rake combining
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-20
Macro diversity is used to transmit the same signal via two or more sectors, in order to mitigate interference problems and optimize power sharing. In Uplink, the Macro-Diversity Combining Function is used. This function is responsible for combining uplink transport blocks. It combines the transport blocks coming from the BS participating to the UE active set into a single flow of transport blocks. When such a functionality is used, and when two sectors belong to two distinct BSs, that belong to two different RNCs, these RNCs have a specific functionality: Serving RNC (SRNC), which is in charge of the radio connection between the UE and UTRAN. There is one SRNC for each UE that has a connection to UTRAN. Drift RNC (DRNC), which supports the SRNC with radio resources when the connection between the UTRAN and the UE needs to use cell(s) controlled by this RNC.
In Downlink, the Macro-Diversity Splitting Function is used. This function is responsible for duplicating downlink transport blocks. It broadcasts the transport blocks to all BS participating in the UE active set.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-20
January, 2002

Macrodiversity
2 - Handovers
Soft Handover
SRNC DRNC
Softer Handover
RNC
BS BS BS
BS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-21
Soft Handover: UE can communicate with more than one sector at a time if more than one sector meet the signal/noise requirements. This means that UE can send the same information to more than one BTS and receive the incoming information from more than one BTS. As this increases the chances of interpreting the received signal, UE can transmit with reduced power, thereby reducing the background noise it creates for other users. If UE moves, the first BTS signal will become unacceptable and so the UE will drop the connection and continue communication on the second BTS. Softer Handover: if UE is in communication with sectors belonging to two Node Bs, it will have two channels on the Iub interface (soft handover). However, if the two sectors are controlled by one single Node B, it can interpret the two incoming signals and only send one to the RNC (softer handover). If a UE hands over from one cell to another and both cells belong to the same Node B, the channel on the Iub interface will not be changed.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-21
January, 2002

Radio Resource Management
1 - Interference
Slotted Systems DS CDMA Systems
high-power narrow band signals adjacent channel interference co-channel interference
low-power wideband signals AWGN properties co-channel interference
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-22
In slotted systems: Signals are narrowband and high power is transmitted on each carrier, to overcome noise and interference. These strong signal levels generate relatively high: - Adjacent channel interference. - Co-channel interference. In DS-CDMA systems: Signals are low-power and spread over the whole bandwidth. Only co-channel interference is present. Spread signals have AWGN properties.
AWGN means Additive White Gaussian Noise. It is a noise having a frequency spectrum that is continuous and uniform over a specified frequency band.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-22
January, 2002

2 - DS-CDMA Properties
Reference Scheme OVSF Code
Multiple Access
OVSF Code
Narrowband Interference OVSF Code
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-23
DS-CDMA spreading/de-spreading scheme basic properties have direct impact on the way RF power is managed in the transmission band: narrowband and wideband versions of information signal are obtained one from another by the use of the same code, spread signals de-spread with inappropriate codes remain spread, narrowband signals de-spread with any code become spread.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-23
January, 2002

3 - Power Control Overview
Closed Loop Power Control
power control commands
BER/FER estimate SIR target
Outer Loop Inner Loop
SIR target setting SIR target monitoring
fast power control link dynamic management
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-24
Accurate power control is one of the basic requirements for the high capacity of WCDMA systems. The transmit power must be kept as low as possible in order to minimize interference, and just high enough to ensure the required quality of service. As the User Equipment travels anywhere in the covered area, its distance to the BTS changes, and thus the required power during the communication can vary. Two Power control loops are used. The Outer Loop, between the RNC and the UE. The RNC estimates the BER (Bit Error Rate) or the FER (Frame Error Rate) needed to have a good communication quality. These parameters give a target SIR (Signal to Interference Ratio) to reach. The BTS adjusts its parameters to reach the target SIR. The RNC calculates the target SIR once every 10 ms (or more, depending on service) and adjusts it. The Inner Loop, between the BTS and the User Equipment. The BTS estimates an Uplink (or Downlink) SIR, compares it to the target SIR, and decides to increase or decrease the power of the UE. This is done 1500 times per second to achieve the minimum output power.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-24
January, 2002

4 - Outer Loop Power Control (1/2)
Near Far Effect Power Control
BS Rx power
BS Rx power
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-25
Without power control (near-far effect), more power is received by the BTS from the mobile which is the closest, than from the distant mobiles. This has an negative impact on the traffic capacity and on the link quality. With power control, the amount of transmitted power is decreased for the closest mobile (or increased for the further ones) so as to become equal (at reception), whatever the distance between the mobile and the BTS. The goal is to obtain a uniform distribution of the power received from the UE and to increase the traffic capacity.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-25
January, 2002

4 - Outer Loop Power Control (2/2)
E b /NO Dis tribution w /wo diversity P ower c ontrol s tep 1 dB
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
No div
Mrc No pw c 100% 90%

10
Omni no pow er c ontrol omni pow er c ontrol s ec tor no pow er c ontrol s ec tor pow er c ontrol
Impact on Capacity
80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 10 15 20 25 30
Eb /NO
Impact on Near Far Effect
- E c /I (dB )
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-26
Power control enables optimizing each UE transmitted power. Such optimization provides a real capacity gain as illustrated on above plots.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-26
January, 2002

5 - Inner Loop Power Control (1/2)
Fast Fading
Fast Power Control
UE signal
UE signal
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-27
Without power control, the received signal can show deep fades in its power strength (due to constructive or destructive combinations of multipath signals). Fast power control is used to minimize the impact of fast fading, and thus allows an average signal closer to the SIR target to be obtained.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-27
January, 2002

5 - Inner Loop Power Control (2/2)
Effects of UE Speed & TPC Delay

Perfect 3 km/h 1s 3 km/h 3 s 10 30 km/h 1s 30 km/h 3s 100 km/h 1s 100 km/h 3s 1
0.1
0.01 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Inner Loop Target Eb/No (dB)
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-28
TPC command is transmitted by the receiver, which makes the measurements and takes the decision, to the transmitter which should increase or decrease its output power. So delay appears between decision and execution. In the above figure is illustrated the Eb/N0 impact of this delay according to the UE speed, without TPC error.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-28
January, 2002

RF Measurements
1 - Needs
Pilot Sets
Active Set
Measurement Types
Candidate Set
Intra-Frequency Inter-Frequency Inter-System
Neighbor Set
Remaining Set
-25
-15 -10
Ec/Io
Algorithms employed for handovers use the pilot channel Ec/Io power ratio as the handover criteria. The pilot channel is the base-to-mobile forward-link channel, which is modulated only by the pilot spreading codes common to all signals transmitted from a given base station. The pilot channel provides several critically important functions to the forward links. To provide all these important functions reliably, the power level at which the pilot channel is transmitted is typically higher than the power used on any other channel. The following terminology is used: Active set: this is the list of pilots that form a soft handover connection with UE. Candidate set: this is the list of pilots that are not presently used in the soft handover connection, but whose pilot channels Ec/Io are strong enough to be added to the active set. Neighbor set: this is the list of pilots that UE continuously measures, but whose Ec/Io are not strong enough to be added to the active set. Remaining set: pilots which do not belong to the three other sets.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-29
January, 2002

RF Measurements
2 - Compressed Mode Measurements
Single-Frame Mode
frame N-1
idle TGL
frame N+1 time
Double-Frame Mode
frame boundary
frame N-1
idle
idle
frame N+2 time
TGL
Inter-frequency measurements Transmission Gap Length = 3, 4, 7, 10, 14 TS

Compressed mode measurement is needed when making measurements from another frequency in a CDMA system, without a full dual receiver terminal. This means that transmission and reception are halted for a short time (a few milliseconds), in order to perform measurements on the other frequencies. The intention is not to lose data but to compress the data transmission in the time domain. Frame compression can be achieved with three different methods: lowering the data rate from higher layers, increasing the data rate by changing the spreading factor, reducing the symbol rate by puncturing at the physical layer multiplexing chain. The benefit is obviously in keeping the existing spreading factor and not causing new requirements for channelisation code usage. The specified Transmission Gap Lengths (TGL) are 3, 4, 7, 10 and 14 slots. TGL lengths of 3, 4 and 7 can be obtained with both single- and double-frame methods. For TGL lengths of 10 or 14 slots, only the double frame method can be used: the idle slots are divided between two frames. This allows minimizing the impact during a single frame and keeping the required increment in the transmission power lower than with the single frame method.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-30
January, 2002

Performance Enhancement
1 - Handovers
Inter RNC Intra Node B Hard Handovers Inter Frequency F1 <>F2
SRNC DRNC SRNC
Inter Mode FDD<>TDD

Node B
Node B
Inter System 3G<>2G
UE
UE
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-31
One can consider three types of handover: Inter RNC Handover: the Mobile hands over from one cell to another, belonging to a different RNC. Intra Node B Handover: the Mobile hands over from one cell to another, belonging to the same Node B. Hard Handovers: - Inter frequency: used to change the radio frequency band of the connection between the Mobile and the UTRAN. - Inter mode: used to change the mode between FDD and TDD. - Inter system: used for handover from/to a non-UTRAN system to/from UTRAN.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-31
January, 2002

2 - Soft Handover - Synchronization
Asynchronous BTS
Relative BTS Timing
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-32
The synchronization procedure between BTSs and Mobile is employed during a soft handover, when the Mobile looks for a new BTS to communicate with. During a short time, the Mobile will be linked to both BTSs. The new BTS will be asked to synchronize and modify its timing, in order to reduce the timing difference that can exist with the first BTS. The synchronization channel (SCH) is needed for the cell search. It consists of two channels, the primary and the secondary synchronization channels. The primary SCH uses a 256-chip spreading sequence identical in every cell. The secondary SCH uses sequences with different code word combination possibilities, representing different code groups. Once the terminal has identified the secondary SCH, it has obtained frame and slot synchronization as well as information on the group the cell it belongs to. The synchronization message is the message transmitted on the forward-link baseto-mobile Synchronization channel. The Synchronization message contains the first information bits actually demodulated by the mobiles, and critical information needed by the mobile receiver to demodulate the other forward-link channels. This information includes the pilot offset of the pilot the mobile has acquired. This information allows the mobile to know where to search for the pilots in the neighbor list. System time is based on Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) time. The system time is used to synchronize system functions. However, the mobiles only know system time at the base stations plus an uncertainty due to the propagation delay from its base station to the mobile's location.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-32
January, 2002

3 - Multi-User Detection
Before After
unknown interferers wanted signal known interferers noise
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-33
There are two main approaches to the separation of CDMA spread spectrum signals at the receiver: A single-user receiver basically estimates the signal of a desired user by modeling the interfering users as noise (example: RAKE receiver). A multi-user detector, in contrast, includes all the users in the signal model. A multi-user receiver typically requires the knowledge of the codes and channels of all the users. The channels are in general estimated with the use of training sequences or pilot symbols, which however reduces the spectral efficiency. Multi-User Detection or MUD provides a means of reducing the effect of multiple access interference, and hence increases the system capacity. In the first place MUD is considered to cancel only the intra-cell interference, meaning that in a practical system the capacity will be limited by the efficiency of the algorithm and the inter-cell interference. In addition to capacity improvement, MUD alleviates the near/far problem typical to DS-CDMA systems. A mobile station close to a base station may block the whole cell traffic by using too high a transmission power. If this user is detected first and subtracted from the input signal, the other users do not see the interference. Since optimal multi-user detection is very complex and in practice impossible to implement for any reasonable number of users, a number of sub-optimum multi-user and interference cancellation receivers have been developed.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-33
January, 2002

4 - Smart Antennas
Traditional Antennas
Smart Antennas
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
4-34
Classic Base Station antennas are omnidirectional or sectored. This can be regarded as a waste of power as most of it will be radiated in other directions than toward the user. In addition, the power radiated in other directions is experienced as interference by other users. The idea of smart antennas is to use base station antenna patterns that are not fixed, but adapted to the current radio conditions. This can be visualized as the antenna directing a beam toward the communication partner only. The difference between the fixed and the smart antenna concept is illustrated above. Smart antennas will lead to a much more efficient use of the power and spectrum, increasing the useful received power as well as reducing interference. The term antenna has here an extended meaning. Smart antennas are more than just antennas but rather include a complete transceiver concept. It consists of: a number of radiating elements, a combining/dividing network, a control unit that can be called the smart antenna intelligence (normally realized using a digital signal processor (DSP)).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
4-34
January, 2002
Data Formatting over the Radio Interface
Section 5
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-1
January, 2002

Objectives
Data Data Formatting Formatting over over the the Radio Radio Interface Interface

List the stages involved in data transmission over RF waves Describe Adaptive Multi-Rate (AMR) speech codec principles Characterize channel coding main steps and techniques Describe UL and DL modulation schemes
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-2
January, 2002

From Data to RF Waves
1 - Overview
EMISSION RECEPTION
Modulating
RF WAVES TRANSMISSION
Demodulating
Channel Coding Ciphering
Channel Decoding Deciphering
Source Coding
Source Decoding
Raw Information
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Data Formatting over the Radio Interface
Rebuilt Information
5-3
The main stages to convert data (in Baseband) into RF waves are the following: Source coding is the altering of the characteristics of a signal, to make the signal more suitable for an intended application (such as optimizing the signal for transmission, improving transmission quality and fidelity). It must be as efficient as possible to minimize the amount of information transmitted on RF waves. Ciphering: consists of the use of several keys and algorithms to convert signals into an unintelligible form for secure transmission. Channel coding: consists of adding protection as well as error detection and correction to the original data. Modulation: a way to convert digital information into waves to send information on the radio interface. On the other hand, the same stages in the reverse order must be performed to recover the original data (in baseband). Definition The Baseband is the original band of frequencies produced by a transducer, before initial modulation and multiplexing, and after demultiplexing and demodulation. Baseband frequencies are usually characterized by being much lower in frequency than the frequencies that result when the baseband signal is used to modulate a carrier or a subcarrier.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-3
January, 2002

From Data to RF Waves
2- Data Types
CS: Circuit Switched CO: Conversational ST: Streaming Speech Modem/Fax Videoconferencing Radio Bearers CS CO 12.2/12.2 CS CO 64/64 CS ST 14.4/14.4 PS I/B 64/64 PS I/B 64/384
PS: Packet Switched I: Interactive B: Background Email Web Browsing Multimedia Messaging
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Data Formatting over the Radio Interface
5-4
There are two main types of service: Circuit switched services: this is a type of communications in which a dedicated channel (or circuit) is established for the duration of a transmission. The most ubiquitous circuit-switching network is the (public switched) telephone system, which links together wire segments to create a single unbroken line for each telephone call. Packet switched services: which divide messages into packets and send each packet individually. The packets may take different routes and may arrive out of order. Internet is based on a packet-switching protocol, TCP/IP.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-4
January, 2002

Source Coding
1 - Speech Coding Basics
Human Speech
UNVOICED EXCITATION LUNGS sound pressure noise-like acoustic signal MOUTH NOSE speech
VOCAL CORDS VOICED EXCITATION quasi-periodic acoustic signal
NOISE GENERATOR POWER electric signal
noise-like electric signal VARIABLE FILTER speech
EXCITATION SYNTHESIS PITCH GENERATOR quasi-periodic electric signal
Speech Synthesis
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Data Formatting over the Radio Interface 5-5
Here is an example of source coding, for speech. The first step is to understand how human speech works and then try to model it. Human speech The energy sources is the lungs, which create a sound pressure. Two types of excitation are superimposed: unvoiced excitation, which generates noise signals, voiced excitation, which generates quasi-periodic acoustic signals. These two excitations are combined through the mouth and the nose and give the speech itself. This is a very simple model. In fact the vocal chords vibrate, to produce sounds in the wind flow from the lungs: the voice sound is made by the vocal chords, and the various obstructions to air flow in the mouth and nose, such as tongue, teeth, palate, etc.. Synthetic speech Here the lungs are replaced by a power source which generates an electrical signal. This signal can feed: a noise generator which generates a noise-like signal (to reproduce unvoiced excitation), a pitch generator which generates a quasi-periodic signal ( to reproduce voice excitation). These two excitations are combined through a filter (to reproduce mouth and nose behavior) and give synthetic speech.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-5
January, 2002

Source Coding
2 - Adaptive Multi-Rate Coder
speech
PREPROCESSING filtering
0.3-3.4 kHz
sampling
20 ms/8 kHz/16 bits
MODEL PARAMETERS EXTRACTION adaptive codebook search algebraic codebook search linear filter estimation
pitch parameters
noise parameters
filter parameters
OUTPUT FORMATTING parameters bit sorting encoding X class A bits

Y class B Z class C bits
bits
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-6
AMR stands for Adaptive Multi- Rate. The AMR codec consists of eight source codecs with bit-rates of 12.2, 10.2, 7.95, 7.40, 6.70, 5.90, 5.15 and 4.75 kbit/s. The encoder produces the output information in a unique sequence and format, and the decoder must receive the same information in the same way. Two pre-processing functions are applied before the encoding process: high-pass filtering (which serves as a precaution against undesired low frequency components) and signal down-scaling (which consists of dividing the input by a factor of 2 to reduce the possibility of overflows in the fixed-point implementation). The closed-loop pitch analysis consists of searching the adaptive codebook, i.e., a process of estimating the pitch (lag) value from the weighted input speech and the long term filter state. In the closed-loop search, the lag is searched using error minimization loop (analysis-by-synthesis). In the adaptive multirate codec, closedloop pitch search is performed for every subframe. The adaptive codebook contains excitation vectors that are adapted for every subframe. It is derived from the long-term filter state. The lag value can be viewed as an index into the adaptive codebook. The algebraic codebook is a fixed codebook where algebraic code is used to populate the excitation vectors (innovation vectors). The excitation contains a small number of nonzero pulses with predefined interlaced sets of positions. Linear Prediction analysis: For each frame, the short term filter coefficients are computed using the high pass filtered speech samples within the analysis window. In the adaptive multi-rate codec, the length of the analysis window is always 240 samples. Finally, an update of the states of the synthesis and weighting filters is needed in order to compute the target signal in the next subframe.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-6
January, 2002

Source Coding
3 - Rate Adaptation
UTRAN
AMR mode selection (UL & DL)
AMR Total Class A Class B Class C mode number bits bits bits (kbps) of bits 81 103 60 12.2 244 65 99 40 10.2 204 75 84 0 7.95 159 61 87 0 7.40 148 58 76 0 6.70 134 5.90 118 55 63 0 5.15 103 49 54 0 42 53 0 4.75 95
DECREASING RADIO LINK QUALITY

12.2 7.95 6.70 5.15
INCREASING DATA PROTECTION

Speech codec output variable rate is used to adapt in real time the distribution between the transmission rate and the coding rate (i.e. protection) according to channel quality. When the channel quality is good, high audio quality is expected and few protection bits are added. On the other hand, when the transmission channel quality is bad, reducing the transmission rate allows to increase the coding rate, thus on the reception side, the speech recovery will be globally enhanced.
Here are some examples of transmission bit rates, according to the quality of the radio link. If the radio link quality decreases, the number of transmitted bits decreases also, whereas the protection of the channel increases.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-7
January, 2002

Channel Coding
1 - Error Detection Principles
CRC Introduction
CRC generator
data blocks
CRC blocks
QoS monitoring data transmission packet retransmission macrodiversity management

CRC generator
=?
CRC generator
=?
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-8
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is used for error checking of the transport blocks at the receiving end. The first operation is CRC building, based on the data blocks content. The second operation is CRC attachment. CRC blocks are added to the data blocks before transmission. The CRC length that can be inserted has different values: 0, 8, 12, 16 and 24 bits. The more bits the CRC contains, the lower is the probability of an undetected error in the transport block in the receiver. After transmission, the received CRC blocks are compared with the CRC code blocks generated on the reception side: if CRC blocks match, no transmission error has occurred, if CRC blocks are different, this means that a transmission error has occurred.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-8
January, 2002

Channel Coding
2 - Error Correction Principles
Information Redundancy
1 data bit N-bit convoluting sequence
DATA LENGTH INCREASE no coding r=1/2 convolutional coding r=1/3 convolutional coding r=1/3 turbo coding
N-bit encoded data
UMTS Implementation
coded information N bits coded information 2N bits code block of N bits coded information 3N bits coded information 3N bits
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 5-9
For error correction, main idea is to add redundancy to the original data: one data bit is transmitted over several bits. Signal length is increased thanks to convolutional coding. The same information is described by more bits, and hence can be more easily recovered, if some of the bits are lost during transmission. If the coding rate is equal to 1/X, the transmitted signal length is X times the length of the original signal. For UMTS, two types of channel coding have been defined: Convolutional coding (rate 1/2 or 1/3), which is simpler to implement and which offers a shorter processing delay. Turbo coding which is more complex but offers better protection. For common control channels, rate 1/2 convolutional coding is used. For dedicated channels, the type of channel coding depends on the requirements: rate 1/2 convolutional coding for conversational services, rate 1/3 convolutional coding for conversational or streaming services needing high channel protection (like speech), turbo coding for data interactive or background services needing a very low BER.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-9
January, 2002

Channel Coding
3 - Built-in Time Diversity
First Interleaving TTI = 40 ms
4 x 10 ms original radio frames shuffling Inter-frame interleaving
Second Interleaving
10 ms interleaved frame shuffling Intra-frame interleaving
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-10
Interleaving consists in spreading the bits of a code word into several bursts in order to improve transmission quality. The first interleaving is an inter-frame interleaving. To avoid block errors that would occur if a complete frame was lost, the transport layer distributes the bits on all the radio frames corresponding to the TTI. The TTI (Transmission Time Interval) varies according to the data rate of the service provided and can contain 1, 2, 4 or 8 radio frames. When the TTI is greater than 10 ms, i.e. equal to 20, 40 or 80 ms, the block of data will be transmitted over several radio frames (two, four or eight). The second interleaving is an intra-frame interleaving. The goal of second interleaving is to avoid block errors by shuffling bits before transmission. There is an intra-frame interleaving stage per physical channel. This second interleaving stage distributes the bits corresponding to the same radio frame and the same physical channel on the different time slots of the radio frame.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-10
January, 2002

Channel Coding
4 - Timing Constraints
Source Variable Rate radio frame mask long data block
Rate Matching
DL punctured data short data block UL
Modulating Chip Rate 3.84 Mcps

repeated data
5-11
Between source transmitting variable data rates, and fixed chip rate on the receiver side, rate matching is needed. Rate matching is done to adapt the bit rate after transport channel multiplexing to the capability of the physical channel. Rate matching is done by repeating or puncturing bits in the radio frame. Repetition is preferred in uplink whereas in downlink puncturing is used. Puncturing is used when the transmitted frame is longer than the radio frame mask: some bits of information are punctured in the data block to get a shorter information item which fits into the radio frame mask, but without any loss of information. Repetition is used when the transmitted frame is shorter than the radio frame mask: some bits of information are added to the data block to get a longer information item which fits into the radio frame mask.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-11
January, 2002

Modulation
1 - Digital Modulation Overview
Data to be transmitted: Digital Input
Basic steady wave: carrier = A.cos(2Ft+)
Amplitude Shift Keying: A.cos(2Ft+)
Frequency Shift Keying: A.cos(2Ft+)
Phase Shift Keying: A.cos(2Ft+)
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-12
Goal: to combine the digital information with an RF wave to transmit it. Digital modulation uses input signal hopping between discrete states. This type of digital modulation is called Keying. Here are three types of basic modulation: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): it is a keying in which the amplitude of a signal is varied among the members of a set of discrete values. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): it is a keying in which the modulating signal shifts the output frequency between predetermined values. Phase Shift Keying (PSK): it is the angle modulation in which the phase of the carrier is discretely varied in relation either to a reference phase or to the phase of the immediately preceding signal element, in accordance with data being transmitted.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-12
January, 2002

Modulation
2 - I/Q Representation
Theoretical Aspects
t=0
T=1/F t Q(t)
Practical Aspects
+/2 signal = A.cos(2Ft+) signal =2F cos(2Ft) Q A I I(t) I = A.cos() Q = A.sin()

=0
There are two common types of representation of modulation characteristics: Time representation - s(t) = A cos[(t) +] - where (t): pulsation or radian frequency (in radians per second), : phase relationship between radians per second and hertz: (t) = 2 Ft. I/Q representation - Vector rotation in polar coordinates I = A cos(): In-phase component

Q = A sin(): Quadrature component (carrier shifted 90 ) With A = magnitude and = phase.
Practical aspects - Local oscillator generates a reference sine wave. - Combined with data this wave gives the I(t) in-phase component. - Data combined with the same wave but with a /2 phase shift, gives the Quadrature component. - Sum of both In-phase and Quadrature components gives the signal.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-13
January, 2002

Modulation
3 - QPSK
Theoretical Aspects Q QPSK = 4-state PSK I I /4 +A/ 2 3/4 -A/ 2 5/4 -A/ 2 7/4 +A/ 2 Q +A/ 2 +A/ 2 -A/ 2 -A/ 2 -1 +1 +1 +1
-1 -1
+1 -1
Practical Aspects 0 data bits S/P 10011100 odd bits 1

NRZ -1 +1 +1 -1 Q(t)
+/2 QPSK signal
even bits
cos(2Ft) I(t)
NRZ +1 -1 +1 -1
5-14
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) modulation involves changing the phase of the transmitted wave, these finite phase changes representing digital data. In QPSK (Quaternary Phase Shift Keying) modulation, a cosine carrier is varied in phase while keeping a constant amplitude and frequency. The output waveform is the sum of modulated Cosine and Sine waves. Quaternary implies that there are four possible phases which the carrier can undergo (4-PSK). This can be represented by two bits of data (2 bits per symbol), as shown above on the characteristic constellation. The phases of the carriers can be for example: /4, 3/4, 5/4 or 7/4. Practical aspect the original data stream is split in odd and even bits, thanks to a S/P converter. Each stream is submitted to NRZ coding. Each of the signals feeds the I & Q entries of the modulator.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-14
January, 2002

Modulation
4 - DL Modulation Basics
data
Modulation Scheme
time MUX
CH#1
control
data
time MUX
QPSK
CH#N
control
Synchro CH
Time Multiplexing & DTX

data present data absent data present
pulsed transmission
In downlink, each user communicates through a dedicated channel (which contains both data and control bits). In each channel, data blocks and control blocks are first multiplexed in time, then spread and scrambled. All the data coming from the N channels are summed and sent to the inputs of the modulator. A problem arises when there is no data (information bits) to transmit. One example of a DTX service is speech. During silent periods no information bits need to be transmitted, and this results in a pulsed transmission as control data must be transmitted in any case. These pulses can be real nuisance, because: the transmission rate of the control bits is 1.5 kHz, which causes severe EMC problems to the equipment. (Note that this EMC problem is more difficult in the uplink direction since mobile stations can be close to other electrical equipment, like hearing aids), they generate big power variations which can deteriorate the mobile battery. The EMC problem caused by discontinuous transmission (DTX) is not considered as being a particular problem in downlink since: there are signals transmitted in parallel to several users at the same time, base stations are not so close to other electrical equipments. But due to these pulse phenomena, this kind of modulation is not used in uplink.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-15
January, 2002

Modulation
5 - UL Modulation Basics
data
Modulation Scheme
CH#1
data
I I/Q MUX Q
I QPSK Q
CH#N
Control CH
control
I/Q Multiplexing & DTX

data present data absent data present
I Q unbalanced I/Q branches

In uplink, the modulation scheme is different. Here in each channel, data are first spread and then sent into the I/Q multiplexer. This kind of combined IQ and code multiplexing solution does not create any pulse if no data is transmitted, as pilot and power control are on separate channels. But if there is no data, one of the branches (I) contains no power (data) whereas the other branch (Q) is still fed with some power. As the branches are unbalanced, the QPSK modulation cannot be correctly applied. To overcome this problem, complex scrambling is used, instead of traditional scrambling. In addition to providing differentiation among users, complex scrambling fixes the unequal distribution of power levels by continuously rotating the constellation and thereby distributing the power evenly between the axes. Thus, the receiver does not have to deal with different power loads for the I and Q paths.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-16
January, 2002

Modulation
6 - UL Complex Scrambling Principles
Signals
data present
I Q
data present data absent
G=1 Before
G=0
G=0.5
After
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-17
Instead of traditional scrambling, complex scrambling has been proposed for the uplink of the W-CDMA system. Why is complex scrambling required? The mobile phone can transmit multiple I/Q multiplexed channels at different power levels. In addition to provide differentiation among users, complex scrambling fixes the unequal distribution of powers by continuously rotating the constellation and thereby distributing the power evenly between the I and Q axes. Thus, the receiver does not have to deal with different power loads for the I and Q paths. Mathematically, complex scrambling performs the multiplication of two complex signals: the complex data signal, which has already been spread into chips (Ichip + j Qchip) the complex scrambling signal (IS + j QS). Therefore, the amplitude of the resulting (I + j Q) signal is the product of the amplitudes of both signals. Its phase is the sum of their phases.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-17
January, 2002

Demodulation Principles
1- Wireless Channel Estimation
Control Channel Demodulation

Coherent Detection 1 a1 RF signal frequency conversion matched filtering finger selection 2 a2 3 a3
Delay (3) Delay (1) Delay (2)
Impulse Response Estimate
rake receiver
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-18
If combining digital samples and RF waves via modulation is quite an easy and straightforward process, demodulation is much more difficult to perform. Biggest problem comes from the fact that the wireless channel induces heavy modifications of the information signal characteristics. In order to attenuate wireless channel effects a supplementary stage is introduced in the receiver prior to data demodulation. This stage aims at determining wireless channel parameters, the final result being an estimate of the wireless channel impulse response. Processing is based on the use of the pilot bits embedded in control channels, as these bits are the only ones which sequencing is a priori known. Making use of this information, de-scrambling, de-spreading and correlation computing are the main steps leading to wireless channel impulse response estimate.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-18
January, 2002

2- Information Recovery
Data Channel Demodulation
Coherent Combining
RF signal
frequency conversion
de-scrambling de-spreading
finger combining
10
Symbol Decision
00
Delay (3) Delay (1) Delay (2)
11
01
rake receiver
1 a1 2 a2 3 a3
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-19
Once wireless channel characteristics are known, fine synchronization and multipath compensation can be achieved. Each finger of the rake receiver is assigned to the processing of the signal coming from one particular path. De-spreading/de-scrambling of data chips can then be performed, combination of all the rake fingers providing the final bits estimates. weighted
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-19
January, 2002

3- Demodulator Functional Overview
Multipath Tracking
Smoothing De-Noising Complex Amplitude Interpolation
De-spreading Complex Weighting
Data Demodulating
2Fc 4Fc
De-spreading De-spreading
Scrambling Sequences Generators
Multipath Searching
Impulse Response Estimation
Power Delay Profile Computation
Finger Assignment
Scrambling Sequences Generators
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
5-20
The above figure shows a summary of the three main kind of operations performed on the receive signal in order to implement signal demodulation. Except the middle part which is dedicated to data demodulation, top and bottom parts are based on pilot bits processing. All these stages are processed in parallel at the same time.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
5-20
January, 2002
Radio Link Components
Section 6
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-1
January, 2002

Objectives
Radio Radio Link Link Components Components

List the radio link components Characterize sensitivity links with internal noise and processing gain Define Return Loss, Transmission Loss and VSWR concepts Describe linear amplification constraints and intermodulation effects Name BTS transmission chain elements and their functions
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-2
January, 2002

Overview
Radio Link Basic Architecture
Antenna Main Parameters
Coupling
Emit Power Receive Sensitivity Losses
RF Amplification
Core Network
Transmit-Receive
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-3
The basic radio link architecture is the following: In Downlink: - The Transmit-Receive unit: where all the signals coming from the Core Network are processed before being sent to the Air interface by means of an antenna system. - The RF Amplification unit: where High Power Amplification is achieved. - The Coupling unit, to share the same antenna and transmission line in the uplink as well as in the downlink. In Uplink: - The Coupling unit, to share the same antenna and transmission line in the uplink as well as in the downlink. - The Transmit-Receive unit: where all the signals coming from the Air Interface and sent to the Core Network are processed. The main parameters to be taken into account are: Emit Power: power from source is sent along to the antenna. The antenna then radiates power in a directional manner. Receive Sensitivity: is the minimum input signal required to produce a specified output signal having a specified signal-to-noise ratio, or other specified criteria. Losses: real modules do not transmit all the power they receive. Some of it will be dissipated in losses and warm it up a bit.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-3
January, 2002

Transmit Power
1- Transmit Power Split & iBTS Denomination Rules
Tx Sector Shape Carriers / Sector F1 OTSR F1 OTSR1 STSR1 OTSR2 STSR2 F2
Tx Antennas / Sector
OTSR1 STSR1 STSR
OTSR1-D STSR1-D
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-4
OTSR: Omni Transmit - Sectorial Receive STSR: Sectorial Transmit - Sectorial Receive Most of Nortel macro iBTS configurations are based on a 3-sectorial site design with 2 antennas per sector. When not specified more precisely, OTSR and STSR denominations refer to 3-sectors configurations. Below table gathers (3-sectors & 6-antennas) iBTS configuration denominations.
Tx Sectors OTSR1 OTSR1-D OTSR2 OTSR2-D STSR1 STSR1-D STSR2 STSR2-D STSR3 STSR3-D 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 Rx Sectors 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Tx Antennas 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 Rx Antennas 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Carriers per Sector 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-4
January, 2002

Transmit Power
2- OTSR Configuration
Transmit Path
Receive Path
coupler
coupler
coupler
Power Split
RF PA
Tx / Rx
3 Antennas 1 Scrambling Code

UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Radio Link Components
Continuous Softer Handover

6-5
Omni Transmit - Sectorial Receive (OTSR) is a minimum configuration in terms of capacity. Transmit power is shared between the different sectors. The antenna and the RF feeder configuration is identical to the one in STSR, not requiring changes in the cabling outside the cabinet. For a 6-antenna system, OTSR configuration uses a single Power Amplifier and one transmit power splitter to transmit in the three sectors. This arrangement is equivalent to omni-directional transmission, therefore the iBTS is declared at the RNC as a single cell. Reception is equivalent to that of a 3-sector BTS in permanent 3-way softer handover. Searching and combining are systematically performed on the three received signals.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-5
January, 2002

Transmit Power
3- STSR Configuration
Transmit Path
Receive Path
coupler
coupler
coupler
RF PA
RF PA
RF PA
Tx / Rx
3 Antennas 3 Scrambling Codes

Possible Softer Handover

6-6
Sectorial Transmit Sectorial Receive (STSR) is the typical configuration for a multisector configuration. The power allocation is independent across different sectors. The antenna and the RF feeder configuration is identical to the one in OTSR, not requiring changes in the cabling outside the cabinet. STSR configuration provides high capacity. It requires a full RF configuration (three Power Amplifiers and three coupling units or six MCPAs. The power allocation in STSR is independent across the different sectors. This allows a higher downlink capacity and upgrade from an OTSR configuration is readily achieved. STSR configuration provides high capacity and low cost per user. Since it requires a full RF configuration the installation cost given only one frequency carrier is higher than for OTSR.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-6
January, 2002

Transmit Power
4 - OTSR Configuration Table
MAX NOMINAL MIN
PA Mode Output Power PA/Antenna Antenna Output (W ) (dBm) Connector (dB) PW (dBm) 46,9 -6,2 40,8 45 46,5 -6,6 40 46,1 -6,9 39,3
Antenna Output PW (W) 11,9 9,9 8,4
Max Output Power Guaranted Output Power
OTSR CONFIGURATION 1 CARRIER OTSR1 2 CARRIERS OTSR2 1 CARRIER OTSR1 2 CARRIERS OTSR2
1 PA at (W ) 11,9 6 8,4 4,2
FULL POWER (dBm) 40,8 37,8 39,3 36,3
2 PA at (W ) 23,8 11,9 16,9 8,4
FULL POWER (dBm) 43,8 40,8 42,3 39,3
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-7
In OTSR, the same Power Amplifier generates power for the three sectors, through a power splitter which induces very high losses (around 6 dB), inside the BTS itself, between the PA output and the Antenna connector. The above table gives mean values for the output levels, the losses and the different powers available on the three antennas, one per sector.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-7
January, 2002

Transmit Power
5 - STSR Configuration Table
PA Mode Output Power PA/Antenna Antenna Output (W ) (dBm) Connector (dB) PW (dBm) 45,2 -0,9 44,3 30 44,8 -1,3 43,5 44,4 -1,6 42,8 46,9 46,5 46,1 -0,9 -1,3 -1,6 46 45,2 44,5 Antenna Output PW (W ) 26,7 22,2 18,9 40,1 33,4 28,4
MAX NOMINAL MIN MAX NOMINAL MIN
45
S TS R CO NFIGURATION M a x Output P ow e r 1 CA RRIE R S TS R 1 2 CA RRIE R S S TS R 2 3 CA RRIE R S S TS R 3
1PAat (W ) 40.1 20.1 13.4
FULL P O W ER (dBm ) 46 43 41.3
2PA at (W ) 80.2 40.1 26.7
FULL P O W ER (dBm ) 49 46 44.3
Gua ra nte d Output P ow e r
1 CA RRIE R S TS R 1 2 CA RRIE R S S TS R 2 3 CA RRIE R S S TS R 3
28.4 14.2 9.5
44.5 41.5 39.8
56.8 28.4 18.9
47.5 44.5 42.8
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-8
In STSR, there are three separate Power Amplifiers, one for each sector. No power splitter is required, and that is why: The losses inside the BTS, between the PA and the Antenna connector are smaller, mean value around 1.5 dB. The power available on each antenna is much higher than in the OTSR configuration.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-8
January, 2002

Receive Sensitivity
1 - Overview
SENSITIVITY = THERMAL NOISE POWER + NOISE FACTOR + SNR
sensitivity level required SNR receive chain NF thermal noise Time
SERVICE DEPENDENT In 3G
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-9
Sensitivity is the minimum input signal required to produce an output signal, with a specified Signal-to-Noise Ratio. Sensitivity is made of three main contributions: Thermal noise power, Receive chain Noise Factor, Output required SNR. In UMTS, sensitivity is service dependent, because it is linked to the SNR, which varies with the type of service. It depends on: required BER, receiver signal processing performance, transmit bit rate.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-9
January, 2002

Receive Sensitivity
2 - Thermal Noise Power
Thermal Noise Characteristics
Power narrowband receiver bandwidth wideband receiver bandwidth
average thermal noise power
PNo
PNo
frequency
Thermal Noise Power Quantification PNo = 10.log(kT0B) k = Boltzmann constant (1.38 10-23 J/K) T0 = receiver absolute temperature (usual ref: 290K) B = receiver Bandwidth (in Hz)
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-10
Thermal Noise is the noise generated by the continuous random motion of free electrons which are present in any conductor. The amount of motion is proportional to the conductor temperature. The noise power, PN0 , in dBm, is given by PN0 = 10*Log(kT0B) , where: k is the Boltzmann constant (in Joule per Kelvin = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K), T0 is the conductor absolute temperature (in Kelvin, usual reference: 290 K), B is the bandwidth (in Hertz). Note Thermal noise power, per Hertz, is equal throughout the frequency spectrum, depending only on temperature. It exists in any electronic component. Its level is constant and it can be modeled as a white noise. Thermal noise power in the receiver depends on the receiver bandwidth.
B
Here are some examples of thermal noise power levels according to the receiver bandwidth: PN0 = -114 dBm + 10 Log (Bandwidth in MHz)
PNo -174 dBm -144 dBm -121 dBm -114 dBm -107 dBm
1 Hz 1 kHz 200 kHz 1 MHz 5 MHz
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-10
January, 2002

Receive Sensitivity
3 - Noise Factor
NF Definition S ideal chain
IN
+ N IN G
G.S IN +
G.N
IN
N OUT = NF.G.N IN G.S real chain S IN + N IN G

IN
+ N OUT
NF = N OUT / G.N IN
Cascaded Stages Global NF
Note: S = Signal N = Noise
S IN + N IN
G1 NF1
G2 NF2
G3 NF3
G.S IN + N OUT
NF = NF1 + NF2 G1
-1
NF3-1 G1G2
+ ...
6-11
In an ideal receiver, no noise is generated internally. The only noise present at its output is electrical noise, received from external sources. This noise is present at the output of every radio receiver, and the output noise is equal to G times the input noise, where G is the amplifier gain. In a real receiver, the noise is generated primarily within the input stages of the receiver system itself. These stages are not inherently noisier than others, but noise generated at the input and amplified by the full gain (G) of the receiver greatly exceeds the noise generated further along the receiver chain. The noise performance of a receiver is described by a figure called the Noise Factor (NF), and calculated as following: NF = N OUT / G.N IN. Receive chain is composed of several modules linked together as cascaded stages. Contribution of the first module is the most relevant, so the first amplifier needs to have as low NF as possible (Low Noise Amplifier, LNA).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-11
January, 2002

Receive Sensitivity
4- SNR per Digital Sample
Digital Receive SNR 3G Sensitivity FDMA/TDMA received digital sample = bit SNR = Eb/No CDMA received digital sample = chip SNR = Ec/No = Eb/No - PG P (dBm)
PG SR
SR = 10.log(kT0B) + NF + Eb/No
SR = 10.log(kT0B) + NF + Eb/No - PG
SERVICE DEPENDENT
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-12
The main difference between GSM and UMTS lies in the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). The SNR must be at an acceptable level for each transmitted sample. In GSM, the received digital sample is one Bit, thus SNR = Eb / No. In WCDMA, the received digital sample is one Chip, thus SNR = Ec / No = Eb / No - PG.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-12
January, 2002

Transmission Losses
1 - Reflection Coefficient - VSWR
Reflection Coefficient PS PR medium 1 medium 2
PR PS
PT
PT = PS - PR PS = Source Power PR = Reflected Power PT = Transmitted Power
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio V V

MAX
VSWR =
VSWR
MIN
0 0.2 1
1 1.5
VSWR = Standing Wave Pattern

1+ 1
ideal typical worst
6-13
There are two coefficients which help to quantify the ability of a transmitted signal to travel from one medium to another with more or less loss: the reflection coefficient () the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR). The Reflection coefficient () is the ratio between the reflected wave power and the incident wave power at the point of reflection, at the border between two different media. =0 for matched impedance: all the power is transmitted from the first medium to the second one. When a transmission line is terminated by an impedance that is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line, not all of the incident power is absorbed by the termination. Part of the power is reflected back so that phase addition and subtraction of the incident and reflected waves creates a voltage standing wave pattern on the transmission line. The ratio of the maximum-to-minimum voltage is known as the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) and successive maxima and minima are spaced by 180 ( /2). Note Higher the VSWR, greater the mismatch. Minimum VSWR, (which corresponds to a perfect impedance match), is unity. Usual VSWR is around 1.5 (omnidirectional antennas example).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-13
January, 2002

Transmission Losses
2 - Return Loss - Transmission Loss
Linear Scale PR = PS - PT PT = PS - PR 1- 2 = PT / PS
2 = P R / P S
Reflection
Transmission
PR = PS - RL RL = 10.log(PS / PR) RL = -20.log() Log Scale

PT = PS - TL TL = 10.log(PS / PT) TL = -10.log(1- )

2
6-14
This slide gives the main characteristics in reflection and in transmission which can describe the efficiency of a connection between 2 elements of the radio link. Be aware that the same characteristics can be given in Linear scale or in Log scale. Here are some examples values for Reflection Coefficient, VSWR, Return Loss (RL) and Transmission Loss (TL).
0 0.2 1
VSWR RL
TL 0
1 1.5
14.0 0.2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-14
January, 2002

Intermodulation
1 - Linear Dynamic Range
Linear Component S IN
S OUT
S OUT = S IN
P OUT (dBm)
Linear Dynamic Range linear range non-linear

ideal real
1 dB
Noise Floor C1 dB C3 dB
P IN (dBm)
6-15
A linear component is a component for which the Output signal is directly proportional to the Input signal. Above plot shows the variation of output power Vs. input power for a real component. Two areas can be distinguished: linear area, where it behaves almost like an ideal linear component, non-linear area, where non-linear phenomena (saturation, intermodulation,) are not negligible anymore. The border between the linear and the non-linear zones is often defined thanks to the Compression Point at 1 dB. Definitions: Compression Point at 1 dB (respect. 3 dB) is the point where the real characteristic of the component (Output Power expressed as a function of Input Power), varies by more than 1 dB (respect. 3 dB) from the ideal characteristic. Intermodulation is the production, in a nonlinear element of a system, of frequencies corresponding to the sum and difference frequencies of the fundamentals and harmonics thereof that are transmitted through the element.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-15
January, 2002

Intermodulation
2 - Intermodulation Products Generation
Non-Linear Component S IN S OUT
S
OUT
= S IN + S2IN
S3IN
+...
S IN = cos(F1
) + cos(F )
2
Two Tone Intermodulation Products
S IN = cos(F1
)+
cos(F2
LINEAR
S2IN = cos2(F1) + cos2(F2) + 2 cos(F1).cos(F2)

S OUT = cos(2F1) cos(2F2) cos(F1 F2)
2ND ORDER
S3IN = cos3(F1) + cos3(F2) + 3 cos2(F1)cos(F2) + 3 cos(F1)cos2(F2)

cos(3F1) cos(3F2) cos(2F1 F2) cos(2F2 F1)
3RD ORDER
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-16
Linear Distortion is a form of error that creates new frequencies in the output signal under and beyond those that are present in the input signal. Intermodulation is determined by measuring the amplitude of each of the new frequencies that is created by the source of distortion. The new frequencies are called beats because they exist at frequencies that are sums, differences and multiples of the two tones present in the input signal.
3rd order intermodulation products are the most dangerous because they are unwanted and they are likely to fall very near the original input frequencies, and thus they can be present in the output working frequency band.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-16
January, 2002

Intermodulation
3 - Third Order Intermodulation Products
Intermodulation Products Spectrum
F1 F2
2F1
2F2
3F1
3F2
Third Order Intercept point P OUT (dBm)

P LINEAR = P TOI
linear range
3rd order IM products
Noise Floor IP3

P IN (dBm)
6-17
A common specification related to distortion is the Third Order Intercept Point. If the output versus input of a device is displayed graphically on a dB versus dB scale, the slope of the linear portion will be 1. If second order distortion products are displayed on the same scale they will have a slope of 2, third order distortion products will have a slope of 3, etc.. These rules are still valid for intermodulation products above the third order. Third Order Intercept Point is the point where the linear extension of the third order distortion intersects the linear extension of the output versus input line. Two tones will generate third order distortion products 3F1, 3F2, 2F1+F2, 2F1-F2, 2F2+F1 and 2F2-F1. The only third order products that fall in band, in a narrow band amplifier, are 2F1-F2 and 2F2-F1.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-17
January, 2002

Intermodulation
4 - 2G/3G Collocation Aspects
GSM / UMTS Intermodulation Analysis 2nd order IM products from GSM900 Tx fall into UMTS uplink band 3rd order IM products from GSM1800 Tx fall into UMTS uplink band No 2nd or 3rd order IM products of UMTS Tx fall in any of the GSM bands
GSM / UMTS Collocation extra Tx chain filtering use of diplexer/triplexer
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-18
To avoid intermodulation problems in GSM/UMTS collocation, possible solutions are: accurate filtering, use of diplexers and triplexers (which allow the combination of two or three BTS onto one single antenna feeder), accurate cositing rules when the same site is shared between GSM and UMTS.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-18
January, 2002

iBTS Transmission Chain
1- iBTS Generic Architecture
Sector 2 Sector 1 RF Feeders Sector 3
Power supply: -48 V dc nominal AC main
RF block
Rx signal
Interco module
Tx signal
Iub
iRNC Digital shelf
External alarms
6-19
e-mobility iBTS
The e-mobility iBTS is built around two blocks: the Digital shelf and the RF block. The main functions of the Digital shelf are: network interface, call processing, signal processing, frequency up/down conversion. The main functions of the RF block are: TX amplification, coupling. The Interco module is a passive module that carries digital signals between the two blocks.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-19
January, 2002

Alarm connectivity
2 - Internal Architecture
Digital shelf
O&M Bus
RF block
GPSAM
MCPA CCE C M EM CEM CEM CEM TTRM TRM TRM CCC M MCPA
DDM
DDM
MCPA TX Splitter
DDM
Network Interface: Iub, to the iRNC (E1 and ATM/AAL2 capability)

UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Radio Link Components 6-20
The Digital shelf includes several modules: CCM - Core Controller Module, CEM - Channel Element Module (up to 6), TRM - Transmit/Receive Module (up to 4), GPSAM - Global Positioning System and Alarm Module.
The RF block contains the RF modules: 1 to 6 Multi Carrier Power Amplifiers (MCPA), 3 or 6 Dual Duplexer Modules (DDM), 1 or 2 Tx-Splitters, in OTSR configuration only. Each of the DDM module has 2 RF ports. Both of these ports are connected to the iBTS antenna. An iBTS configuration with six DDMs will be used for UMTS hexa-sectorial, GSM dual band, and mixed mode GSM/UMTS.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-20
January, 2002

3 - Transmit Path
Alarm connectivity
Digital shelf
GPSAM
RF Block
D
to antenna system
MCPA
Tx Splitter
DDM
D
CEM CCM
TRM
MCPA
DDM
MCPA
DDM
Network Interface: Iub, to the iRNC
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-21
The Digital shelf consists of four types of module: CCM (Core Control Module): in charge of OAM management, part of call processing and internal/external data flow switching/combining, CEM (Channel Element Module): in charge of part of call processing, base band transmit/receive digital signal processing, TRM (Transmit Receive Module): in charge of the receive/transmit channelizer function, radio signal ADC/DAC function and the supporting radio shelf connectivity interface, GPSAM (GPS and Alarm): in charge of supporting external/internal alarm connectivity and the external synchronization reference interface.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-21
January, 2002

4 - Receive Path
Alarm connectivity
Digital shelf
GPSAM
RF Block
DDM
CEM CCM TRM D
from antenna system
DDM
DDM
Network Interface: Iub, to the iRNC
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-22
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-22
January, 2002

5- Core Controller Module
Digital shelf
GPSAM Power/ status LEDs Lock Holdover Activity
PCM status indicators Syn Source
CEM CCM
Test (ATM) TRM RF Block 10 MHz ES Out ES In
Port 1 (Ethernet) Port 2 (Fast Ethernet)
8 E1/T1 PCMs
Iub
The Core Controller Module (or CCM) provides: an interface with the iRNC through 8 E1/T1 backhaul links (links back to iRNC), baseband signal routing between the TRMs and the CEMs, timing reference generation from external signals: GPS antennas GPSAM) or Iub interface, internal and external data flow switching and combining, part of call processing, OAM management. On the front panel, the following indicators can be seen: two power and operational status lamps and a module active or standby status, two timing reference status: Lock and Holdover, eight PCM link synchronization status, one display to indicate the synchronization source. The front plate includes the following connectors: one connector for eight E1/T1 PCMs (Iub interface), one Port 1 (Ethernet 10Base-T), one Port 2 (fast Ethernet 10/100Base-T) used for the TIL connection, one test port (ATM), two timing reference connectors 10 MHz, ESout, Esin. (SMB) used for iBTS commissioning: (via the
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-23
January, 2002

6- Channel Element Module
Digital shelf
GPSAM Power/ status LEDs
Ethernet port (RJ45) CEM CCM TRM RF Block
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-24
The Channel Element Module (or CEM) is composed of three main units: two Base Band Units (BBU) providing chip-level signal processing and symbollevel signal processing for the uplink path, one Interface and Control Unit (ICU) providing CEM interface management and control, a Mini Backplane Board providing the -48 V or +24 V power supply. The front plate includes one Ethernet port (RJ45) and two module status indicators (LED).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-24
January, 2002

7 - Transceiver Module
Digital shelf
GPSAM Power/ status LEDs
3 RF outputs (to MCPAs)
CEM CCM
TRM RF Block
Interconnection
6 RF Inputs (from DDMs)
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-25
The TRansceiver Module (or TRM) contains the transmit/receive circuitry for three transmit chains and six receive chains. It performs: Digital-to-analog (DAC) and analog-to-digital (ADC) conversion, up and down frequency conversion (low frequency for internal processing within the iBTS and high frequency for external transmission by the antenna), amplification and variable attenuation (power control), clock recovery and synchronization. The front plate includes: three RF ouputs (to MCPAs), six RF inputs (from DDMs), one connector for digital interconnection between RF modules (MCPAs, DDMs), two module status indicators (LED).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-25
January, 2002

8 - Multi-Carrier Power Amplifier
MCPA
TRM 2 TRM 1
RF1 input (Active) RF2 input (Redund.)
PA
Forward Power Reverse Power
RF output
Data link
Control board
Power detector
MCPA shelf
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-26
The Multi Carrier Power Amplifier (MCPA) is used to amplify (up to 45 Watts) a WCDMA signal in the frequency range of 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz, without any specific tuning or adjustment. The MCPA allows for: maximum instantaneous bandwidth: 20 MHz, channel spacing of 5 MHz, the ability to power up to four 5-MHz carriers with a single unit. The PA shelf contains up to six MCPA modules in a fully configured system. There are two options to choose from for the MCPA power: 30 or 45 Watts. All interconnect cables mount to the front of the MCPAs: radio connectors (coaxial cable) -2 inputs (for TRM redundancy), -1 output, interconnection connector (Sub-D) - RS485 interface (communication with TRM), power supply interface -48 V dc or +24 V dc. The front plate has a power switch and a status indicator (red/green LED): red: location of a fault, green: equipment operating correctly.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-26
January, 2002

9 - Dual Duplexer Module
Dual-Duplexer Module
Tx port (from MCPA) Main Rx 4 ports LNA Directional couplers
Forward
Bias Tee Main Antenna
Reverse
VSWR monitor
Tx port (from MCPA)
VSWR monitor
Forward Reverse
Diversity Antenna
Div Rx 4 ports
LNA
Directional couplers
Bias Tee
DDM shelf
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-27
The Dual Duplexer Module (or DDM) shelf is designed to contain up to three Dual Duplexer Modules. However, within both the outdoor and indoor iBTS, there is a space available to place an additional 3 DDMs to allow for extra functionality. Each DDM houses two full duplexer/LNA assemblies. There is no electrical backplane in the DDM shelf. All interconnection cables connect to the front plate of the MCPAs. Connectors: 12 radio connectors (coaxial cable): -2 Antenna ports (main & diversity), -2 Tx inputs, -8 Rx outputs. an interconnection connector (Sub-D): - communication with TRM (I2C interface), Power supply. There is no cooling requirement for the DDMs, however, for cabinet specific airflow and thermal reasons, blank front plates (fillers) are required on the Outdoor iBTS only.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-27
January, 2002

10 - Tx Splitter
TX-Splitter TX Out 1 Splitter MCPA TX in TX Out 2

DDM DDM
TX Out 3
DDM
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-28
The Tx Splitter splits the RF input signal into three equal signals, thereby feeding the three sectors (OTSR only). It is designed to be installed as an alternative module within the Power Amplifier shelf. All interconnection cables connect to the front face: radio connectors (coaxial cable): -1 TX input, -3 RF outputs, interconnection connectors (Sub-D): - communication with TRM (I2C bus), power supply. One status indicator (red/green LED) indicates if the Tx-Splitter is powered or not by the 3.3 V dc: the indicator is green only if there is no alarm.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-28
January, 2002

11- Tower Mounted Amplifier
RF cables (2 per sector)
BTS
DDM
Masthead equipment
TMA
Alarm/DC LNA
TMA
DDM (main)
TMA TMA
Bias-T
Antenna (main)
Main Alarm/DC LNA DDM (diversity) Bias-T Antenna (diversity)
Diversity
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-29
The main purpose of the Tower Mounted Amplifier (or TMA) is to decrease the overall noise of the system by amplifying the receive signal. This amplifier may also be known as the Tower Mast Head Amplifier - MHA or Tower Top Amplifier - TTA. The advantages of placing an amplifier on the tower (mast), are: an increase in uplink budget (at iBTS level), a better coverage in rural areas (at cell level), increased battery life (at UE level). The TMA is a Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) designed to be mounted as close as possible to the antenna system. It compensates for the feeder loss on the receiving path by amplifying the received signal at the top of the mast. The TMA is typically used at sites with high masts. The TMA has a 1.6 dB noise figure and a gain of 12 dB. The transmit path insertion loss is assumed to be around 1 dB. The LNAs are powered from the iBTS (DDM) through the RF coaxial cable. LNA monitoring is integrated in the iBTS cabinet. Alarms are monitored by the DDMs and are reported to the Digital shelf through the IC connection between DDMs and TRMs.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-29
January, 2002

12- Diplexer - Triplexer
tri-band bi-system antenna bi-band bi-system antenna GSM 1800 UMTS GSM 900 GSM 1800 UMTS
Triplexer
Dp Feeder Cables Dp
Dp
Tp
Tp
Dp
Tp
Tp
BTS 1800
BTS UMTS
BTS 900
BTS 1800
BTS UMTS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-30
A Diplexer or Triplexer Module is used in a site-sharing configuration (GSM, DCS and UMTS) with an indoor Cellular BTS. The Indoor Diplexer or Triplexer allows the combination of two or three BTSs onto one antenna feeder. It is located near the BTS at the bottom of the tower. It is designed to operate with masthead equipment. That is why it is supplied with a lightning-protected Bias T at the antenna connector to allow feeding of up to 3 TMAs (Tower Masthead Amplifier). It is generally delivered with a DC & Alarm monitoring box which feeds 6 Triplexers. The module is located near the iBTS. At the output of the duplexers of each BTS, the RF signal is combined onto one single antenna. The Indoor Triplexer module is intended to operate in the following band: From 880 MHz to 915 MHz and from 925 MHz to 960 MHz: uplink and downlink for GSM. From 1710 MHz to 1785 MHz and from 1800 MHz to 1880 MHz: uplink and downlink for DCS. From 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz and from 2110 to 2170 MHz: uplink and downlink for UMTS.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-30
January, 2002

e-Mobility Macro iBTS
1 - Outdoor Version
Fully Integrated self-contained cell site 3 TRMs + 6 PAs in a Single Cabinet Rectifiers, battery backup, cooling system Optimized size versus capacity ratio: Footprint: 0.95 m2 Cabinet size (HxWxD): 130 x 135 x 70 cm Volume: 1240 l AC Power: Single/Split: 20 A/phase Three phase: 10 A/phase (balanced) Operational Temperature Range: -40 C to + 50 C Weight: Fully equipped = 521 kg Empty = 180 kg Acoustic: about 44 dBA at 5 feet
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-31
iBTS Outdoor characteristics: All cables enter the cabinet from a cable bulkhead located at the lower front side of the cabinet. No need for an extra site cabinet: User space and batteries are integrated in the main cabinet of the outdoor iBTS. The Outdoor iBTS cabinet is divided into three parts: the upper compartment comprises the climatic unit or iDACS, the left compartment includes the rectifiers, the functional modules, the battery, the right compartment includes the Power Amplifiers, the RF combiners, and the ac filtering.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-31
January, 2002

2 - Indoor Version
Fully Integrated self-contained cell-site 3 TRMs + 6 PAs in a Single Cabinet Optimized ratio size versus capacity: Footprint: 0.7525 m2 Cabinet size (HxWxD): 160 x 70 x 60 cm Volume: 672 l dc Power: -48 V dc and + 24 V dc ac Power, with ac power plinth: Single/Split: 20 A/phase Three phase: 10 A/phase (balanced) Operational Temperature Range: -5 C to + 50 C Weight: Fully equipped = 325.5 kg Empty = 128.5 kg ac Power Plinth = 170 kg
The iBTS Indoor product includes two versions: 700 mm width, 600 mm width. iBTS Indoor characteristics: all cables enter the cabinet from a cable bulkhead located at the top, at the front of the cabinet, the footprint is less than 1.0 m2 (for the 700 version), optional ac Power Plinth (700 version only), there are doors for security.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-32
January, 2002

3 - Configuration Example Maximal STSR Configuration: 3-sector 3-carrier Tx diversity Redundancy
CEM
GPSAM T3R6
f3 6
D
PA
CEM
f1
D
PA T3R6
f1,f2,f3 6
D
PA
CEM
CCM (0) CCM (0)

f1,f2,f3
D
PA
6
CEM
T3R6
f2
D
PA
CEM PA CEM
Network Interface
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
6-33
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-33
January, 2002

4- Exercise: Playing with Typical Upgrade Paths
OTSR2 + + + OTSR1 + + + STSR1 + + + + + + OTSR2-D
legend TRM
MCPA
+ + + STSR2 + + + STSR2-D
+ + + STSR3 + + + STSR3-D
6-34
+ + +
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
OTSR to STSR upgrade requires RF disconnections to replace the Tx splitter by two MCPA. For an OTSR configuration, adding a carrier to an OTSR1 configuration does not require to disconnect any existing RF cable. For STSR configuration, the upgrade from STSR1 to STSR2 does not require to disconnect any existing RF cable: the additional TRM needed for STSR2 is used in reception and for Tx redundancy. The upgrade from STSR2 to STSR3 could follow the same approach and can be done without any disconnection (the third TRM is used for reception only). However, in order to increase the STSR3 configuration reliability, it is recommend to use each TRM for transmission in one sector: Two RF cables have to be disconnected from the two existing TRM and connected to the third one.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
6-34
January, 2002
Antenna Engineering Fundamentals
Section 7
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-1
January, 2002

Objectives
Antenna Antenna Engineering Engineering Fundamentals Fundamentals

Describe antenna radiation principles and antenna functions Name reference antennas List antennas main characteristics and their associated units Describe isolation and coupling aspects Detail array processing and smart antennas techniques List usual cellular antenna types
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-2
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-2
January, 2002

Antenna Basics
1 - Antenna Function
Antenna Antenna
Transmission Line
Transmission Line
RF SIGNALS
TX Unit RX Unit
reciprocal passive
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Antenna Engineering Fundamentals 7-3
Most fundamentally, an antenna is a way of converting transmitter electrical signals into RF radiating waves traveling in free space and vice-versa. Antennas are: passive device. It does not itself generate any power. To operate, they require no supply voltage. They do not alter nor process RF signals and they do not amplify RF energy. - So, unless the antenna is imperfect and dissipates some power, the total antenna input power and free space field power must be the same. (In reality, all real antennas tend to be slightly resistive, causing power loss). - If they are 100% efficient, they radiate no more power than is delivered to their input terminal. reciprocal device. The antenna behaves the same way, whatever the direction of the signal power which passes through it. - Imagine making a video showing how the field flows from the source into the system and is transformed/radiated into space. If we were to replay the video backwards, the field would appear to enter from space, move through the antenna, and be transformed into a guide field heading towards the source.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-3
January, 2002

Antenna Basics
2 - Radiation Principles
Reciprocity varying radiation Hertzian Dipole I V current radiation Superposition direction of travel
varying current
Tx
/2
Tx
wavefronts
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-4
The simplest type of practical antenna is the Halfwave dipole. It consists of a straight piece of wire of length L, with a small break at its center. Its length is /2, chosen so that the dipole resonates at the operating wavelength. Power is coupled into or out of a dipole via a pair of connections placed on either side of a small central gap.
Although convenient, the dipole has a relatively low gain, however much higher antenna gain values can be obtained by using an array of dipoles. The behavior of arrays can be analyzed using the principle of field superposition. The principle of superposition tells us that the total field produced when all the sources are radiating will just be the sum of their individual fields.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-4
January, 2002

Antenna Basics
3 - Reference Antennas
Isotropic Radiator
Vertical Section
Horizontal Section
Halfwave Dipole
Vertical Section
Horizontal Section
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-5
Antennas are classified according to the way they radiate RF energy. Here are two example of the most common reference antennas. An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna (a point source) radiating energy equally in all directions of space. The radiation pattern is a sphere.
A halfwave dipole antenna is a vertical whip, which radiates energy in any direction, except straight up. There is a "null", or signal minimum, at the end of the whip. The radiation pattern, perpendicular to the whip, can be described as omni-directional.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-5
January, 2002

Antenna Characteristics
1 - Radiation Pattern (1/2)
Radiation Pattern Definition P(, ) P MAX(0, 0)
0.5 -3 dB
r ()
1
r(, ) =

ground 0 0 < 2
3 dB
The radiation pattern simply describes how an antenna focuses or directs the energy it radiates or receives. It is a graphical representation of the relative field strength transmitted from or received by the antenna. All antennas, regardless of pattern shape or gain, do not radiate more total energy than is delivered to their input connector. The antenna does not act as an absolute power amplifier; it acts rather as a directional filter, transmitting or receiving energy in one specific region of space more so than others. Radiation patterns are usually presented in polar or rectilinear form, with a dB strength scale. Patterns are normalized to the maximum graph value, 0 dB. The 3 dB beamwidth of an antenna is a measure of its angular width at -3 dB from the maximum value on the antenna pattern. These -3 dB points on the pattern represent the points on the pattern where the power level is half of the maximum value. The 3 dB beamwidth is expressed separately for each of the individual pattern sweep planes.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-6
January, 2002

1 - Radiation Pattern (2/2)
Main Parameters
90
nulls
front-to-back ratio 180 main lobe 0 3 dB beamwidth
back lobe -10 dB -3 dB 0 dB -90

side lobes
Antenna radiation patterns are taken at one frequency, one polarization, and one plane cut. The most common angular sweep planes used to describe antenna patterns are horizontal (or azimuth sweep) plane and vertical (or elevation sweep) plane. The E-plane is the plane that contains the antenna radiated electric field while the Hplane is the plane that contains the antenna radiated magnetic field. These planes are always orthogonal. The direction of highest power density is called the axis of the antenna, and the main lobe is the lobe that surrounds it. A null is a direction in which the antenna does not radiate much energy. The other radiating lobes that cannot be neglected are: The side lobes are pointing in other directions than the antenna axis. These lobes describe the relative level of minor pattern lobes outside the main beam. The back lobe is right in the opposite direction of the main lobe. The front to back ratio is the ratio between the peak amplitudes of main and back lobes. Although near impossible to implement in practice, it is desirable to eliminate antenna side lobes and back lobes completely. Antenna side and back lobes affect antenna and system performance in several ways. Indeed, energy delivered to or received by side and back lobes is from a direction other than the intended region of coverage and is therefore wasted. In a transmit mode, energy delivered to side and back lobes may be directed towards other receive systems causing interference. In a receive mode, energy from other transmit sites may be received through the side and back lobes causing interference within the system.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-7
January, 2002

2 - Power Gain
Definition P(, ) G(, ) = P REF(, )
Test Antenna Pattern dipole dB Gain ref dipole (dBd)
Reference
isotropic
G=
P MAX(0, 0) P REF(0, 0)
Conversion Gain dBd = Gain dBi - 2.15 dB
dB Gain ref isotropic (dBi) 0 dBi 0 dBd 2.15 dBi Gain dBd Gain dBi
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-8
The Power Gain is a measure of how strongly the antenna radiates compared to a reference antenna, such as a dipole or an isotropic antenna. An antenna that radiates poorly is said to have a low gain. The gain referred to an isotropic radiator is expressed in dBi. Example: an antenna that radiates 10 dB more than an isotropic antenna, has a gain equal to 10 dBi. The gain referred to a halfwave dipole is expressed in dBd. Such a dipole has an isotropic gain of 2.15 dBi, the relation linking dBd and dBi is: Gain (dBd) = Gain (dBi) - 2.15 dB. Example: an antenna that is 6 dB less efficient than a dipole antenna, has a gain equal to -6 dBd.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-8
January, 2002

3 - VSWR - Bandwidth
VSWR PT PS = PT + PR
feeder
PS PR
PR PS
VSWR
VSWR = (1 + )/(1 - ) Bandwidth

1.8 1.6
bandwidth
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2 1.0
frequency
f1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Antenna Engineering Fundamentals
f2
7-9
The VSWR provides an indication of how closely the impedance of an antenna matches the impedance of the connecting transmission line. If an impedance mismatch exists, a reflected wave will be generated towards the energy source. This reflected wave reduces the level of energy transferred between the transmission line and the antenna. This effectively reduces the total level of radiated energy relative to the energy incident at the antenna input terminal. This loss of energy reduces the effective gain of the antenna. The antenna bandwidth is given by the difference between the limiting frequencies (f1 and f2) within which antenna performance, in respect to VSWR value, falls within specified limits. In many systems, the antenna is required to operate with a VSWR: Below 1.5:1 for an omni-directional antenna, Below 1.3:1 for an sectorial antenna.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-9
January, 2002

5 - Polarization
Definition x Waves
Ey E y Ex z
Polarization States
elliptical
circular
linear
Antenna Engineering Fundamentals 7-10
The polarization of an antenna describes the orientation and sense of the radiated electric field vector of the wave (i.e. time-varying direction and amplitude). Antenna total electric field (E-field) can be viewed as the addition of two components (Ex and Ey) that lie in the same plane. These two E-field components are perpendicular and may be of different strength. Their time varying magnitude triggers the rotation and variation of the total E-field, and thus the polarization of the wave. In general, electrical waves are elliptically polarized (different magnitudes of the two components). The two most known and common cases of elliptical polarization are: Circular, in which the two E-field components are equal in magnitude, Linear, in which the wave has a single E-field component. Most cellular antennas are linear polarized (vertical or slant). Circular polarization is seldom used, except for specific in-building applications (indoor areas difficult to cover, tunnels).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-10
January, 2002

Antennas in Free Space
1- Radiated Power
Definitions
Test Antenna
EIRP Example
PI
Isotropic Radiator
PR
Reference Antenna
EIRP
PR
Halfwave Dipole
TX 100 W Test Antenna
ERP
PR
EIRP A (ref) EIRP B
EIRP = PI + Gain dBi ERP = PI + Gain dBd EIRP = ERP + 2.15 dB

PI
R
A B
100 W
= Input Power
P = Radiated Power
275 W
7-11
Definitions The Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is the apparent power transmitted towards the receiver by an isotropic radiator, (the signal is radiated as a spherical wave emanating from a point source). The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the apparent power radiated towards the receiver by a halfwave dipole antenna. Therefore, in a log scale, EIRP can be expressed as: the sum of the antenna gain of the transmitter (Gain in dBi) and the power applied to the antenna input (PI), the sum of the ERP and the gain of a half wave dipole (2.15 dBi).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-11
January, 2002

2 - Friis Transmission Formula
Assumptions R PE GE Transmit Antenna
= wavelength
GR PR Receive Antenna
TX Unit
RX Unit
matched polarizations matched maximal gain directions
P R= P E GE G
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-12
The Friis formula is an equation which gives the amount of power received by the reception antenna, according to the respective gains (GE, GR) of both antennas, their distance R, and the wavelength , with the free space propagation conditions. Note that the formula given here is in linear notation.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-12
January, 2002

3 - Isolation - Decoupling
Definition system 1 PE ??? PR system 2 Isolation = PE / PR
Examples
E/R
E/R
E/R
UMT/TRD/CN/0012 02.01/EN January, 2002 Antenna Engineering Fundamentals
E/R
7-13
In mobile-radio systems, antenna isolation is an essential parameter for base stations: a transmission to reception isolation is needed to avoid noise disturbance provided by the transmitter to the receiver, an isolation between close transmitting antennas is needed to avoid frequency intermodulation problems, moreover, antennas which isolation are weak, may interact one with another and behave like a global radiating system. The resulting radiation pattern may be completely different from each original antenna pattern. A simple way to achieve sufficient isolation consists in spacing the antennas, providing an horizontal decoupling (when antennas are aligned in an horizontal plane) or a vertical decoupling (when antennas are vertically lined up).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-13
January, 2002

4 - Vertical Decoupling
2 halfwave dipoles vertically polarized

50 45 40 35 30 25 20
/4
15
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4 1.5
1.6 1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1 2.2
2.3
spacing (wavelength)
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-14
When an antenna is placed above another one, the isolation value depends on the distance between the centers of each antenna. The above diagram shows decoupling by vertical separation of two vertical polarized halfwave dipoles mounted on a common mast with vertical spacing. The isolation between these antennas is given according to their spacing expressed in wavelength. Note When two real antennas are vertically aligned, the above curve should be lowered by the sum of the relative gain values (in the direction of both antennas).
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-14
January, 2002

5 - Horizontal Decoupling
2 halfwave dipoles vertically polarized

44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 S 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44
8 9 10
15
20
20
30
40
50 60
80
100 120
spacing (wavelength)
When antennas are aligned in an horizontal plane, larger separation (than the one needed in the vertical plane) is needed to ensure good isolation. The above diagram shows the decoupling curves obtained by horizontal separation of two vertical polarized halfwave dipoles. The isolation between these antennas is given according to their spacing expressed in wavelength. The more they are spaced, the better the isolation.
Note When the two real antennas are horizontally aligned, this curve should be lowered by the sum of the two relative gains in the direction of one antenna towards the other.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-15
January, 2002

Radiation Pattern Modification
1- Downtilt Overview
Before After
avoid overshoot redirect power towards users
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-16
Wireless network operators try to balance coverage, capacity and quality in order to optimize their network. Each factor affects the others, and different techniques are used to establish the balance. One of the techniques used to control the coverage, reduce interference and increase capacity is to down tilt the antenna, which consists in changing the angle at which the pattern maximum occurs. This can be achieved in two ways: Mechanically, by modifying the antenna position on its mast using appropriate mounting clamps. Electrically, usually by adding phase shifters in the antennas.
The goals of downtilting the antennas are: to avoid overshoot, to focus the strongest signal directly on the furthest users, towards the place where it is needed the most.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-16
January, 2002

2 - Mechanical Downtilt
COVERAGE MODIFICATIONS DUE TO MECHANICAL DOWNTILT
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-17
Mechanical Downtilt If the antenna is a fixed tilt type, then the only downtilt option is to mechanically downtilt the antenna using appropriate mounting clamps. This has some disadvantages. Mechanical downtilt reduces signal coverage at the boresite but provides less and less reduction with increasing deviation from the boresite, until eventually no reduction occurs at 90 to the boresite. Therefore cells located at 90 r elative to the boresite do not benefit from reduced interference with mechanical downtilt. As a consequence the effective horizontal half-power beam width increases with increasing mechanical downtilt angle.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-17
January, 2002

3 - Electrical Downtilt
COVERAGE MODIFICATIONS DUE TO ELECTRICAL DOWNTILT
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-18
Electrical Downtilt When electrical downtilt is used, the downtilt angle is kept constant over the entire azimuth range, by adjusting the phase of the excitations of each of the antenna array elements. The effective horizontal half power beam width remains constant and independent of the downtilt angle. The maintenance of the half beam width over a range of downtilts means that electrical downtilt provides much better interference. If the elements are all driven in-phase, the pattern maximum will occur perpendicularly to the array. If the phases of the excitations to each element are chosen correctly, however, the peak of the main lobe can be shifted (or steered) to a new angle relative to the orthogonal direction. In general, the maximum signal strength at the new pointing angle is close to but less than the one in the orthogonal case.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-18
January, 2002

4 - Mechanical Downtilt Vs. Electrical Downtilt
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-19
The above plots show RF performances of mechanical vs electrical downtilt. Co-channel Interference - Interference are received from mobile in lateral co-channel cell, - Electrical downtilt provides much better interference suppression. C/I vs. downtilt angle for electrical & mechanical Tilt - With electrical downtilt: the signal is reduced, interference are reduced more, therefore the C/I is increased. - With mechanical downtilt: the signal may be reduced, interference are reduced less, therefore the C/I is reduced. Cell Boundary control - Electrical downtilt provides better control of cell boundary than adjusting the antenna height.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-19
January, 2002

5- Examples of Radiation Pattern Modifications
Effects on Horizontal Patterns, caused by supporting structures. D = 1/4
D = mast diameter
D = 1/2
D = 3/4
d = 1/8
d = distance between Mast and Antenna
omnidirectional antenna
side-mounting brackets
d = 1/2
mounting pipe
Horizontal Radiation Patterns

Since omnidirectional antennas are seldom installed on the top of a mast, antennas are usually side-mounted. Instead of using long arms to deport antennas (which generates supplementary moments and stress) antennas are mounted a few wavelengths apart from the mast, using special brackets. The original antenna horizontal radiation pattern is then modified and depends on two parameters: D which is the mast diameter, d which is the distance between the mast and the antenna. For a specified value of D, patterns look similar for different values of d. The ratio D/ has a major influence on horizontal radiation patterns.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-20
January, 2002

6 - Null Fill
Before
Without Null Filling
After
With Null Filling
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-21
In an antenna radiation pattern, a Null may be defined as a zone in which the effective radiated power is at a minimum relative to the maximum effective radiated power of the main beam. Because there is reciprocity between the transmitting and receiving characteristics of an antenna, there will be corresponding nulls for both the transmitting and receiving functions. Null Filling consists of modifying the radiation pattern of a given antenna, by filling in spaces where there would be too poor radiated signal. This allows to attenuate the fades that occur in the received power level, each time the received signal is in the direction of a null from the radiation pattern. This smoothes the energy distribution of the antenna and allows more uniform communication performances.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-21
January, 2002

Smart Antennas
1 - Overview
Principle
SDMA
Traditional Site
Smart Site
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-22
A smart antenna system combines multiple antenna elements with a signalprocessing capability to optimize its radiation and/or reception pattern automatically in response to the signal environment. In other words, such a system can automatically change the directionality of its radiation patterns. The purposes of a smart antenna system are to: Increase Capacity: Smart antennas will increase the useful received signal level and lower the interference level, and thus increase the SIR (signal to interference ratio). Reduce Multipath Propagation: By using a narrow antenna beam at the base station, the multipath propagation can be reduced. Increase Range: As smart antennas are more directive and have a higher gain than traditional antennas, a range increase potential is available. This means that base stations can be placed further apart. Improve Security: It is more difficult to tap a connection when smart antennas are used. To successfully tap a connection, the intruder must be positioned in the same direction as the user as seen from the base station. Provide New Services: Spatial information (accessible to the network), can be used to estimate the positions of the users much more accurately than in existing networks.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-22
January, 2002

Smart Antennas
2 - Main Types
Switched Lobes Phased Array Adaptive Array
wanted signal
unwanted signals
7-23
There are three major categories of smart antennas, regarding the choice in transmit strategy: Switched lobes, which is based on a finite number of fixed, predefined patterns or combining strategies (sectors). These systems form multiple fixed beams with hightened sensitivity in particular directions. They detect signal strength, choose from one of several predetermined, fixed beams, and switch from one beam to another as the mobile moves throughout the sector. Instead of shaping the directional antenna pattern with the metallic properties and physical design of a single element, switched beam systems combine the outputs of multiple antennas in such a way as to form finely sectorized beams with more spatial selectivity than can be achieved with conventional singleelement approaches. Phased Array, which is based on the direction of arrival algorithm for the signal received from the user. Continuous tracking is achieved and it can be viewed as a generalization of the switched lobe concept. In this case also, the received power is maximized. Adaptive array, which is based on an infinite number of patterns (scenariobased) that are adjusted in real time. Using a variety of signal-processing algorithms, the adaptive system takes advantage of its ability to effectively locate and track various types of signals to dynamically minimize interference and maximize intended signal reception.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-23
January, 2002

Smart Antennas
3 - Array Antennas
1x5 Uniform Linear Array
8x5 ULA
8-element array antenna At 1.8 GHz
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-24
To process information that is directionally sensitive requires an array of antenna elements (typically 4 to 12), the inputs from which are combined to control signal transmission adaptively. Antenna elements can be arranged in linear, circular or planar configurations and are most often installed in the base stations, although they may also be used in mobile phones or laptop computers. To obtain a reasonable gain, an array antenna with several elements is necessary. Typically arrays consisting of six to 10 horizontally separated elements are needed for outdoor mobile environments, with an element spacing of 0.4-0.5 wavelengths. This means that an eight-element antenna would be approximately 1.2 meters wide at 900 MHz and 60 cm at 2 GHz. The above picture shows an eight-element antenna array at 1.8 GHz.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-24
January, 2002

3G Cellular Antennas
1- Nortel Networks Strategy Macrocell Sectorial Antennas Technical Characteristics (selection criteria / targets)
Multi-band (broadband not recommended) Cross Polarization Variable Electrical Downtilt 0 - 8 Gain 18 dBi 60 < Horizontal Beamwidth < 65 4 < Vertical Beamwidth < 10 1.2:1 < VSWR < 1.5:1 Isolation between ports > 30 dB Front to Back Ratio > 25 dB First Upper Sidelobe Suppression > -19 dB First Null Fill > -18 dB IM3 Products < -153 dBc
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-25
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-25
January, 2002

2 - Single Band UMTS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-26
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-26
January, 2002

3 - Dual Band GSM900-UMTS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-27
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-27
January, 2002

4 - Dual Band GSM1800-UMTS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-28
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-28
January, 2002

5 - Triple Band GSM900-GSM1800-UMTS
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-29
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-29
January, 2002

6- Other 3G Antennas
Sectorial Microcell Omnidirectional Microcell Indoor Omnidirectional Macrocell
Tunnels
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-30
Here are a few examples of various antennas designed for other configurations than Macrocell OTSR/STSR or for more specific applications.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-30
January, 2002

Radiating Cables
1 - Overview
Typical use
-50 -55 -60 -65 -70 -75 -80 -85 -90 -95 -100
Characteristics
Median Coupling Loss (50%)
Length
100
10
Examples @ 450 MHz: 23 dB/km 1"5/8 slotted 40 dB/km 7/8" slotted 53 dB/km 1/2" slotted
1 1
10 100 frequency (MHz)
1000
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-31
Leaky feeders are partially shielded coaxial cables used to distribute signals throughout an underground mine. They are considered as an alternative to conventional antennae for indoors micro-cells. Physical description The most commonly used cable is the intermittent-slot coaxial cable. It consists of a tubular inner conductor surrounded by a polyethylene dielectric foam. It is covered with a corrugated and welded copper outer conductor. The outer conductor supports specially designed slots to allow energy to couple into or out of the cable (good analogy with the garden sprinkler hose). But the further you travel away from the source, parallel to the cable, the more the field strength will diminish, according to the cables coaxial attenuation (radiated power loss + heating loss + dielectric loss). Coupling Loss Coupling loss is defined as the ratio in dB between the signal level inside the cable and the level received on a dipole antenna 6 meters away from the cable. Actual coupling loss may vary from 5 to 10 dB around the median coupling loss value. Longitudinal Loss The inherent attenuation of signal associated with the use of leaky feeders is characterized by a loss that depends both on the size of the cable and on the operating frequency.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-31
January, 2002

Radiating Cables
2 - Point Source Antennas Vs. Radiating Cables
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-32
Here is a comparison between the use of a leaky feeder and point source antennas. With a Leaky Feeder: No hot spots nor shadowed areas as with point source antennas. Homogeneous coverage.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-32
January, 2002

Radiating Cables
3 - Leaky Feeders
Side View
to BTS
1 5 4 3 2
4 1 3
Top View
Example of configuration Antenna 1 is directed towards a distant outdoor neighboring BTS. It drives a repeater at the entrance of the tunnel. A two-direction coupler delivers the signal to the leaky cables. Inside the tunnel coverage is provide by the radiating cables. At the end of each cable, four antennas (2 & 3 and 4 & 5) provide the other side entrance coverage.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-33
January, 2002

Custom Antennas
Camouflage Solutions
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
7-34
There are many ways to blind BTS antennas, hiding them or reshaping them
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
7-34
January, 2002
Glossary
Section 8
Glossary
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Glossary
8-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
8-1
January, 2002
Glossary
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
8-2
January, 2002
Glossary
A
ADC AMR
Analog to Digital Conversion/Converter A device that converts an analog signal to a digital signal that represents equivalent information. The codec adapts its bit-rate allocation between speech and channel coding, thereby optimizing speech quality in various radio channel conditions. Modulation technique in which the amplitude of a signal is varied among the members of a set of discrete values. Modulation in which a signal is sampled, and the magnitude of each sample is quantized and digitized for transmission over a common transmission medium. Noise having a frequency spectrum that is continuous and uniform over a specified frequency band B = log(P1/P2). A unit of measure of ratios of power levels unit B = log(P1/P2) The difference between the limiting frequencies within which performance of a device, in respect to some characteristic, falls within specified limits. Expressed in Hz. A unit in the CEM module (i-BTS) A downlink point to multipoint logical channel in UMTS systems used to send identification and organization information about common control channels and cell services. The number of erroneous bits divided by the total number of bits transmitted, received, or processed over some stipulated period. Modulation technique that uses alternative sine wave phase to encode bits. Common name for all the radio equipment located at one fixed location, and that is used for serving one or several cells. Same as BS c = 3.108m/s A technology used in cellular networks to increase capacity and security within a given bandwidth. In CDMA multiple channels are independently coded for transmission over a single wideband channel. i-BTS module: in charge of OAM management, part of call processing and internal/external data flow switching/combining, i-BTS module: in charge of part of call processing, base band transmit/receive digital signal processing. Stands for Channel Distance unit
Adaptive Multi-Rate
ASK ATM
Amplitude Shift Keying
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AWGN
Additive White Gaussian Noise
B
B B or BW
Bel Bandwidth
BBU BCCH
Base Band Unit Broadcast Control Channel
BER B-PSK BS BTS
Bit Error Rate
Binary Phase Shift Keying Base Station
Base Transceiver Station Light speed in free space Code Division Multiple Access
C
c CDMA
CCM CEM CH cm
Core Control Module
Channel Element Module
abbreviation Centimeter
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-3
January, 2002
Glossary
CRC CS
Cyclic Redundancy Check Circuit Switched Error-detection scheme, used for error checking of the transport blocks at the receiving end. A data transmission service requiring the establishment of a circuit-switched connection before data can be transferred from source to destination. The ratio of power in an RF carrier to the interference power in the channel. Point where the real characteristic of the component (Output Power expressed as a function of Input Power), varies by more than 1 dB from the ideal characteristic. Point where the real characteristic of the component (Output Power expressed as a function of Input Power), varies by more than 3 dB from the ideal characteristic. A device that converts a digital input signal to an analog output signal carrying equivalent information. One tenth of the common logarithm of the ratio of relative powers, equal to 0.1 B. P (in dB)=10.log(P1/P2) In the expression of antenna gain, the number of decibels of gain of an antenna referenced to the zero dB gain of a free-space isotropic radiator. P in dBm = 10.log(P)+30 dB. 0 dBm = 1 mW GSM1800, GSM1900 i-BTS module which houses two full duplexer/LNA assemblies From the Base Station towards the User Equipment. Channel used to carry dedicated control information generated in layer 1. UL & DL. Channel used to carry dedicated data coming from layer 2 and above. UL & DL. RNC that supports the Serving RNC with radio resources when the connection between the UTRAN and the UE needs to use cell(s) controlled by this RNC. Same as DS-SS. In a computer, a functional unit that interprets and executes instructions. A signal structuring technique utilizing a digital code sequence having a chip rate much higher than the information signal bit rate. Each information bit of a digital signal is transmitted as a pseudorandom sequence of chips. Abbreviation The effect produced by the existence of an electric charge in the volume of space or medium that surrounds it.
C/I C1dB
Carrier-to-Interference ratio Compression Point at 1 dB
C3dB
Compression Point at 3 dB
D
DAC dB dBi dBm DC DCS DDM DL DPCCH DPDCH D-RNC
Digital to Analog Conversion/Converter
Decibel
dB relative to an Isotropic radiator
dB referenced to one Milliwatt Direct Current Digital Cellular System Dual Duplexer Module Downlink Dedicated Physical Control CHannel Dedicated Physical Data CHannel Drift Radio Network Controller
DS DSP DS-SS
Direct Sequence Digital Signal Processor Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
DTX
Discontinuous Transmission Electric Field
E
E-Field
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-4
January, 2002
Glossary
EX ,EY Eb Eb/N0
x-component (y-component ) of the E-field Bit Energy Signal to Noise Ratio (per bit)
Ec Ec/N0
Chip Energy Signal to Noise Ratio (per chip)
EIRP ERP EM EMC
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power Effective Radiated Power Abbreviation Electro-Magnetic Compatibility
Average energy per bit In the transmission of a pulse of an electromagnetic wave representing a bit, the ratio of the energy in each bit, Eb, to the noise energy density per hertz. Average energy per chip In the transmission of a pulse of an electromagnetic wave representing a chip, the ratio of the energy in each chip, Ec, to the noise energy density per hertz. Apparent power transmitted towards the receiver by an isotropic radiator Apparent power radiated towards the receiver by a halfwave dipole antenna. Stands for Electro-Magnetic Condition which prevails when telecommunications equipment is performing its individually designed function in a common electromagnetic environment without causing or suffering unacceptable degradation due to unintentional electromagnetic interference to or from other equipment in the same environment. For a periodic function, the number of cycles or events per unit time. Of an antenna, the gain in a specified direction, i.e., azimuth, usually that of maximum gain, compared to the gain in a direction 180 from the specified azimuth. Usually expressed in dB. The Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use 2 separate frequency bands: Uplink from 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz. Downlink from 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz. The use of frequency division to provide multiple and simultaneous transmissions to a single transponder. The number of erroneous frames divided by the total number of frames transmitted, received, or processed over some stipulated period. Repeated switching of frequencies during radio transmission according to a specified algorithm, to minimize unauthorized interception or jamming of telecommunications. A signal structuring technique employing automatic switching of the transmitted frequency. Frequency modulation in which the modulating signal shifts the output frequency between predetermined values. 1) The ratio of output current, voltage, or power to input current, voltage, or power, respectively. Expressed in dB for Amplifiers
F
F F/B
Frequency Front to Back Ratio
FDD
Frequency Division Duplex
FDMA FER FH
Frequency Division Multiple Access
Frame Error Rate
Frequency Hopping
FH-SS FSK
Frequency Hopping Spread System
Frequency Shift Keying
G
G
Gain
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-5
January, 2002
Glossary
2) The ratio of the power required at the input of a loss-free reference antenna to the power supplied to the input of the given antenna to produce, in a given direction, the same field strength at the same distance. Expressed in dBi/dBd for antennas. Frequency unit 1 GHz = 109Hz GPS refers to satellite-based radio positioning systems that provide 24 hour three-dimensional position, velocity and time information to suitably equipped users anywhere on or near the surface of the Earth. i-BTS module in charge of supporting external/internal alarm connectivity and the external synchronization reference interface. One of the leading digital cellular systems. The European standard for digital cellular telephony defined by ETSI. Its implementation is not confined to Europe but covers a large area of the world and is almost regarded as the de facto world standard. A space modified by the presence of magnetic field lines is called a "magnetic field". Base Station antenna height, given in meters. Process of transferring a phone call in progress from one cell transmitter and receiver and frequency pair to another cell transmitter and receiver using a different frequency pair without interruption of the call. The SI unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second. of a modulated signal in polar coordinates 3rd generation BTS 3rd generation RNC Interference cancellation algorithm can be used for a low rate user to cancel the interferences from high rate users. The IC improves the SNR, and thus the system performance. A unit in the CEM module (i-BTS) providing CEM interface management and control. Stands for Identity Emission from another transmitter at approximately the same frequency, or having a harmonic frequency approximately the same as, and which impedes reception of the desired signal by the intended recipient. The production, in a nonlinear element of a system, of frequencies corresponding to the sum and difference frequencies of the fundamentals and harmonics thereof that are transmitted through the element.
GHz GPS
Giga Hertz Global Positioning System
GPSAM GSM
Global Positioning System and Alarm Module Global System for Mobile communication
H
H-Field h HPA HO
Magnetic Field Height See PA Handover
Hz
Hertz
I
I i-BTS i-RNC IC
In-Phase component Internet BTS Internet Radio Network Controller Interference Cancellation
ICU ID I0
Interface and Control Unit abbreviation Interference level
IM
Intermodulation
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-6
January, 2002
Glossary
IP3
Intercept Point (3rd order) For an amplifier characteristic, point where the linear extension of the particular distortion intersects the linear extension of the input versus output line. Between RNC and access Node B. I and Q components in polar coordinates. The Joule is the standard unit of energy in electronics and general scientific applications. One joule is the equivalent of one watt of power radiated or dissipated for one second. Number relating the average energy of a molecule to its absolute temperature: approximately 1.38 10-23 J/K). A unit of thermodynamic temperature, taken as one of the base units of the SI.
Iub I/Q
Interface name In-Phase and Quadrature Components Joule
J
J
K
k K kbps
Boltzmann Constant
Kelvin Kilo-bit per second Length Long Constrained Data services Low Noise Amplifier Line Of Sight
L
L LCD LNA LOS
In general, in an equation, expressed in meters CAUTION: obsolete term Kind of performant amplifier Position of the Mobile where the direct signal combines with the reflected and refracted ones. But the direct signal remains the dominant one. Connection of a user to two or more switching centers by separate access lines using a single message routing indicator or telephone number. i-BTS component used to amplify a W-CDMA signal in the frequency range of 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz, without any specific tuning or adjustment. A measure of the number of bits (chips) per second in the spreading sequence of direct sequence spreading code. Frequency unit: 1MHz = 106Hz Diversity combiner in which the signals from each channel are added together, the gain of each channel is made proportional to the root mean square signal level and inversely proportional to the mean square noise level in that channel, and the same proportionality constant is used for all channels. User equipment Special form of frequency shift keying, with minimum spacing that allows two frequencies states to be orthogonal. A multi-user receiver includes all the users in the signal model without modeling the interfering users as noise. MUD provides a means of reducing the effect of multiple access interference, and hence increases the system
M
MA MCPA
Multiple Access
Multi-Carrier Power Amplifier
Mcps MHz MRC
Mega-chips per second
Mega-Hertz Maximal Ratio Combining/Combiner
MS MSK MUD
Mobile Station Minimum Shift Keying
Multi User Detection
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-7
January, 2002
Glossary
capacity. Stands for Multiplexer An undesired disturbance within the frequency band of interest; the summation of unwanted or disturbing energy introduced into a communications system from man-made and natural sources. The ratio of the output noise power of a device to the portion thereof attributable to thermal noise in the input termination at standard noise temperature (usually 290 K). Position of the Mobile where the direct signal is not received and only the reflected and refracted signals combine. The noise power, usually relative to a reference. Note: Noise level is usually measured in dB for relative power. A code in which "1s" are represented by one significant condition and "0s" are represented by another, with no neutral or rest condition.
MUX
abbreviation Noise
N
N
NF
Noise Factor
NLOS N0 NRZ
Non Line Of Sight
Noise Level
Non Return to Zero coding
O
OAM OTSR OVSF
Operation Administration and Maintenance Omnidirectional Transmit Sectorial Receive In Base Stations, this arrangement is equivalent to omni-directional transmission. The Reception is equivalent to that of a 3-sector BTS . Channelization codes that preserve the orthogonality between the users different physical channels. The 512 primary OVSF codes are defined using a code tree. In general, in an equation Electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or power of a signal. Modulation in which a signal is sampled, and the magnitude of each sample is quantized and digitized for transmission over a common transmission medium. Gain obtained through the de-spreading process and proportional to the bandwidth of the SS. Noise that satisfies one or more of the standard tests for statistical randomness. In SS systems, modulated carrier transmissions appear as pseudorandom noise to a receiver that is not locked on the transmitter frequencies or that is incapable of correlating a locally generated pseudorandom code with the received signal. The noise generated by thermal agitation of electrons in a conductor. The noise power, P, in watts, is given by P = kTB, where k is Boltzmann's constant in
Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor
P
PS,R,T PA PCM
Power Sent, Received, Transmitted Power Amplifier Pulse Code Modulation
PG PN
Processing Gain Pseudo random Noise
PN0
Thermal Noise Power
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-8
January, 2002
Glossary
joules per elvin, T is the conductor temperature in Kelvins, and B is the bandwidth in hertz. A service that provides for the transmission of data in the form of packets, switches data at the packet level, and may provide for the assembly and disassembly of data packets. In a communications system, the representation of characters, such as bits or quaternary digits, by a shift in the phase of an electromagnetic carrier wave with respect to a reference, by an amount corresponding to the symbol being encoded. Rate of transfer or absorption of energy per unit time in a system. Of a modulated signal in polar coordinates. 1) The performance specification of a communications channel or system. 2) A subjective rating of telephone communications quality in which listeners judge transmissions by qualifiers, such as excellent, good, fair, poor, or unsatisfactory. Phase-shift keying in which four different phase angles are used. A telecommunications service that allows transmission of user-information signals between user-network interfaces. Stands for Radio Frequency. Any frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum normally associated with radio wave propagation. The ratio, at the junction of a transmission line and a terminating impedance or other discontinuity, of the amplitude of the reflected wave to the amplitude of the incident wave. Delay spread method used in probability and statistics used to give a common measure of a multipath delay spread. Its main function is to control and manage the Radio Access Network (RAN) and the radio channels. The RNC supports the following open interfaces standardized by 3GPP: Iub: interface between RNC and Node B Iu: interface between UTRAN (Access Network) and the Core Network Iur: interface between two RNCs Stands for: reception, receiver, receive GSM measurement unit
PS
Packet Switched
PSK
Phase Shift Keying
PW
Power
Q
Q QoS
Quadrature component Quality of Service
QPSK
Quaternary Phase Shift Keying
R
RAB RF RL
Radio Access Bearer Service
abbreviation
Return Loss
RMS RNC
Root-Mean-Square
Radio Network Controller
RRM RX RxQual
Radio Resource Management abbreviation Receive signal Quality
S
S
Signal Detectable transmitted energy that can be used to carry information.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-9
January, 2002
Glossary
SCH
Synchronization Channel Used in any synchronization procedure between BTSs and Mobile. It is needed for the cell search. SCH consists of two channels, the primary and the secondary synchronization channels. Number of chips per data bit in the spreading sequence. A SF composed of n chips causes a spread of the signal by a factor n. The UE can communicate with more than one sector at a time. The UE can transmit with reduced power, thereby reducing the background noise it creates for other users. The ratio of the amplitude of the desired signal to the amplitude of interference signals at a given point in time. Kind of connector The ratio of the amplitude of the desired signal to the amplitude of noise signals at a given point in time. RNC which is in charge of the radio connection between the UE and UTRAN. There is one Serving RNC for each UE that has a connection to UTRAN. Telecommunications techniques in which a signal is transmitted in a bandwidth considerably greater than the frequency content of the original information. For base station configurations. Power allocation in STSR is independent across the different sectors. A temperature measure, in kelvins (K), proportional to the thermal energy of a given body at equilibrium. Signal temporal period T = 1/F bit duration chip duration The Uplink and the Downlink transmissions are carried over the same frequency. Two frequency bands are allocated to TDD: From 1900 MHz to 1920 MHz. From 2010 MHz to 2025 MHz. System of allocating a number of calls to a cellular channel by using time slots. Period of time (a few milliseconds) during which transmission and reception are halted, in order to perform measurements on the other frequencies. The information-bearing signal is not transmitted continuously. Instead, the signal is transmitted in short bursts where the times of the bursts are decided by the code signal. French term. Equipment used to install, commission and maintain iBTSs. The decrease in power that occurs during transmission from one point to another.
SF SHO
Spreading Factor
Soft Handover
SIR SMB SNR S-RNC
Signal to Interference Ratio
Signal to Noise Ratio
Serving RNC
SS
Spread Spectrum
STSR
Sectorial Transmit Sectorial Receive
T
T T Tb Tc TDD
Temperature - in Kelvin
Signal Period - in seconds Bit Time Chip Time Time Division Duplex
TDMA TGL TH or TH-SS TIL TL
Time Division Multiple Access Transmission Gap Length
Time Hopping Spread Spectrum
Terminal dInstallation Locale Transmission Loss
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-10
January, 2002
Glossary
Transmission loss is usually expressed in dB. i-BTS component which purpose is to decrease the overall noise of the system by amplifying the receive signal. i-BTS component which contains the transmit/receive circuitry for three transmit chains and six receive chains. It performs Digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital conversion, up/down frequency conversion, amplification and variable attenuation and clock recovery/synchronization. Period of time during which certain activities are governed by specific regulations. Time Interval which can last 10, 20, 40 or 80 ms, and which varies according to the data rate of the service provided. It can contain 1, 2, 4 or 8 radio frames. Stands for: emission, emitter, emit.
TMA TRM
Tower Mounted/Masthead Amplifier
Transceiver Module
TS TTI
Time Slot Transmission Time Interval
TX
abbreviation Unconstrained Delay Data services User Equipment Uplink
U
UDD UE UL ULA UMTS UTRA
CAUTION: obsolete term Stands for: mobile user terminal From the User Equipment towards the Base Station. Kind of printed antenna in which the radiating Uniform Linear Array elements are arranged in one or more dimensions. Universal Mobile Telecommunication System Third generation telecommunications system based on W-CDMA DS. UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access A W-CDMA standard developed by ETSI, ARIB and the TIA. This system uses DSSS and either FDD or TDD depending on its frequency assignment and application. UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network Voltage Standing Wave Ratio In a transmission line, the ratio of maximum to minimum voltage in a standing wave pattern. The VSWR is a measure of impedance mismatch between the transmission line and its load. The higher the VSWR, the greater the mismatch. The minimum VSWR, i.e., that which corresponds to a perfect impedance match, is unity. The watt (abbreviated W) is the standard unit of power (or energy per unit time) and is the equivalent of one joule per second. A 3G radio interface using DSSS, and both FDD and TDD depending on the frequency assignment.
UTRAN
V
VSWR
W
W W-CDMA
Watt
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
Z
Z0
Wave Impedance At a point in an electromagnetic wave, the ratio of the electric field strength to the magnetic field strength. Z0 = E/H, Expressed in Ohms.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-11
January, 2002
Glossary
,
Lambda: Wavelength The distance between points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles of a wave. Note: The wavelength, , is related to the propagation velocity, v , and the frequency, f , by = v /f .Expressed in meters. 3.14 The ratio of the amplitude of the reflected wave and the amplitude of the incident wave. 1s = 10-6s =2F (with F=frequency)
PI Ro: Reflection coefficient Microsecond Omega: Signal pulsation 2 Dimensions 2nd Generation 3 Dimensions 3rd Generation
1 9
2D 2G 3D 3G
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 8-12
January, 2002
Exercise
Section 9
Exercise
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Exercise
9-1
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
9-1
January, 2002
Exercise
Exercise
1- DDM Transmit Power
Dual-Duplexer Module MCPA
PPA = 40 dBm
Directional couplers LNA

Forward
Bias Tee
PTX = ?
Reverse
VSWR monitor
VSWR monitor
Forward Reverse
LNA
Directional couplers
Bias Tee
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Exercise
9-2
The UMTS DDM is a common module of the Indoor and Outdoor iBTS. Its principal functions are: isolation between Tx and Rx bands to share a single antenna port, Tx and Rx out of band filtering, low noise amplification of Rx signals and split into four local outputs. On the Tx path, MCPA feeds DDM through the Tx port. Tx signal is then filtered and sent to the antenna port. Question At the DDM Tx port, the RF signal delivered by the MCPA has a power of 40 dBM. The DDM transmit chain induces various power alterations associated to parameters such as gains, insertion losses, RL, TL, VSWR What is the value of the power at the DDM antenna port? Note DDM technical specifications are gathered in pages 9-7 and 9-8.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
9-2
January, 2002
Exercise
Exercise
2- EIRP
EIRP = ?
PTX
32 m Feeder
MCPA
DDM
MCPA
DDM
MCPA
DDM
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Exercise
9-3
DDM antenna ports are connected to a cross-polar antenna via 32-meter feeders. The selected UMTS antenna is single band, with 65 hori zontal beamwidth, 17.5 dBi gain and variable electrical downtilt (a product from CSA). The chosen feeder is a 7/8 foam-dielectric low loss cable (manufactured by RFS). Question The last elements of iBTS transmit chain (feeder+antenna) induce various power alterations associated to parameters such as gains, insertion losses, RL, TL, VSWR Using the results of the previous question, what is the site EIRP? Note Feeder technical specifications are given in pages 9-9 and 9-10. Antenna datasheet is located at page 9-11.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
9-3
January, 2002
Exercise
Exercise
3- DDM Receive Power
EIRP
Dual-Duplexer Module 32 m Feeder
PRX= ?
LNA VSWR
PTRM= ?
500 m Free Space
VSWR
LNA
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Exercise
9-4
Another similar STSR iBTS is located 500 meters away from the first one. There is no obstacle between the two antennas and the corresponding first Fresnel ellipsoid is clear. Questions What is the power at the second DDM antenna port? What is the power at the second DDM Rx ports?
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
9-4
January, 2002
Exercise
Exercise
4- IM3 Products
P OUT (dBm)
linear range
3rd order IM products
Noise Floor IP3
P IN (dBm)
Two -30 dBm Tones
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
January, 2002
Exercise
9-5
DDM technical specifications are given assuming that IP3 is not degraded with tone spacing. Question Two -30 dBM tones are received at DDM Rx input. What is the third order intermodulation products output level? Note DDM technical specifications are gathered in pages 9-7 and 9-8.
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
9-5
January, 2002
Exercise
Student notes
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN
9-6
January, 2002
Exercise
5- DDM Technical Specifications

DDM Block Diagram
Transmit Section Specifications

Parameter Bandpass Frequency Bandpass Flatness Bandpass Insertion Loss Nominal Impedance Tx Port Return Loss Tx Input Frequency Selectivity Condition RLosses not included Antenna And Tx Ports Reference = 50 Ohms DC to 1980 MHz 1980 to 2025 MHz 2025 to 2110 MHz 2110 to 2250 MHz 2250 to 6550 MHz 6550 to 12750 MHz Antenna Port Return Loss Tx to Antenna Ports Isolation Tx to Rx Ports Isolation Reference = 50 Ohms Main/Div Main/Main Min 2110 14 90 70 25 25 50 25 14 30 90 - LNA gain Nom Max Unit 50 2170 MHz 0.2 1 dB dB dB dB dB Ohm dB dB
"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 9-7
January, 2002
Exercise
Receive Section Specifications

Parameter Bandpass Frequency Bandpass Flatness Bandpass Gain Condition 5 MHz window No TMA Mode (RLosses not included) TMA Mode Nominal Impedance Noise Figure Antenna And Rx Ports No TMA Mode TMA Mode IP3 Input No TMA Mode TMA Mode Input 1dB Compression Point Rx Port Return Loss Rx Input Frequency Selectivity Reference = 50 Ohms DC to 1880 MHz 1880 to 1920 MHz 1980 to 2010 MHz 2010 to 2110 MHz 2110 to 2200 MHz 2200 to 12750 MHz Antenna Port Return Loss Rx to Antenna Ports Isolation Rx to Rx Ports Isolation Reference = 50 Ohms Main/Main Main/Main 14 -10 -5 -40 14 55 35 25 50 90 55 14 50 20 16 50 18 2 3 dB dB dB dBm dB dB dBm Ohm dB Min Nom Max Unit 1920 23 25 1980 MHz 0.3 27 DB dB
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 9-8
January, 2002
Exercise
6- Feeder Technical Specifications
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 9-9
January, 2002
Exercise
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 9-10
January, 2002
Exercise
7- Antenna Technical Specifications
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 9-11
January, 2002
Exercise
UMT/TRD/CN/0012
02.01/EN 9-12
January, 2002

UM40

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

UM40

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMTS RF Engineering Fundamentals

9-1 9-2 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-5 9-7 9-9 9-11

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Base Transceiver Station

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Radio Network Planning UM41 UM42

Overview / Fundamentals Project / Practical

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

At the end of this section you will be able to:

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

Wave Speed c = 3.108m/s

Wave Impedance Z0 = E/H = 120.

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

Antenna Reception Point

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena

Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation Phenomena