Chapter 9: Learning and Memory

Marketers expend considerable effort to have consumers learn about their products. Therefore it is vital that we understand how consumers, and that includes us, learn.

Learning: Learning refers to any change in the content or

organisation of long-term memory. Consumer behaviour is largely learned behaviour. Learning is defined as any change in the content or organisation of long-term memory. Consumers must learn almost everything related to being a consumer: product existence, performance, availability, values, preference and so on. Marketing managers are very interested in the nature of consumer learning.

Learning Under High and Low Involvement

Learning under high-involvement conditions: consumer has a high motivation to learn. Learning may occur either in a highinvolvement or a low-involvement situation. A highinvolvement situation is one where the consumer is motivated to learn the material. A consumer may need to study a brochure to determine which model will be purchased. Learning under low-involvement conditions: most consumers learning is in a low-involvement context A low-involvement situation is one where the consumer has little or no motivation to learn, such as when an ad comes onto the TV in the middle of their favourite show. Most of the learning experienced by consumers is low-involvement learning.

Types of Learning
Conditioning Cognitive learning classical conditioning iconic rote learning operant conditioning vicarious learning/modelling There are two forms of conditioned learning: reasoning classical and operant. Classical conditioning is the The cognitive approach to learning encompasses the mental activities of process of using an existing relationship between a humans as they work to solve problems. It includes iconic rote learning stimulus and response to bring about the learning (forming associations between unconditioned stimuli without rewards), of the same response for a different stimulus. vicarious learning/modelling (learning by observing others), and reasoning. Conditioning: Conditioning refers to learning that is based on the association of a stimulus (information) and a response (a behaviour or feeling). Conditioning is based on the association of a stimulus (information) with a response (behaviour or feeling). There are two main types of conditioning. 1. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is the process of using an established relationship between one stimulus (music) and response (pleasant feelings) to bring about the learning of the same response (pleasant feelings) to a different stimulus (the brand). Establishing a relationship between stimulus and response to bring about the learning of the same response to a different stimulus Most common in low-involvement situations Learning is more often a feeling or emotion than information EX: Classical conditioning was first shown experimentally by Pavlov. He noticed that the dog salivated when food was introduced. The dog was conditioned food = eating = salivate. He introduced a new stimulus, a bell ringing, at each feeding. Bell + food = salivate. Then food was not given, but the ringing of the bell caused the dog to salivate. EX: The affective response to the Qantas campaign I still call Australia home is an example of classical conditioning, as the learning is not informational but emotive.

2. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning (or instrumental learning) involves rewarding desirable behaviors such as brand purchases with a positive outcome that serves to reinforce the behavior. Trial precedes liking reverse is often true for classical conditioning product sampling is an example of this type of learning Reinforcement plays a much larger role in operant conditioning than it does in classical conditioning. No automatic stimulusresponse relationship is involved, so the subject must first be induced to engage in the desired behaviour, and then this behaviour must be reinforced. This example: chewing gum samples are distributed to a target market, they trial the taste and like it and then with reinforcement, e.g. further samples at a reduced cost, it is highly likely that they will continue to purchase and use the product.

Cognitive Learning:
Iconic rote learning Iconic rote learning involves learning the association between two or more concepts in the absence of conditioning. An ad for the Commonwealth Bank, Which bank, is encouraging a learned association between existing concepts such as banking or home loan and Commonwealth. The new concept is learnt without an unconditioned stimulus or a direct reward being involved. A substantial amount of low-involvement learning involves iconic rote learning through repeated advertising. association between two or more concepts in the absence of conditioning a substantial amount of low-involvement learning involves iconic rote learning achieved by repeated advertising messages Vicarious learning/modelling With vicarious learning or modelling, the individual learns by observing others' behaviour and adjusting their own accordingly. For example, they may receive a reward (a compliment) if they use this particular product: youre a great host if you serve this coffee! observe others' behaviour and adjust their own accordingly common in both high-involvement and low- involvement situations Reasoning The final type of learning is reasoning. This is the most complex type and more commonly associated with high-involvement buying decisions, such as buying a car or house, or wine for dinner guests. Ads using this approach usually provide the information necessary to allow the learning to take place. Thus individuals use thinking to restructure and recombine existing and new information to form new concepts by reasoning. most complex form of cognitive learning most high-involvement decisions generate some reasoning

General Characteristics of Learning

The strength of learning is influenced by: Importance: This refers to the value that the consumer places on the information to be learned the greater the importance, the greater the learning. Separates high- and low-involvement learning situations ---- Involvement: --- Mood: ----- Stimulus repetitions (practice sessions): Reinforcement: This is anything that increases the likelihood that a response will be repeated in the future the greater the reinforcement, the greater the learning. Imagery: This is the degree to which concepts evoke well-defined mental images. High-image concepts are easier to learn. Repetition: This refers to the number of times that consumers are exposed to the information, or the number of times they practise behaviour. Repetition increases the strength and speed of learning. Extinction: Extinction or forgetting occurs when reinforcement for learning is withdrawn. For example, when advertising for a branded product stops, consumers may remember the product brand or the ad in either case, the decay has eroded the value of the advertising and leaves the brand open to competition. Sometimes unlearning is beneficial to the marketerfor example, a product that has experienced a recall. Forgetting occurs when reinforcement for learning is withdrawn Stimulus generalisation: Stimulus generalisation, or the rub-off effect, is important for brand equity and brand leverage. Consumers believe if that if a brand has a good product, then the new product will also be good. A marketer can use this when introducing a new brandmake your new brand that has no significant advantages, look the same as the other brands in the market. 1. Brand equity 2. Brand leverage Stimulus discrimination: Stimulus discrimination is the process of learning to respond to similar but distinct stimuli. In the case where many brands appear to be similar to consumers, a marketer must encourage consumers to learn to differentiate among similar brands by emphasising real or imaginary brand differences. why your brand is different

Response environment: The response environment is important for two main reasons. Firstly, the stronger the original learning
process, the more likely it is to cause the information to be retrieved when needed. Second, the similarity of retrieval environment to the original learning environment is important. For example, showing the products on a supermarket shelf in the ad allows recall as the visual effect is similar. Strength of original learning affects ability to retrieve relevant information Similarity of the original learning and the type of learning is important Marketers aim to replicate these situations

Product Positioning Strategy

Brand image The brand image refers to the schema of a brand. It contains the target markets interpretation of the products benefits, attributes, usage situations and user characteristics. The global brands monitor their image to ensure that it is correctly maintained. Brand image
refers to the schematic memory of a brand.

Product positioning Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to competition within a market segment. An important component of brand image is the appropriate usage situations for the product or brand.

Perceptual mapping Perceptual mapping offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a products position. A way of measuring and developing a products position is the use of perceptual mapping. Brand Image Perceived Product Attributes Benefits Usage Situations Users Manufacturer Marketer Characteristics

Product repositioning Product repositioning refers to a deliberate decision to significantly alter the way the market views a product. This can involve level of performance the feelings it evokes the situations in which it should be used, or who uses the product If the products position is not at the point desired by the firm, then marketing strategies, using the marketing mix, are required to deliberately change the mind of the consumer, thus repositioning the brand image to the desired position.

Brand Equity and Brand Leverage

Brand equity is the value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond the functional characteristics of the product. Brand leverage, often termed family branding, brand extensions, or umbrella branding, refers to marketers capitalizing on brand equity by using an existing brand name for new products.