FLUID MECHANICS Fundamentals and Applications (in SI Units) aR “eHWS see tcorm ‘Adapted in India by arrangement with The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York Sales Territories: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Bhutan Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications (SI Units), 2/¢ First reprint 2010 RAZVCRBZDLAAB Copyright © 2010, 2006, by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance leaning. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. 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If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought, Typeset at Text-o-Graphics, 1/36 Arawali Apartment, Sector 34, Noida 201301 and printed at Pushp Print Services, B-39/12A, Gali No. 1, Arjun Mohalla, Moujpur, Delhi 110 053, Cover printed at: Rashtriya PrintersBRIEF CONTENTS CHAPTER NINE DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW 419 CHAPTER FIFTEEN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS 853CONTENTS Application Aveos of Fluid Machanies 4 The No-Slip Condition 6 ‘System and trol Volume 6 _ Importance of Dimensi bai apa nd English Units Dimensional Homogeneity 19 Unity Conversion Ratios 20 asurement Devic3-4 _ Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces 88 ‘Special Case: Submerged Rectanguar Piate_90 3-5 __ Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved ‘Surfaces 93 $6 Buoyancy and Stability _97 Stabilty of mmersed and Floating Bodies 100 3-7 __ Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion _102 Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest _104 Special Care 2: Free Fall ofa Fluid Body 108 ‘Acceleration ona Straight Path 105 Rotation ine Gyindricel Continer 107 Summary 110 References and Suggested Reading 112 CHAPTER FOUR FLUID KINEMATICS 131 #1 ian and Eulerian Descriptions _132 Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques 148 ‘Surface Flow Visualization Tectniques 146 4-3 Plots of Fluid Flow Data 146 Poole Pots 147 Vector Plots 147 Contour is 148 4-4 Other Kinematic Descriptions 149 ‘Types of Mation or Deformation of uid Elements _149 4-5 Vorticity and Rotationality 154 Comparison of wo Circular Flows 157, 4-6 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 158 Attcnate Derivation af the Reynolds Transnort Theorem _163 Relationship between Material Dernative and RTT_165 Summary 168 Application Spotlight: Fluidic Actuators _167 References and Suggested Reading 168 Problems Ie CHAPTER FIVE : MASS, BERNOULLI, AND ENERGY EQUATIONS 183 S=1__Intrnduction 184 Cconsenvaton otMass 184 The Linear Momentum Equation 184 Conservation of Energy 184 5-2 Conservation of Mass 185 "Mass and Yoluine Flow Rates 185 ‘Conservation of Mass Principle 187 Moving or Deforri 1 Val Mass Balance fr Steady.Flow Processes 189 Specel Case: Incompressble Flow 190 9-3 Mechanical Energy and Efficiency 192 54 The Bernoulli Equation _197 Acceleration ofa Fluid Particle 197 Derivation of the Bemoull Equation 108 fSoure Balance across Streamlines 200, Unsteady, Compressibie Flow 200 Satie, Dyramic, and Stagnation Pressures 200 ‘imitations on the Use ofthe Bernoulli Equation 202 Hidraulc Grade Line (HGL) and Enecey Grade ine (ESL) 203 Applications ofthe Bernoulli Eavation 205 5-5 General Energy Equation 212 Eneray Transfer by Heat, Q 213 Energy Transfer by Work, W213 5-6 _ Energy Analysis of Steady Flows 217 ‘Specal Gase:incomoressibe Flow wn No ‘echanical Work Devces and Neglable Esction 218 Kinotic Ener ion Factor. 21 sume References anc Suggested Reading 227 6-2 Choosing A Control Volume 241 6-3 Forces Acting On A Control Volume _2426-4 _TheLinear Momentum Equation 245 8-3 The Entrance Region 341 specal Gases 247 Ent Lengns 342 Momantum-Flox Correction Fector,6 247 : . Seopa ecient 8-4 Laminar Flow In Pipes 343 Flow with No External Forces 250 Pressure Drop and Head Loss 345, 6-5 Review of Rotational Motion and Angular Ee of Gravity on Yelocty and Flow Rate in Laminar Flow 6-6 The Angular Momentum Equation 261 #50 Tal Foe S Fom Si Speci Cases_263 ae Flow with No External Moments 264 ‘Turbulent Shoar Stress_353 fahaceee Turbulent Vsloty Profle 354 ‘The Moody Cha and te Ctebrox Equation 357 ‘Summary 269 ‘Types of Fluid Flow Problems 359 References and Suggested Reading 270 Sane 370 8-6 Minor Losses 364 5 8-7 Piping Networks and Pump Selection 371 CH Series and Parallel Pipes 371 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND Piping Systems wth Pumps and Turbines 373 MODELING 283 8-8 Flow Rate and Velocity Measurement 381 7=1_Dimensions and Units 284 7-2 _Dimensional Homogeneity _285 Nondimensionalzaton of Equations 285 7-3 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity _291 ‘7-4 _The Method of Repeating Variables and ‘The Buckingham Pi Theorem _295 Historical Spotlight: Persons Honored by Nondimensional Parameters 303 7-5 Experimental Testing, Modeling, and Incomplete ‘Similarity 311 Setup of an Experiment ard Correlation of ‘Excerimental Data 3 Incomplete Simiarity 312 Wind Tunnel Testing 312 Flows with Free Surfaces 316 Application Spotlight: How aFly Flies 318 Summary_319 Problems 319 CHAPTE INTERNAL FLOW 337 8-1_Introduction 338 8-2 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 330 ‘Reynolds Number 340 Pitot and Pitot Static Probes. 381 Obstruction Flowmeters: Orifice, Venturi, and Nozze Meters 382 Positive Displacement Flowmeters 386 Turbine Flowmeters 38 Variable-Avea Flowrreters (Rotameters) 388 Uttrasonic Flowmeters 289 Electromagnetic Flowmeters_301 Vortes Flowmeiees 382 Thermal (Hot Wire and Hot Film) Anes laser Doppler Velocmetry 394 Particle Image Velocmetty 396 Application Spotlight: How Orifice Flowmeters Work, ot v ‘summary 400 References and Suggested Readin Problems 40> CHAPTER NINE DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW 419 a1 92 Introduction 420 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 420 Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem 421 Derivation Using an Infinitesimel Control Volume 422 ‘Alternative Form of the Continuty Equation 425 Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates 426 Special Cases ofthe Continuity Equation 426 ‘The Stream Function 432 ‘The Stteam Function in Cartesian Coordinates 432 ‘The Steam Function in Cyiindreal Coordinates “439,a Di 9-4 The Differential Linear Momentum Equation— Hiviaional lows: Formed tf Superponiion {22} Cauchy's Equation 441 10-6 The Boundary Layer Approximation 530 Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem 441 ‘The Boundary Layer Equations 535 Derivation Using an infinitesimal Control Volume 442 ‘The Boundary Layer Procedure _540 Altemative Form of Cauchy's Equation 445 Displacement Thickness 544 Derivation Using Newton's Second Law 445, Momentum Thickness 547 Turbulent Flat Plate Boundary Layer 548 9-5 The Navier-Stokes Equation 446 Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradients 554 Introduction 446 The Momentum Integral Technique for Boundary Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids 447 Layers 559 Derivation of the Navier-Stokes Equation for Incompressible, Summary 67 co ame ow 448 References and Sumzosted Reading S68 mitts ond aver Stokes: Equations hi Catesian Application Spotlight: Droplet Formation 569 jnates 450 e Continuity and Navier-Stokes Equations in Cylindrical Beblane 2 Coordinates 451 9-6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow Problems 452 | EXTERNAL FLOW: DRAG AND LIFT 583 Calculation ofthe Pressure Feld for a Known Velocity . Field 452 11=1 Introduction 584 Exact Solutions of the Continuity and Navier-Stokes 11-2 Drag and Lift 586 Equations 457 11-3 Friction and Pressure Drag 590 Reducing Drag by Streamlining 591 Flow Separation 692 114. Drag Coefficients of Common Geometries _593 Biological Systems and Orag 597 Drag Coefficients of Vehicles 598 NAVIER-STOKES EQUATION 491 supernoston {B99 11=5 Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates 601 10-1 Introduction 492 friction Coefficient 608 10-2 Nondimensionalized Equations 14-6 Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres 606 of Motion 493 Effect of Surface Rougmess 608 10-3 The Creeping Flow Approximation 496 117 Lift 610 Dragon a Sphere in Creeping Flow 490 Finite Span Wings and Induced Drag 614 10-4 Approximation for Inviscid Regions Lt Generated by. Soin: $18 of Flow 501 Summary 619 References and Suggested Reading 620 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation in Iniscid ee Serta ol the Bernoull Eauatan nnvscie Application Spotlight: Drag Reduction 621 Regions of Flow 502 Problems 622 10-5 The Irrotational Flow Approximation 505 Continuity Equation 605 7 5 WELV Momentum Equation 507 Derivation ofthe Bernoulli Equaton in Irotatinal COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 635 Regions of Flow 507 Two-Dimensional trrotational Regions of Flow 510 12-1 Stagnation Properties 636 Superpostion in Irotatonal Regons of Flow 514 Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows 514 12-2 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 639 Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area 642