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Basics of Modal Testing and Analysis

Introduction
Modal analysis is a powerful tool for understanding the vibration characteristics of mechanical structures. It simplifies the vibration response of a complex structure by reducing the data to a set of modal parameters that can be analyzed with relative ease. This application note discusses the concept of modal analysis, applications where modal analysis is useful, and techniques for the acquisition and visualization of modal data.

TN-DSA-003
Engineers use modal analysis to predict the theoretical vibration of a structure from a finite element model. The first step is to represent the structure as a theoretical collection of springs and masses; then you develop a set of matrix equations that describes the whole structure. Next, you apply a mathematical algorithm to the matrices to extract the mode shapes and resonant frequencies of the structure. All this theoretical work produces very practical benefits because it allows the prediction of the modal response of a structure. By finding and addressing potential problems early in the design process, manufacturers save money and improve product quality. Once the structure is built, experimental modal analysis can determine its actual modal response. Experimental modal analysis consists of exciting the structure and measuring its frequency response function (FRF) at various points. For example, the tuning fork shown in Figure 2 is a very simple structure. By recording its FRFs at various points, the results shown in Figure 2 are obtained. The resonant frequencies are the peaks that appear at the same frequency at every point on the structure. The amplitude of the peak at each location describes the mode shape for the associated resonant frequency. The damping of each mode determines the sharpness of each peak. The results indicate that for the first mode, the base is fixed and the end has maximum displacement as shown in Figure 3. The second mode has maximum deflection at the middle of the fork as shown in Figure 3.

The Modal Domain

The modal domain is one of several different domains that help us to understand structural vibrations. Structures vibrate in particular shapes called mode shapes when excited at or near their resonant frequencies. Under normal operating conditions, a structure will vibrate in a complex combination of all its mode shapes. By analyzing the mode shapes, it is possible to gain an understanding of the types of vibration that the structure can exhibit. Modal analysis also reduces a complex structure, which is not easily analyzed, into a set of singledegree-of-freedom systems that can easily be understood. Experimental Modal Analysis determines the mode shapes and resonant frequencies of a structure. For example, if you vibrate a beam at the first resonant frequency, the beam will assume the first mode shape, often called the V mode as shown in Figure 1. The beam will move back and forth from the position shown in solid lines to the position shown in dashed lines. If you vibrate the beam at the second resonant frequency, you will excite the second mode shape, often called the S mode. If you vibrate the beam at a frequency between the two, the deformation shape will be some combination of the two mode shapes. The third mode shape is often called the W mode.

Figure 2. Modal analysis of a tuning fork results in FRFs for each point on the structure; the amplitudes at each resonant frequency describing the mode shape.

Figure 1. Mode shapes of a simply supported beam

One of the common vibration problems identified by modal analysis is when a forcing function excites the resonant frequency of a structure. A forcing function is the mechanism that forces the structure to vibrate. Real world examples include rotating imbalance in an automobile engine, reciprocating motion in a machine, or broadband noise from wind or road conditions in a vehicle. The frequency of the forcing function is extracted from a frequency domain analysis of its signal. When a resonant frequency of the structure coincides with the frequency of the forcing function, the structure may exhibit large vibrations that lead to fatigue and failure.
Figure 3. The first mode shape of the tuning fork has the base fixed and the maximum deflection at the end; the second mode shape has the ends fixed and maximum deflection at the middle.

In this case, the mode-shape information can be used to redesign or modify the structure to move the resonant frequencies away from the forcing function. Structural elements can be added to increase the structures stiffness or simple changes made to increase or decrease the mass. These changes will act to change the structures resonance frequency values. Other techniques of vibration suppression include increasing the damping of the structure by changing the material or by coating the surface with viscoelastic material. Also, vibration absorbers tuned to the forcing function frequency can be added. When other techniques fail, active vibration controls provide a remedy. This approach involves measuring the structural vibrations and using a computer-driven actuator to counteract them.

Modal Analysis Applications

Mode shapes and resonant frequencies of a structure (its modal response) can be predicted by using a mathematical model known as a Finite Element Model (FEM). An FEM uses points connected by elements possessing the mathematical properties of the structures materials. Boundary conditions define how the structure is fixed to the ground and what force loads are applied. After defining the model, a mathematical algorithm computes the mode shapes and resonant frequencies. The practical benefit is that it is possible to predict the vibration response of a structure before it is even built. Figure 4 shows a FEM of a pressurized fuel storage tank for a space vehicle with force loads and boundary conditions applied.

Figure 5. Vibration isolators (left) and absorbers (right) are methods of passive vibration suppression. Figure 4. Finite Element Model of a space vehicle with force loads and boundary conditions.

After building the structure, its good practice to verify the FEM using experimental modal analysis. This identifies errors in the model and leads to improvements in future designs. Professionals can also use experimental modal analysis without FEM models. In this case, the goal is to identify the modal response of an existing structure in order to resolve vibration problems.
Figure 6. Damping treatment is the most common and active suppression is the most expensive technique for vibration.

All these techniques depend on modal analysis to identify the resonant frequencies, damping and mode shapes of the structure. Once these characteristics are known, it is possible to isolate vibration problems and implement effective solutions

Modal Data Acquisition

The first step in experimental modal analysis is to measure the vibration response of the structure. This involves exciting the structure and measuring the resulting vibrations to acquire a data set that can be used to compute the mode shapes and resonant frequencies. Modal analysis software interprets this data to display the mode shapes. To excite a structure and cause it to vibrate, two common tools are used: an impact hammer or a vibrator. An impact hammer (Figure 7) is a specialized measurement tool that produces short duration excitation by striking the structure at some point as shown in Figure 8. The hammer incorporates a sensor (called a load cell) that produces a signal proportional to the force of impact. This sensor enables precise measurement of the excitation force exerted on the test structure. Impact hammers are used for experimental modal analysis of structures where the use of a mechanical vibrator is not convenient; these applications include tests conducted in the field or on very large structures. Different impact tips are used to tune the frequency content of the impact force energy. For low frequency measurements, a soft rubber tip is used. A hard metal tip is the best choice for high frequency measurements. For laboratory vibration measurements, shakers are the instrument of choice. Shakers are rated by the force they produce. Shakers vary in size and force from baseball-sized systems with six pounds of force to SUVsized tables. The largest ones are capable of generating 65,000 pounds force and are used to vibrate satellites and other large structures.
Figure 8. Impact hammer force versus time (input1) and structural response versus time (input2).

Figure 7. Impact hammer instrumented with a load cell to measure the excitation force and different hardness tips.

Figure 9. Mechanical vibrators are used in laboratory measurements and vary in size from small to very large systems.

Shakers connect to structures in three ways: by means of a thin metal rod named a stinger; by placing the structure on a table mounted on the top of the shaker; or by a slip table that is built onto the shaker and vibrates in the horizontal direction. In most cases, an accelerometer is mounted on the structure, near the attachment point to the shaker, to measure the driving acceleration levels. In some cases, a load cell on the stinger measures the excitation force. To drive a shaker a shaker controller is used. The controller is an electronic device that generates carefully controlled electronic signals, amplifies them and converts them the excitation acceleration signal. The different types of vibration profiles include random, burst random and chirp. A random profile creates a random vibration that includes a broad range of frequencies. Getting useful results with a random signal requires the application of a spectral window and data averaging. One advantage of random vibration is that it is possible to concentrate the excitation energy at the specific frequencies that will yield optimal vibration measurements. Burst random consists of a short period of random vibration, followed by a short period of no excitation. The on/off periods can be set such that the vibration of the structure dissipates by the end of the off period. This eliminates the need for windowing because the excitation and response are periodic. Burst random gives more accurate amplitude and damping measurements than a random waveform. Chirp vibration is a short profile that consists of a sine tone that starts at a low frequency and quickly sweeps to a high frequency. The time of a sweep is usually one second or less. After each sweep, there is a quiet zone; then the chirp repeats over and over again. The quiet zone is timed to allow the structural response to damp out before the end of the data acquisition frame. This ensures that the excitation and response are periodic in the time window. The advantage of chirp vibration is that it excites all frequencies and is periodic. By synchronizing the sampling rate of the signal analyzer with the chirp signal, the need for windowing is eliminated. Chirp vibration also yields a better signal to noise ratio than random excitation.
Figure 10. Vibration profiles used by a mechanical shaker to excite structure for modal analysis including random (bottom left column), burst random (top) and chirp (bottom).

Measurements: FRFs, Coherence, APS

Once vibration is induced, the goal is to measure it. Normally, this is done by placing accelerometers on the structure and recording the responses with a signal analyzer. An accelerometer is an electronic sensor that senses acceleration and outputs a voltage proportional to the acceleration signal. A signal analyzer is an instrument that records the signals and computes the frequency domain data. The number of measurement points needed for a particular structure is an important consideration in data acquisition for modal analysis. Too many points will result in an unnecessarily large data set and wasted time. Too few points will result in a poor representation of the structure and may not capture the needed mode shapes. Some judgment must be made as to the important mode shapes and then the number of points chosen that can accurately represent the structures vibration for these mode shapes. The most common signal types used in modal analysis are Auto Power Spectrum (APS), Frequency Response Functions (FRFs) and Coherence. APS is computed from the FFT by squaring and averaging many FFTs over time. When the FFT is squared it is transformed into a real signal and the phase information is lost, leaving only the magnitude data. Frequency Response Function (FRF) is computed from two signals. The FRF is also often referred to as by the term transfer function. The FRF describes the level of one signal relative to another signal verses frequency. In modal analysis, it measures the vibration response of the structure

relative to the force input of the impact hammer or shaker. An FRF is a complex signal with both magnitude and phase information. Coherence is related to the FRF and it indicates what portion of one signal is correlated with a second signal. It varies from zero to one and is a function of frequency. In modal analysis, it is used to judge the quality of a measurement. A good impact produces a vibration response that is perfectly correlated with the impact, indicated by a coherence graph that is near one over the entire frequency range. If there is some other source of vibration, or noise, or the hammer is not exciting the entire frequency range, then the coherence plot will drop below one in the affected frequency ranges. Coherence should be monitored during data acquisition to ensure that the data is valid. The coherence should be close to one at a resonant frequency. However, it is normal for coherence to be very low at an anti-resonance, or structural node, where the vibration response is very low as shown at about 800 Hz in Figure 12.

block has the most weight and the first has the least. Averaging acts to improve the estimate of the mean value at each frequency point and reduce the variance in the measurement. Time domain averaging is useful to suppress background noise when repetitive signals are measured. An impact test is a good example of a test with repetitive signals. Both the force and acceleration signals are the same for each measurement. However, if the trigger point is not reliable (due the presence of high background noise or other problems) the signals themselves may average away. Frequency domain averaging is the most frequently used type of averaging even for impact testing. Figure 13 shows an example of the effect of frequency domain averaging on vibration resulting from excitation by a random signal. The top pane shows the spectra after the first frame; the middle pane shows the spectra after 10 averages; the bottom is after 100 averages. The variance in the spectrum is reduced as more averages are computed to give a smoother spectrum.

Figure 11. Frequency response function with magnitude (top) and phase (bottom).

Figure 12. Coherence function shows the quality of the FRF data.

Averaging
Averaging improves the quality of measurements. Averaging applies to either the frequency or time domain. Frequency domain averaging uses multiple data blocks to smooth the measurements. Two methods are typically used for averaging: in a linear average, all data blocks have the same weight; in exponential weighting, the last data
Figure 13. Averaging reduces variance in the measurement resulting in a smoother spectrum.

It is necessary to use judgment to determine the number of averages to use in each application. The factors to consider include the randomness of the signal being measured, the quality of the results needed, and the length of time required for acquisition of each data frame. A rule of thumb is to use 32-64 averages for random-type signals and 4 to 8 averages for impact-type signals.

Windowing
Windowing is necessary when you are computing FFTs for a signal that is not periodic in the time block. Windowing is always necessary when you use a shaker to excite the system with broad band noise. When the FFT of a non periodic signal is computed, the FFT suffers from leakage. Leakage is the effect of the signal energy smearing out over a wide frequency range instead of staying concentrated in a narrow frequency range as it does with a periodic signal. Since most signals are not periodic in the data-block time period, you must applied windowing to force them to be periodic. A windowing function is shaped so that it is exactly zero at the beginning and end of the data block and has some special shape in between. Then this function is multiplied with the time data block to force the signal to be periodic. A special window-function weighting factor must also be applied to recover the correct FFT signal level after windowing. Figure 15 shows the effect of applying a Hanning window to a pure sine tone. The left top graph is a sine tone that is perfectly periodic in the time window. The FFT (leftbottom) shows no leakage; it is narrow and has a peak magnitude of one, which represents the magnitude of the sine wave. The middle-top plot shows a sine tone that is not periodic in the time window, resulting in leakage in the FFT (middle-bottom). The leakage reduces the height of the peak and widens the base. Applying a Hanning window (top-right) reduces the leakage in the FFT (bottom-right).

Triggering
Triggering is a technique that makes the analyzer wait to start capturing data until a triggering event (such as an impact hammer blow) occurs. A trigger can be set so that data acquisition and processing will not start until a specified voltage level is detected in an input channel. Either a manual or automatic arm mode can be used. Manual arming requires an operator action to activate the trigger each time, after a trigger event, to capture a new data frame. This mode is used to prevent a faulty signal, such an intermittent contact caused by a loose cable connector, from causing a data capture before the real event. Automatic triggering rearms the trigger after each impact. In this case, the test structure can be struck with the hammer many times in succession and the data acquired and averaged without interaction with the signal analyzer. Another important trigger setup parameter is the pre-trigger. It is used to capture data immediately before the trigger event occurs. This feature ensures that you capture the entire waveform.

Figure 15. A Hanning window (far right) reduces the effect of leakage on a sine wave that is not periodic in the data frame time. The spectrum on the left show the results with a Hanning window applied versus un-windowed data in the spectrum shown in the middle.

Leakage is easy to understand with pure sine tones. However, it also affects measurements with all other types of waveforms. Figure 16 shows a Frequency Response Function (FRF) with and without a window (Hanning). Here the energy smearing effect of leakage is most evident in
Figure 14. Software interface for trigger setup.

regions where there is a deep trough. Leakage can also affect accuracy of the amplitude and frequency readings as with sine waveforms.

Figure 16. Frequency response function with and without a FFT window.

When using an impact hammer to excite the structure, the time block is made just long enough to allow all the measured vibration to dissipate. Since the signal starts and ends at zero, no windowing is needed. This provides the most accurate amplitude and damping results. When a very lightly damped structure continues to ring for a very long time period or when some background noise is present, then a special windowing function called the exponential window is applied. This function, shown in Figure 17, has two parts: the pre-window at the beginning of the time frame, and the exponential window. The pre-window includes a hold-off period that eliminates any noise before the impact. The exponential window applies an exponential decay that forces the response data to zero by the end of the frame; this guarantees a periodic signal. When using the exponential window, however, be aware that the result will overestimate the damping of the structure because the windowing function artificially damps the signal in a shortened time. Figure 18 shows the time response of a structure without the window in the top frame. Note that the vibration has not died out at the end of the time record. The bottom frame shows the results of adding the exponential window. The vibrations are forced to zero at the end of the time record by the window. There are two methods for increasing frequency resolution: increasing the frame size, and using FFT zoom. The frequency resolution is determined by the number of points in the time frame; more points in the time record result in more frequency lines. Increasing the number of points in the time record gives a finer frequency resolution. The drawback is that a longer time frame takes longer to acquire, thus increasing the overall time required for the measurement. This is especially noticeable when the frequency span is low (below 50 Hz). The second method for increasing frequency resolution is to use FFT zoom. This technique uses a special algorithm to compute the spectrum within a frequency band that does not start from zero. (When FFT zoom is not used, standard baseband spectra start at zero.) The signal analyzer has settings for the center frequency, number of frequency lines and the span. Since the same number of frequency lines is used over a narrow frequency span, the spectrum resolution is much finer than for a baseband measurement.
Figure 17. Exponential widow function used for modal analysis with impact hammer excitation. Figure 18. Time response of lightly damped structure without exponential window (top) and with window (bottom).

Enhancing Measurement Resolution

Frequency resolution (or spacing between frequency lines) is an important consideration in modal analysis measurements. determine the frequency and damping of the two peaks. When resonant frequencies are close together, a higher resolution is required to accurately

Figure 19 shows a comparison of a frequency response function of a structure with different measurement resolutions. The first measurement has the standard 400 frequency lines. The broad hump near 90 Hz is likely a pair of closely spaced resonant

frequencies. Due to the overlapping, the amplitude and damping cannot be accurately determined with this measurement. In the second measurement, the number of lines has increased to 1600. Now the closely spaced peaks are clear. The third measurement used FFT zoom with a span of 300 Hz and a center frequency of 200 Hz. This gives the finest frequency resolution of all. Note that the FFT zoom spectrum does not show any data below 50 Hz because it is not a baseband spectrum.

invalid. You should discard them and repeat the test after taking steps to eliminate the overload. Such steps include reducing the force of the impact, increasing the voltage range on the signal analyzer, or using an accelerometer or impact hammer with lower sensitivity. Most signal analyzer software provides an option to automatically discard data blocks that include overloads. A double hit occurs when the impact hammer hits the structure and then the structure rebounds into the hammer tip. The second impact may be only milliseconds after the first and is easy to miss on the data display. A double impact will also produce invalid data. You should discard the results and repeat the test. You can detect double hits by viewing a time trace that shows the impact hammers force time history during data acquisition.

Figure 20. An impact hammer double hit can be seen in the force versus time plot; double hits degrade the quality of the FRF Measurements. Figure 19. Comparison of a spectrum made with 400 and 1600 lines and with FFT zoom, illustrating enhanced measurement resolution.

Data Labeling and Auto-Incrementing

Modal analysis data acquisition consists of measuring the vibration response at many points on the structure. This usually results in a very large data set. After acquiring the data, it is imported into a modal analysis package and each measurement associated with a point on the structure. Assigning the data to points on the structure can be a tedious process. Many signal analyzers include a feature that automatically labels each data point when the data is collected and saved. The label includes information about the point number and the orientation of the measurement. Orientation is recorded relative to some assigned axis system such as x, y, z. The modal analysis software can use this label to automatically assign the data to the correct points on the structure. Autoincrementing is a feature that automatically increments the data label after every average; this allows the test engineer to move around the structure with the impact hammer, proceeding from point to point without the need to interact and operate the signal analyzer after every impact.

Signal Quality Overload and Double Hits

Signal quality is a key consideration in modal data acquisition. Failure to monitor the quality of the data during acquisition, can give modal analysis results that are erroneous or invalid. Monitoring the coherence function is the first step in judging signal quality. If the coherence is poor, it is vital to take steps to improve it before collecting data. Other problems that adversely affect signal quality are overload and double hits by the impact hammer. An overload occurs when the signal from the accelerometer or impact hammer exceeds the voltage range of the input channel on the signal analyzer. For example, if the voltage range is set to 1.0 volt on the signal analyzer, and a strong impact by the hammer creates a voltage of 1.5 volts, the input channel will overload and the voltage signal will be distorted. Most signal analyzers provide an alarm to indicate overload. The data from an overloaded signal are completely

Most modal analysis software includes tools that automatically identify the resonance frequencies and damping from the FRF data. These tools use different methods; the most common is quadrature picking, which analyzes the imaginary part of the FRF data to find a peak. A resonance will normally appear as a peak in the imaginary part of the FRF, so quadrature picking simplifies peak detection. The phase is indicated by a positive or negative peak as shown in Figure 22.

Figure 21. Modal coordinates can be automatically incremented with software.

Data Export
After acquiring and saving a complete data set, the next step is to export it to modal analysis software. The signal analyzer must save the data in a format that the modal analysis software can read. Since the data set can be very large, it is not convenient or efficient to perform any manual editing of the data file. Most signal analyzers include options to export data in a format that is readable by most popular modal analysis software packages. A special file format named the universal file format (UFF) is also available. You can use it to export data between most software packages. When two or more resonance frequencies overlap, a special technique called curve fitting is applied. This technique is also useful when a resonance frequency has heavy damping; but in this case, the peak is not the best estimate of the resonant frequency. Curve fitting compares a frequency band of data from the measured FRF data to a mathematical model of a resonance and computes parameters that fit the numerical model to the measured data. When the two agree, the software saves the parameters that give the best estimate of the resonance frequencies.
Figure 22. Imaginary part of frequency response function measured from a beam.

Visualization
After acquiring data and exporting it to a modal analysis package, the next steps are to identify the resonance frequencies, construct the geometric model of the structure, extract the modal parameters from the data, and interpret the results by viewing the animated mode shapes. Several popular modal analysis software packages are available, and each has a different interface. However, all of them have the basic structure described here.

Identifying the Resonance Frequencies

Most modal analysis software begins by identifying the resonance frequencies of the structure. This can be very simple if the structure has only a few resonance frequencies separated by a large frequency band; it can be more difficult if there are several resonance frequencies that are close or overlapping in the frequency spectrum. The damping of each resonance is another parameter of interest. Damping relates to the sharpness of the resonance peak.
Figure 23. Curve fit interface of the MEscope modal analysis package.

After identifying each resonance frequency, modal analysis software examines the FRFs of every measurement point in the

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data set at the resonance frequency to compute the mode shape. Software determines the amplitude and phase of the FRF at the resonance frequency for every point on the structure.

Most software includes a tool for assigning the FRF data to points on the structure. This task is done either manually by picking points on the structure, or automatically using the labels from the FRF data. Not every point on the structure must have a measured FRF. The software

Creating the Geometric Model

The next step is to create a geometric model of the structure. The model consists of points connected by lines in an arrangement that appears similar to the shape of the structure. Most modal analysis software includes tools for generating basic shapes such as a row of points to represent a beam, a rectangular array to represent a plate, a cylinder to represent a tube, etc. The simple shapes can be combined to form more complex shapes. The model can be very simple or very complex depending on the level of precision needed from the results. For example, a simple beam can be represented by a few points sufficient to visualize the first few mode shapes. However, a complex shape such as a satellite dish requires many more points for accurate representation of the structure.

can interpolate between points. A beam may have 5 measured FRF points, and the model may have 10 points, with one extra point between every measurement point. The software will then compute the modal amplitude of the interpolated points by analyzing the nearby measured points. A model with more points may look better than one with fewer points.

Interpreting the Results

The final step is to interpret the results. Animated mode shapes can now be generated for the model geometry. The user identifies the resonant frequency of interest, and then the software computes and displays the model in a deformed mode shape. Users can heighten the level of deformation to amplify the mode shape. Users can also rotate the model to view it from the best angle for understanding the mode shape. Many graphical tools aid in the visualizing the mode shape, including a colormap that indicates the magnitude of the modal deformation with different colors. Vectors can draw arrows from the undeformed position to the deformed position of the model. Mode shape animation draws the model first in the undeformed position, and then deformed a small percentage, then a little more, and again and again until the model is in the fully deformed shape. These images are flashed on the screen for a short period creating the effect of motion. All these tools give the user the ability to quickly understand the nature of the mode shapes.

Figure 24. Simple beam model (left) and complex satellite dish model (right).

Case Study
The following case study presents the data acquisition and modal analysis of the muffler and tail pipe section shown in Figure 25. The structure was suspended on a frame using bungee cords to isolate it from the ground. Figure 26 shows how the pattern used to mark the measurement points.

The number of modes also influences the geometric model. Modes related to the lower resonant frequencies tend to have simple mode shapes; they can be readily visualized with a few points. Modes related to higher resonant frequencies can have more complex mode shapes; their models may require finer resolution with more points.

Applying the Measured Data

The next step is to apply the measured data to the geometrical model. Spatial points connected by lines define the structures model. The vibration response of the structure is measured at the points represented on the model. Then the measured data are associated with the points on the model taking care to assure the correct orientation for all points.

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Data was collected using an impact hammer and accelerometer. The accelerometer was fixed in one location using wax and the impact hammer roved from point to point to make each FRF measurement. An LDS-Dactron Photon Dynamic Signal Analyzer was used to acquire the data. Survey test measurements determined that the first few resonance frequencies were all below 400 Hz; the analyzer span was set to 1000 Hz. Review of the structures vibration versus time graphs indicated that the vibrations damped out in less than 0.1 seconds; this led to selection of a time-record length of 400 ms. Averaging was set to be 5 linear averages; the hammer force signal was used as the trigger event with a pre-trigger setting that captured data starting just before the hammer impacted on the structure. Figure 27 shows the test screen displays used during data acquisition. The software interface was set to show the measured FRF, coherence and force, and acceleration versus time. These displays monitor the quality of the data during acquisition. The modal coordinates window was set to display the current measuring point ID number and axis and
Figure 25. Muffler and tailpipe section mounted by bungee cords.

to update the point numbers with the auto-incrementing feature. The Channel Status bar indictor as set to show the voltage level of the inputs and indicates overloads. At each measurement point on the structure five hammer blows were made and these measurements were averaged. This process resulted in a set of 30 averaged FRF measurements, which were saved to disk in a UFF data format, and then imported into the MEscope modal analysis package.

Figure 26. Measuring point schematic diagram.

Figure 27. The test screen displays on the Photon Analyzer during the measurement of the exhaust pipe frequency response functions.

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In MEscope a geometrical model was generated as shown in Figure 28. The geometry is similar, but not exactly identical to the actual structure. For example, the muffler is modeled as a circular cylinder rather than the oval cylinder shown in Figure 25. This shape is easier to generate in the software. Generating the more complex shape takes additional time but does not help visualize the first few modes.

Conclusions
Modal analysis is a powerful tool for solving vibration problems. It identifies the modal parameters of resonant frequencies, damping and mode shapes. Theoretical modal analysis uses a mathematical model of the structure and experimental modal analysis uses data that is measured from a physical structure. Experimental modal analysis uses a two-step process. The first step consists of acquisition of frequency domain data. The second step consists of visualization with software that applies the measured data to a geometrical model of the structure. The resonant frequencies, mode shapes and damping results can guide modifications to the structures design to suppress vibration, or suggest changes to the driving function to avoid exciting the resonances.

Figure 28. Geometric model of muffler and tail pipe generated in the MEscope software.

The labels created by the RT Pro software automatically apply the data to the appropriate points on the structure. The curve fit tools identify the first and second resonant frequencies; the computer-generated mode shapes appear in Figure 29. The side view in the lower right shows the best view of the mode shape. It is similar to an S shape with maximum deflections at 1/4 and 3/4 length and zero deflection near the middle. This is the classical mode shape of a beam which illustrates how understanding theoretical vibration response of simple structures often applies to more complicated structures.
Figure 29. First mode shape with deformed colormap.

These results could identify critical points on the muffler that are subject to fatigue or failure. Possible modifications to the structure include changing the cross-sectional properties, adding stiffeners or using damping materials. This data could also suggest changing the mounting points of the muffler to the vehicle. This type of analysis typically starts with a simple model to identify areas of concern. To verify the need for design refinements that require additional time and effort, a more refined model with more measurement points might be used. Inman, Daniel J., Engineering Vibrations, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2001.

References

LDS Test and Measurement Ltd. Heath Works, Baldock Road, Royston, Herts, SG8 5BQ Phone: +44 1763 255 255 E-Mail: info-uk@lds.spx.com LDS Test and Measurement 8551 Research Way, M/S 140, Middleton, WI 53562 USA Phone: +1 (608)821-6600 E-Mail: info-us@lds.spx.com

LDS Test and Measurement GmbH Freisinger Strae 32 D-85737 Ismaning Telefon: +49 89 969 89-180 E-Mail: info-de@lds.spx.com LDS Test and Measurement SARL 9 Avenue du Canada BP 221 F-91942 Courtaboeuf Tlphone: +33 (0)164864545 E-Mail: info-fr@lds.spx.com

LDS Test and Measurement Ltd. China Head Office, Room 2912 Jing Guang Centre Beijing, China 100020 Phone: +86 10 6597 4006 E-Mail: info-cn@lds.spx.com

www.lds-group.com