Histos 6 ,.o:., .

;q;
Cop,right .o:. Dominiquc Lcnfant . Dcccmbcr .o:.
C1ESIAS AND HIS ELNLCHS. A CHALLENGE ICR
MCDERN HIS1CRIANS
:



Abstract: 1hc promincncc of cunuchs in Ctcsias account of Fcrsia has givcn risc in thc
last occaocs to a paraooxical combination of sccpticism about thcir historicit, ano rcalis-
tic intcrprctation qucstioning vhcthcr thc, vcrc in fact castratco. 1hc prcscnt papcr
brings to light thc oifficultics of thc asscssmcnt of thcm as historical figurcs. It first takcs
into account thc fact that vc knov Ctcsias cunuchs onl, through fragmcnts, that is,
through thc filtcr of latcr authors vho rcfcr to him vhilc possibl, having a pcrsonal rcla-
tionship to cunuchs in thcir ovn socict,. It thcn ocscribcs thc oistinctivc fcaturcs of Ctc-
sias cunuchs vithin Grcck litcraturc on Fcrsia ano prcscnts thc main intcrprctativc
trcnos on thcm. It cxamincs possiblc touchstoncs ano shovs hov oifficult it is to cross-
chcck Ctcsias account of cunuchs vith Ncar Eastcrn cviocncc. It asscsscs thc founoa-
tions of currcnt prcvailing positions, ano shovs that a h,pothcsis has bccomc a
qucstionablcoogma on tvo sorts of historical rcfcrcnts for Ctcsias . Last, it
qucstions thc pcrtincncc of oricntalism as a labcl for thc rcprcscntation of cunuchs in
Ctcsias account, ano cvcn highlights its shortcomings. All in all, this issuc is in fact a pcr-
fcct illustration of thc mcthooological problcms that moocrn historians oftcn havc to facc
vhcn thc, tr, to stuo, ancicnt Fcrsia through thc accounts of Grcck historians.


t is curious that a phcnomcnon vhich vas so important in so man,
major civilizations has bccn virtuall, taboo in moocrn scholarship.
.

such vcrc somc of thc concluoing voros of A. K. Gra,sons papcr on
cunuchs ano thcir rolc in Ass,rian burcaucrac,. B, contrast, it coulo bc saio
that it is somcthing likc a moocrn topos on Achacmcnio Fcrsia as sccn b,
Grccks, cspcciall, b, Ctcsias of Cnious. 1hc lattcr hao bccn a Grcck ph,si-
cian at thc Fcrsian court at thc cno of thc fifth ccntur, BC, ano hc vrotc a
Persica, vhich is knovn onl, through fragmcnts, mainl, through a summar,
of it b, Fhotius. 1hc Persica vas an cxtcnsivc histor, of thc Fcrsian Empirc,
vhich in fact vcnt back to thc Ass,rian ano Mcoian Empircs, bcforc ocaling

:
A first vcrsion of this papcr vas prcscntco at 1rinit, Collcgc, Dublin, in ]unc .o:o, at
a confcrcncc organisco b, Annc Iitzpatrick ano Diana Eoclman on Assessing Biblical and
Classical Sources for the Reconstruction of Persian Influence, History and Culture, ano a Ircnch vcr-
sion vas also prcscntco in Strasbourg in Icbruar, .o:: in thc Sminaire de recherche dhistoire
ancienne organisco b, Ccoric Brclaz. I voulo likc to thank thc collcagucs vho offcrco mc
thcsc opportunitics, as vcll as thc auoicncc for various qucstions. 1hc papcr has bccn
cxpanoco on somc points sincc thcn, ano among its rcaocrs I am cspcciall, gratcful to
Guioo Schcpcns for his invaluablc suggcstions ano aovicc for this publication, as vcll as
to ]ohn Marincola, ]ohn Molcs ano thc tvo anon,mous Histos rcfcrccs for thcir cfficicnt
contribution ano hclpful commcnts.
.
Gra,son ,:qq, q;.

I
.8 Dominique Lenfant
vith thc succcssivc Fcrsian kings from C,rus to Artaxcrxcs II. It octailco
vars of conqucst, local rcvolts, court intrigucs, ano succcssion criscs. 1his
narrativc aomittcol, vas also in man, rcspccts confusco ano bcsct b, stcrco-
t,pcs ano scnsational aspccts. Its intcrprctation is all thc morc controvcrsial
as vc mostl, lack Ncar Eastcrn cviocncc vith vhich it coulo bc cross-
chcckco. B, contrast, thc fragmcnts of Ctcsias Persica can bc partiall, com-
parco vith Hcroootus histor,, vhich hao bccn vrittcn somc occaocs car-
licr, ano thcir oivcrgcnccs havc bccn oivcrscl, intcrprctco b, moocrn schol-
ars. In an, casc, no historian of Achacmcnio Fcrsia can avoio Ctcsias ac-
count, cspcciall, for thc pcrioo of cight, ,cars aftcr Hcroootus histor,
stops. Ano at thc samc timc, Ctcsias has bccn, is, ano is probabl, going to
rcmain a most controvcrsial sourcc.

Among thc charactcristic fcaturcs of his account is thc omniprcscncc of
cunuchs at thc Fcrsian court. thcsc figurcs pla, a promincnt rolc as attcn-
oants of thc ro,al famil,, oftcn cxcrcisc influcncc on its mcmbcrs, ano somc
of thcm cvcn takc part in intrigucs ano plots. 1his fcaturc has bccomc a cli-
chc in moocrn scholarship. it sufficcs mcrcl, to orop thc voro cunuch, as a
rulc vith a sarcastic smilc full of hioocn mcaning, to throv suspicion on
Ctcsias narrativc as an account oisfigurco b, invcntion, misintcrprctation,
malicious intcnt, ano oricntalism. 1his is obviousl, intimioating, sincc
somconc vho bclicvcs that Ctcsias cunuchs might havc bccn historical fig-
urcs runs thc risk of bcing accusco of oricntalism, or of rccolonising Fcrsian
histor,, or of just bcing uncritical, ano noboo, voulo likc that. Such a prc-
oicamcnt, hovcvcr, shoulo not hioc thc man, ocbatcs vhich arc involvco in
thc asscssmcnt of thc rolc of cunuchs in Fcrsian histor,.
In fact, in rcccnt timcs, somc rcspcctablc h,pothcscs havc bccomc vir-
tual oogmas ano, in aooition to somc lack of caution, thcrc arc obvious in-
consistcncics in thc scholarl, vicv that rcjccts Ctcsias account as a mcrc fic-
tion and, at thc samc timc, maintains that his cunuchs shoulo bc intcrprctco
as non-castratco oignitaricsa qualification vhich ma, sccm vcr, ooo in-
occo, if thcsc arc in fact fictional figurcs. In this papcr, I shall tr, first to oc-
scribc thc placc ano main charactcristics of Ctcsias cunuchs, in orocr to scc
vhat thcir oistinctivc fcaturcs arc ano vhat qucstions thc, cvokc. I shall
thcn prcscnt thc main intcrprctativc trcnos, ano oiscuss thc possiblc touch-
stoncs ,incluoing othcr picccs of cviocncc ano comparativc matcrial,, vhich
arc associatco vith thc ocbatcs, or, in somc cascs, vhich shoulo bc associ-
atco vith thc ocbatcs. I hopc to shov that thc historical backgrouno of thcsc

Eoition, Ircnch translation ano commcntar, of Ctcsias Persica. Lcnfant ,.oo,. In-
troouction ano English translation. Llcvcll,n-]oncs ano Robson ,.o:o,, Stronk ,.o:o,.
Summar, ano bibliograph, on Ctcsias as a sourcc on thc Fcrsian Empirc. Lcnfant ,.o::,
q6:o;.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .q
figurcs is lcss sclf-cviocnt ano morc complcx than is usuall, hclo. Bc,ono thc
qucstion of intcrprcting thc litcrar, or historical figurcs of cunuchs, this pa-
pcr intcnos to cxcmplif, somc of thc mcthooological issucs vhich moocrn
scholars havc to facc vhcn tr,ing to stuo, Fcrsia through Grcck c,cs.


. Assessing Ctesias Eunuchs Through Fragments
1hc first oifficult, to facc is to takc into account thc fact that Ctcsias Persica
is knovn onl, through thc filtcr of othcr authors vho rcfcr to him vhcn thc,
allcgcol, orav on him. thc passagcs that incluoc such a rcfcrcncc arc
possiblc paraphrascs or summarics of a part of Ctcsias vork, vhich moocrn
scholars call fragmcnts of it. Nov thcsc picccs can givc a mislcaoing ioca of
thc original vork, sincc latcr authors, vho oio not cvcn prctcno to givc an
accuratc ano complctc ioca of thc original contcnts, maoc a pcrsonal
sclcction of oata, vhich thc, usc ano rcvritc in va,s vhich suit thcir ovn
purposcs.

1his mcans that stuo,ing cunuchs in Ctcsias is not likc stuo,ing thcm in
Hcroootus or Xcnophon. Cnc has to vonocr about thc pcrccption of
cunuchs in a oiachronic pcrspcctivc, sincc thc authors vho rcfcr to Ctcsias
somctimcs vrotc ccnturics or cvcn morc than a thousano ,cars latcr, ano
livco in socictics vhcrc cunuchs vcrc not alva,s past, forcign, or fictional
figurcs. In aooition to that historical backgrouno, vhich ma, havc conoi-
tionco thcir attcntion to, or intcrprctation of cunuchism, onc has to consiocr
thcir litcrar, purposc ano thcir gcncral mcthoo vhcn thc, orav on Ctcsias
tcxt.

It is not cnough to sa, that an author shoulo bc usco vith carc ,in fact,
thc, all shoulo,, but onc must asscss vith somc ocgrcc of probabilit, if, ano
vhcrc, cach author prcscrving fragmcnts of Ctcsias ano provioing somc oc-
tails on cunuchs coulo havc prooucco invcntions of his ovn or givcn to
thosc figurcs a placc out of proportion vith thc onc thc, hao in Ctcsias Per-
sica. Lct us makc it clcar that invcnting oocs not ncccssaril, mcan introouc-
ing thc figurc of a cunuch that vas not in thc original, but rathcr rcshaping
it vith othcr fcaturcs or valuing it in anothcr va,.
Such an asscssmcnt of thcsc authors capacit, to rcflcct Ctcsias Persica
ma, bc basco on thrcc main t,pcs of clucs. ,:, thcir gcncral litcrar, mcthoos
ano thcir usc of Ctcsias vork, ,., thcir usual picturc of cunuchs, vhcn thc,
oo not orav upon Ctcsias, ano ,, thc comparison vith parallcl ano inoc-

Scc thc basic rcflcctions of Schcpcns ,:qq;, ano Lcnfant ,:qqqa,, vith bibliograph,
ano a tclling ocmonstration of vhat vc voulo knov about Hcroootus if vc onl, hao
fragmcnts.

Scc Lcnfant ,.oo, CLXXXIICXC, Stronk ,.o:o, 6;;o, 8., :o, :6, :8.
.6o Dominique Lenfant
pcnocnt fragmcnts from othcr authors rcfcrring to Ctcsias. An cxamination
along thcsc lincs is probabl, thc onl, va, to knov vhcthcr ano hov thcir
rcnocring of Ctcsias cunuchs has bccn affcctco b, thcir backgrounos, intcn-
tions or pcrsonal juogcmcnts.
Eunuchs arc mainl, mcntionco in fragmcnts transmittco b, ,in chrono-
logical orocr, Diooorus, Nicolaus of Damascus, Flutarch, Athcnacus, ano
Fhotius. Among thcm, Diooorus, Nicolaus ano Athcnacus in fact rcfcr to
cunuchs bclonging to thc Ass,rian ano Mcoian Empircs, vhcrcas Flutarch
ano Fhotius sct cunuchs in thc histor, of thc Fcrsian Empirc propcrl, spcak-
ing. Evcn if our focus is on Fcrsia, thc picturc of cunuchs in thc Ass,rian
ano Mcoian Empircs rcmains of intcrcst, bccausc thcsc Empircs vcrc par-
tiall, sccn b, Ctcsias as analogous forcrunncrs of thc Fcrsian Empirc.
6

Likc most authors, Diooorus oocs not actuall, quotc Ctcsias tcxt, unoc-
niabl, his main sourcc in his Book . on Ass,ria, but hc rcvritcs ano summa-
riscs sclcctco cpisoocs vhich in his vicv ocscrvc to bc rcmcmbcrco, ano hc
somctimcs aoos clcmcnts takcn from othcr sourccs or commcnts of his ovn.
;

Lnlikc othcr authors, Diooorus oio not livc in a socict, vhcrc cunuchs vcrc
banal or influcntial. In thc ofurtccn othcr prcscrvco books of his univcrsal
histor,, thcrc arc onl, a fcv scattcrco allusions to inoivioual cunuchs, vho
bclong morc or lcss to thc Fcrsian Empirc. thrcc of thcm arc rcgiciocs,
vhcrcas onc b, contrast shovs affcction for his king bc,ono thc lattcrs
ocath.
8
In cach casc Diooorus oravs on a oiffcrcnt sourcc, ano his rcgiciocs
arc also rccoroco b, othcr authors. In othcr voros, thc, arc not invcntco b,
Diooorus. As for thc moral qualifications, if Bagoas is vickco ,, ano
thc faithful scrvant loving his mastcr ,,, thcsc stcrcot,pcs arc
not spccific to Diooorus cithcr.
q
In a voro, thcsc rarc allusions oo not con-
vc, thc imprcssion that Diooorus voulo havc a spccial intcrcst in cunuchs, a
tcnocnc, to invcnt somc such figurcs, or to picturc or consiocr thcm in a
spccific va,.
His Book . mainl, oraving on Ctcsias mcntions scvcral cunuchs bclong-
ing to thc Ass,rian court, that of Scmiramis, hcr son Nin,as, ano hcr last
succcssor Saroanapalos.
:o
Cnc of thcm takcs part in a plot against thc quccn

6
Scc Lcnfant ,.oo, LIILIII.
;
Ior morc octails on Diooorus ano Ctcsias, scc Bigvooo ,:q8o,, Eck ,.oo, XIIIXVIII,
XLVIIIL, Lcnfant ,.oo, CLXXXIIICLXXXIV, Stronk ,.o:o, 6;o.
8
Mithrioatcs, murocrcr of Xcrxcs. Dioo. ::.6q.:. Nicoclcs ,sic,, murocrcr of Evagoras
of Salamis. :.;.8. Bagoas, succcssivcl, murocrcr of kings Cchos ano Carscs, bcforc
plotting against thcir succcssor Darius. :;..6. Scc bclov. Eunuch shoving affcction for
Darius III. :;.66..
q
Scc bclov.
:o
Scmiramis. Ctcs. I :b ,.o.:. Nin,as. I :b ,.:... Saroanapalos. I :b ,.., .;.., .8..
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .6:
Scmiramis, vhcrcas thc othcrs arc thc onl, oncs, vith thc kings vivcs ano
concubincs, vho havc thc abilit, to scc a king ,Nin,as, Saroanapalos, vho
alva,s rcmains insioc his palacc. Eunuchs bclong to thc king ,Saroanapalos
has thcm burnt vith himsclf ano his concubincs,,
::
ano thc, knov vhat is
happcning insioc thc palacc, ano so arc thcrcforc inoispcnsablc partncrs for
an,onc sccking acccss to thc king. 1hcsc mcntions of cunuchs arc not man,,
nor oo thc, incluoc an, valuc juogcmcnt. Iurthcrmorc, parallcl ano inoc-
pcnocnt fragmcnts of Ctcsias incluoc similar octails on cunuchsvhich
suggcsts that thc, go back to thcir common sourcc.
:.
In a voro, cvcn if Dio-
oorus oocs not fail to notc vhcn a figurc is a cunuch, thcrc is nothing to
suggcst that hc voulo havc oonc an,thing morc than rcprooucc somc oc-
tails of his sourcc.
A fcv occaocs latcr, Nicolaus of Damascus also composcs a univcrsal
histor,,
:
ano hc also rcvritcs somc portions of Ctcsias histor, of Ass,ria
ano Mcoia, but, unlikc Diooorus, hc probabl, cxpanos rathcr than summa-
riscs.
:
1hc passagcs in qucstion arc knovn through thc Excerpta Constantin-
iana, thc tcnth ccntur, collcction of cxccrpts of Grcck historical vorks sc-
lcctco for thcir moral intcrcst. Nov thc onl, allusions to cunuchs vithin thc
prcscrvco books of thc Excerpta, as vcll as among Nicolaus fragmcnts, arc to
bc founo in thc fivc fragmcnts vhich orav upon Ctcsias.
:
Although thc par-
tial transmission of both corpora rcquircs caution, thcrc is nothing to suggcst
a spccial intcrcst in cunuchs vhich voulo bc ouc to Nicolaus aooitions. in
his fragmcnts, cunuchs pla, minor rolcs, just as in parallcl fragmcnts from
othcr authors.
:6


::
Ctcs. I :b ,.;...
:.
Ctcs. I :l* ,Nic. Dam.,. cunuch plotting against Scmiramis. I :n ano I :p ,Ath.,.
onl, cunuchs ano vomcn ma, scc Nin,as ano Saroanapalos, vho can onl, bc obscrvco
b, Arbaccs vith thc hclp of a cunuch. I :q ,Ath.,. Saroanapalos cunuchs arc thc onl,
oncs to knov thc causcs of thc firc.
:
Scc nov thc Ircnch translation, vith introouction ano Grcck tcxt, b, Farmcnticr
ano Baronc ,.o::,.
:
Cn Nicolaus ano Ctcsias, scc Lcnfant ,.ooo,, cao. ,.oo, CLXXXIV, Stronk ,.o:o,,
csp. 8..
:
I :l*. plot against Scmiramis. I :p*. Arbaccs can scc Saroanapalos thanks to a
cunuch. I 6b*. Nanaros ano Farsonocs ,vith unparallclco clcmcnts. a cunuch prcparcs
thc singing vomcn of thc court, anothcr, vho has bccn struck ano mutilatco b, his mas-
tcr Nanaros, bctra,s him ano rcvcals his crimc to thc king, Nanaros takcs rcfugc in thc
most povcrful of his cunuchs, vho succcssfull, spcaks his causc bcforc thc king,. I 8c*.
Str,angacus is aovisco b, thc most faithful of his cunuchs to occlarc his lovc to Zarinaia,
ano hc latcr givcs him a last lcttcr to hcr. I8o*. thc cunuch Artcmbarcs, vho scrvcs thc
king of Mcoia, aoopts C,rus vho is cupbcarcr, cunuchs arc also mcsscngcrs to thc king.
:6
Ior vhat conccrns cunuchs, thcrc arc onl, parallcls for thc tvo first fragmcnts.
.6. Dominique Lenfant
1hc thiro author oraving on Ctcsias account of Ass,ria about cunuchs
is Athcnacus. His Deipnosophists incluocs plcnt, of quotations or paraphrascs
of Grcck litcraturc of thc classical ano Hcllcnistic pcrioos, vhich vcrc cho-
scn to illustratc spccific thcmcs linkco to thc s,mposium ano arc supposco to
bc tolo b, lcarnco gucsts at a banquct.
:;
1hcrc arc about tvclvc mcntions of
cunuchs in thc fiftccn books of thc vork. Nov vhcn Athcnacus vas vriting
at thc cno of thc .no c. AD, court cunuchs hao bccn rathcr common in thc
Roman Empirc for tvo ccnturics.
:8
1his oocs not havc an, sort of rcpcrcus-
sion, hovcvcr, in thc Deipnosophists, cxccpt for thc fact that cunuchs arc pcr-
haps sccn as unsurprising. 1ruc, thc focus is on thc past, but cvcn vhcn a
lcarnco banquctcr such as Larcnsis lamcnts thc luxur, introoucco b, Lucul-
lus among thc Romans ,6..;c.;a,, his lcngth, commcnts focusing on
slavcs ,6..6.b.;.o, oo not cvcn mcntion cunuchs.
1hc thrcc mcntions of cunuchs in thc Deipnosophists that go back to Ctc-
sias occur in paraphrascs
:q
of thc Persica ,:...8c.qc, on Nin,as ano Sar-
oanapalos, vhcrc cunuchs pla, thc minor part that vc havc alrcao, sccn.
.o

Although thcsc arc paraphrascs, thc octails on cunuchs shoulo not bc sus-
pcctco of bcing invcntco b, Athcnacus, bccausc ,:, thc lattcr has no spccial
intcrcst in cunuchs, ano ,., inocpcnocnt fragmcnts of Diooorus ano Nico-
laus provioc parallcl tcstimonics. 1hcsc allusions ncvcrthclcss occur in a sc-
qucncc on , a ccntral moral thcmc in Athcnacus, ano thc prccisc focus
of Book :.. Nov that intcrprctativc framcvork ano thc valuc juogcmcnt in-
cluoco arc ouc to Athcnacus rathcr than to Ctcsias.
.:
nothing, inocco, sug-
gcsts that thc lattcr consiocrco cunuchs as ocmonstrating thc of thcir
ovncrs.
..

All this sccms to inoicatc that thc authors rcfcrring to Ctcsias arc rathcr
faithful vhcn thc, rcprcscnt him as attributing onl, various minor rolcs to
cunuchs in Ass,rian cvcnts. As to thc Fcrsian Empirc propcrl, spcaking, vc
nov turn to Flutarch ano Fhotius.
In Flutarchs Life of Artaxerxes, it is gcncrall, oifficult to octcrminc
vhcthcr hc borrovs a octail from Ctcsias.
.
hc oravs on scvcral sourccs, sc-

:;
Cn Athcnacus mcthoos as a transmittcr of fragmcnts scc Lcnfant ,.oo;,.
:8
Gu,ot ,:q8o, :.:.
:q
Cn thc phrascs spccific to cithcr quotations or paraphrascs, scc Lcnfant ,.oo;, o.
.o
Nin,as coulo onl, bc sccn b, his cunuchs ano vivcs ,:...8c,, ano thc samc vas
truc for Saroanapalos, vhom Arbaccs coulo onl, obscrvc thanks to thc hclp of a cunuch
,.8f,. Saroanapalos cunuchs vcrc thc onl, oncs to knov thc truth about his p,rc ,.qc,.
.:
Scc Lcnfant ,.oo;, 6o..
..
Scc, on thc contrar,, Ath. :..:o rcfcring to Clcarchus of Soli.
.
Cn Flutarch ano Ctcsias, scc Lcnfant ,.oo, CLXXXVIIIIX, Stronk ,.o:o, csp. :o.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .6
lccts ano claboratcs oata accoroing to his ovn goals as a biographcr ano a
moralist, ano oftcn rcfcrs to an authorit, for a octail, so that thc oclimitation
of thc borroving is not an cas, task. Flutarch oocs not as a rulc offcr quota-
tions scparatc from his ovn voros, so that a fragmcnt provioco b, Flutarch
can lcgitimatcl, bc suspcctco of bcing an incxtricablc mixturc. Yct his allu-
sions to cunuchs oo not put us in a rcal oilcmma in this rcspcct. in a part of
his account cxplicitl, going back to Ctcsias,
.
Flutarch mcntions thc cunuchs
vho arc ncar C,rus thc Youngcr at Cunaxa ano tr, to savc his lifc, thcrc
follovs a passagc that coulo also go back to Ctcsias,
.
vhcrc cunuchs arc
vccp ovcr C,rus ocath, ano anothcr cunuch proviocs vatcr to thc king.
.6

Latcr on, cunuchs of thc king ano of his mothcr takc part in a common oin-
ncr, vhcrc thc most influcntial of Far,satis cunuchs ,
, scts a trap for thc onc vho killco C,rus.
.;
Ano
finall,, thc kings cunuch vho hao cut off thc hcao ano thc hano of C,rus is
von b, Far,satis in pla,ing oicc vith thc king.
.8

Givcn thc fact that Flutarch is oftcn critical of barbarians ,vhom hc is
pronc to ocpict in a stcrcot,pco contrast vith Grcck valucs,,
.q
ano rcpcat-
col, makcs allusions to thc Fcrsian vorlo both in his Lives ano Moralia,
o
onc
might vonocr if hc oio not somctimcs usc cunuchs as a convcnicnt ingrcoi-
cnt to portra, Fcrsia. In fact, cvcn if thcrc vcrc cunuchs in thc Roman
vorlo of his timc, thc, arc not significantl, prcscnt in his vork as a vholc.
:

his cunuchs ncarl, alva,s bclong to thc Fcrsian vorlo.
.
Yct outsioc thc Life
of Artaxerxes, thc, rcmain fcv. Iurthcrmorc, a comparison of this Life vith
parallcl fragmcnts from Fhotius suggcsts that Flutarch vas not cspcciall,
kccn on iocntif,ing somc of his figurcs as cunuchs. vhcrcas Fhotius spccifics
that thc king hao his mothcrs cunuchs ,, torturco, Flutarch rcfcrs to
thc lattcr as attcnoants ano tablc vaitcrs , ,,

in
thc samc va,, accoroing to Fhotius, Far,satis hao palm-trccs plantco b, hcr

.
Art. ::.: ano ::.:: ,Ctcs. I .o,.
.
Lcnfant ,.oo, .8. n. 688.
.6
Art. :. ,Ctcs. I .o,
.;
Art. ::6 ,Ctcs. I .6, ,:6,.
.8
Art. :; ,Ctcs. I .6, ,:;,.
.q
Schmiot ,:qqq,.
o
Lcnfant ,.o::, .q..
:
Somc cunuchs occur in thc cvcnts surrounoing Mithrioatcs ano Fompc, morc than
a ccntur, carlicr ,Luc. :;. ano :8, Pomp. ;;q, Caes. 8q,.
.
Them. :6., Arist q.6, Alex. o, Mor. q.c;, ;c;.

Fhotius. I .; ,;o, Flutarch. I .qb ,:q.8.

.6 Dominique Lenfant
cunuchs on Clcarchus tomb, vhcrcas Flutarch oocs not spccif, vho oio
this.

Simpl, put, cunuchs vcrc not a major componcnt of his picturc of thc
Fcrsian vorlo.

1hcrcforc hc is not likcl, himsclf to havc inscrtco cunuchs

into his Life of Artaxerxes.
1hc last author to bc asscssco, Fhotius, is far from bcing thc lcast impor-
tant, sincc most of thc rcfcrcnccs to cunuchs occur in his summar, of Ctc-
sias Persica. In a scnsc, that comcs as no surprisc, sincc it proviocs thc most
cxtcnsivc cviocncc on that lost vork. But oving to thc B,zantinc back-
grouno of thc patriarch, vhcrc court cunuchs vcrc rathcr common, it coulo
bc tcmpting to suspcct Fhotius of having rcshapco thc Fcrsian court accoro-
ing to his ovn vorlo or pcrsonal prcjuoiccs. His mcthoo in summarising
Ctcsias vork has alrcao, bccn asscssco both through stuo,ing his trcatmcnt
of somc prcscrvco vorks ano through a comparison vith parallcl fragmcnts
provioco b, Flutarch. this has rcvcalco somc slight confusions, somc mis-
lcaoing shortcnings, somc surprising omissions, cvcn somc oisproportion in
thc abriogcmcnt of thc oivcrsc parts of thc summarisco vork, ano a prcoi-
lcction for scnsational aspccts, but no aooitions havc bccn founo.
6
If this
ma, bc applico to cunuchs, it voulo mcan that Fhotius oio not himsclf in-
scrt thcm into his summar,, but that hc coulo choosc to mcntion thcm morc
s,stcmaticall, than othcrs oio. Yct bccausc of thc prcscncc of cunuchs at thc
B,zantinc court, vc shoulo also vonocr vhcthcr Fhotius hao a spccial rcla-
tionship to ano a particular opinion of or fcclings tovaros thcm as a catc-
gor,. It might bc cnlightcning to consiocr in octail Fhotius rclationship to
thc cunuchs of his ovn socict,. 1his, hovcvcr, gocs bc,ono m, compctcncc
ano thc scopc of thc prcscnt papcr, ano I vill contcnt m,sclf vith a fcv rc-
marks on a mattcr that ocscrvcs furthcr consiocration. Eunuchs vcrc
promincnt figurcs in B,zantinc socict,, both at thc impcrial court ,cithcr as
scrvants or as officials, ano in thc Crthooox Church ,as monks or cvcn as
patriarchs,.
;
Ano, as a man vho succcssivcl, hao a high position in thc B,z-
antinc burcaucrac, ano vas clcctco patriarch, Fhotius vas himsclf familiar
vith both arcas. Bcforc him, thc patriarch of Constantinoplc vas thc
cunuch Ignatius, ano Emprcss 1hcooora also hao thc cunuch 1hcoctistos as

Fhotius. I .; ,;:. Flutarch. I .8 ,8.

Eunuchs havc no spccial placc in Schmiot ,:qqq,.

6
Cn Fhotius mcthoo, scc Hagg ,:q;, csp. :o8::, :, vho comparco tcn codices of
Fhotius Bibliotheca vith thcir cxtant moocls vithout finoing an, rcal aooitions on his
part. Cn thc charactcristics of Fhotius abriogcmcnt of Ctcsias. Lcnfant ,.oo, CLXXXIV
VIII. Scc also Stronk ,.o:o, :, :6.
;
Ringrosc ,.oo,, 1oughcr ,.oo8,, vhosc final sclcct prosopograph, shovs that this
vas also truc for thc qth ccntur,.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .6
hcr principal aovisor.
8
\hcn Fhotius vas rcplacco b, Ignatius, hc vas ban-
ishco,
q
ano ouring his rcmoval from patriarchal officc thc cunuch Baancs
vas a trustco agcnt of Empcror Basil I.
o
\c shoulo aoo that in a lcttcr scnt
to thc court cunuch ]ohn Angourios, Fhotius, vho accusco him of laughing
ouring a church scrvicc, rcvilco him as a cunuch, ano rcfcrrco to common
stcrcot,pcs of invcctivc such as comparing him vith or calling him
,Ep. o,.
:

It is not cas, to orav somc oircct conclusions from this, cspcciall, bc-
causc thc Bibliotheca vas ccrtainl, composco bcforc somc of thcsc cvcnts. Yct
cvcn this supcrficial survc, givcs an ioca of thc familiarit, of Fhotius vith
cunuchs, ano of his possiblc involvcmcnt vith somc of thcm in rcal lifc. this
is vhat scts him apart from othcr main authoritics vho offcr quotations
from Ctcsias Persica.
\hat mattcrs hcrc is vhcthcr such vicvs ano fcclings coulo affcct thc
va, Fhotius rcports on thc cunuchs vho appcarco in thc vorks hc summa-
risco. Apart from thc summar, ocaling vith Ctcsias, cunuchs arc mcntionco
in ninc furthcr cooiccs. Iivc of thcsc conccrn latcr Roman or B,zantinc his-
tor,,
.
thrcc ocal vith Hcllcnistic fictions,

ano thcrc is onl, onc vhich rcfcrs

to thc Fcrsian pcrioo, but in fact conccrns C,prus.

Eunuchs oo not takc up

much spacc in thc summarics of Hcllcnistic novcls, cspcciall, in that of Fhi-
lostratus Vita Apollonii ,.:,, vhich incluocs vcr, fcv allusions to cunuchs,
ano vithout an, ncgativc connotation. 1hat of Iamblichus novcl ,q, in-
stcao rccoros hov tvo cunuchs scnt b, thc king of Bab,lon pursuc thc hc-
rocs. hcrc thc, figurc morc promincntl,, ano as malicious charactcrs at that,
but it is vorth noting that Fhotius spccifics onl, oncc that thc, arc cunuchs,
vithout an, insistcncc. Conccrning C,prus, 1hcopompus summar, rcports
on thc cunuch vho vas in collusion vith king Evagoras ano his son bccausc
thc, slcpt vith Nicoclcs oaughtcr vithout knoving thc othcr hao oonc so,

8
1oughcr ,.oo8, :;o.
q
ODB s.v. Ignatios, Fhotios.
o
1oughcr ,.oo8, .
:
is not a complimcnt, sincc Fhotius links it clscvhcrc vith impict,
,, ano trcason ,;a.6,, but notc that in thc last casc hc oocs not aim at a cunuch.
Cn his anti-cunuch invcctivc in Ep. o, scc Ringrosc ,.oo, ;6;, 1oughcr ,.oo8, :o. Scc
also Vinson ,:qq8,, csp. 88q:, on Fhotius sharpl, oiffcrcntiatco ano hicrarchical vicv
of gcnocr ano thc crucial rolc hc ascribcs to scxual fcrtilit, in thc iocntit, of both gcn-
ocrs, at lcast as a polcmical tool.
.
Coo. 6, q6, .6, .;, .8.

Coo. q ano .: ,novcls,, :qo ,m,thograph,,.

Coo. :;6 ,1hcopompus,.

.66 Dominique Lenfant
ano vho assassinatco both of thcm.

Fhotius oocs not juogc Evagoras bc-

haviour positivcl, ,hc uscs thc voro ,, ano this ma, holo truc for
thc cunuchs assistancc as vcll, although that rcmains uncxprcssco. B, con-
trast, cxplicit ano virulcnt valuc juogcmcnts can bc rcao conccrning
cunuchs bclonging to B,zantinc socict,,
6
somc of vhom gavc occisivc hclp
to traitors.
;
Cbviousl,, thcsc appraisals might havc bccn alrcao, cxprcssco
b, Fhotius sourcc, but cvcn in that casc thc point is that hc rcpcats thcm
ano supposcol, subscribcs to thcm. His morc cxplicit juogcmcnt in B,zan-
tinc mattcrs coulo bc cxplainco b, thc fact that thc traitors arc involvco in
rcligious fights
8
such as thc oncs vhich hc coulo scc in his ovn socict, cvcn
bcforc hc himsclf bccamc a patriarch. All in all, cunuchs vho occur in his
summarics of vorks othcr than Ctcsias Persica arc cithcr bao mcn thcm-
sclvcs or conniving vith othcr bao mcn.
If vc nov turn to thc summar, of Ctcsias, oo vc gct a oiffcrcnt picturc?
1his summar, is b, far thc onc vhich rcfcrs most oftcn to cunuchs ano
vhich mcntions most such figurcs. It introouccs thc most influcntial of thcm
b, namc at thc acccssion of ncarl, cvcr, ncv king ano somc of thcm also
pla, a part in thc cvcnts of thc rcign, cspcciall, in plots. 1hcrc is no rcason
to assumc that Fhotius himsclf inscrtco this man, cunuchs, but it is possiblc
that hc gavc thcm a oisproportionatc placc comparco to thc original vork,
possibl, bccausc of analogics vith his ovn vorlo. A comparison vith frag-
mcnts of Ctcsias prcscrvco b, othcr authoritics ma, bc hclpful in clucioating
Fhotius attituoc. Iirst, Fhotius oocs not cxprcss thc samc sort of valuc
juogcmcnts on inoivioual cunuchs. vhcrcas Diooorus, Nicolaus ano Flu-
tarch spcak about trustvorth, ,, or most trustvorth, ,,
cunuchs,
q
Fhotius abovc all insists on thc influcncc cxcrcisco b, somc of
thcm, vho arc saio to bc or .
o

Sccono, in a fcv cascs, Fhotius oocs not spccif, that a figurc is a cunuch,
vhcrcas Flutarch oocs.
:
It might bc that hc omittco to clarif, thc point or

Fhotius :;6 ,:.oa8b, 1hcopompus, FGrHist :: I :o. 1hc stor, is also tolo b,
Aristotlc ano Diooorus. Scc Gu,ot ,:q8o, ..8q, s.v. 1hras,oaios.
6
E.g., q6 ,8b6,. , .8 ,;qb.q,. vho arc ac-
complicc ,, of thc lic of a vrctchco man ,,. is obviousl, a pc-
jorativc voro in Fhotius mino ,scc his Lexicon ano thc Letter o quotco abovc,.
;
E.g., .; ,;a.8,, .8 ,;qb.q,.
8
E.g., thc hcrctic supportcrs of Arius ,coo. .6, .;, .8,.
q
E.g., I :p*, I8c*, I .6 ,:; ,Statciras voro,.
o
I q ,6, I : ,,q, ., , I : ,,:, .
:
Fhotius oocs not inoicatc that Satibarzancs is a cunuch ,I :6 ,6o,, unlikc Flutarch ,I
.o ,:..,. Ncithcr oocs hc call thc man vho cuts off C,rus hcao ano hano a cunuch ,I :6
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .6;
that it vas not so important. 1hiro, thcrc arc in his summar, somc figurcs of
cunuchs vhosc actions changc somcvhat, ano vho thus cannot bc rcoucco
to a spccific juogcmcnt.
.
At lcast, Fhotius oocs not cxprcss an, juogcmcnt
on thcm.
Fcrhaps thc attcntion givcn to cunuchs b, Fhotius can bc cxplainco, on
thc onc hano, b, his ocsirc to highlight thc contrast vith Hcroootus ac-
count,

ano on thc othcr hano b, his scnsitivit, to thc part pla,co b, cas-
tratcs in B,zantium. In his summar, of Ctcsias vork as in thc othcrs,
cunuchs arc not positivc figurcs. It voulo probabl, go too far to scc in that
picturc of a kingoom vhcrc cunuchs pla, a consiocrablc part a kino of mcs-
sagc to his contcmporarics. An important point for us, hovcvcr, is that for
Fhotius cunuchs as such arc ncithcr figurcs of thc past, nor fictional picturcs,
nor forcign s,mbols. 1hcir constant ano rathcr ncgativc prcscncc in thc
summar, of Ctcsias vork coulo not aim at rcprcscnting othcrncss. In othcr
voros, b, a sort of paraoox, thcsc cunuchs vhom somc moocrn scholars scc
as a componcnt of an oricntalist picturc of thc Fcrsian vorlo onl, strikc us
tooa, in this va, bccausc of vhat thc, mcant for a man vho vas ncxt to
cunuchs in his ovn socict, ano oio not classif, thcm as oricntal or cvcn
forcign.
In vhat follovs, vc shall havc to takc into account thcsc fcaturcs of cach
of Ctcsias rcaocrs, ano to rcmain cspcciall, cautious about thc origin of an,
valuc juogcmcnt. In thc vholc corpus of fragmcnts, cunuchs arc, hovcvcr,
picturco vith cnough octails ano in a sufficicntl, cohcrcnt manncr to makc
an ovcrall cxamination possiblc.




,66,, unlikc Flutarch I .6 ,:; ,Bagapatcs/Masabatcs,. \c havc obscrvco oppositc cascs
abovc.
.
1hc Bagapatcs vho livco unocr thc rcigns of Camb,scs, thc Magus ano Darius ,I
:, or Artoxarcs unocr Artaxcrxcs I, Sck,noianos ano Darius II ,I : ,.I : ,,.

Fhotius provcs cspcciall, attcntivc to Ctcsias oivcrgcnccs vith Hcroootus. cf. Lcn-
fant ,.oo, CLXXXVIII.
.68 Dominique Lenfant
. Place and Main Features of Eunuchs in Ctesias Account
. The nature of
Iirst of all, vhat I call cunuch is callco in Grcck ,plural ,.

Et,mologicall,, thc is thc onc vho kccps ,, thc bco ,,.

It
sccms to ocfinc him vith a function ,protcctor of thc bco,, vhcrcas voros
such as , vhich rccall castration morc oircctl,, arc rarcl, usco.
6

In fact, castration ,, is somctimcs alluoco to b, Hcroootus,
abovc all in thc stor, of Hcrmotimos, that Grcck vho vas capturco in var
ano cnslavco, bcforc bcing bought ano castratco b, a Grcck traocr in orocr
to bc solo to Fcrsians at a bcttcr pricc.
;
In Ctcsias fragmcnts, hovcvcr,
thcrc arc onl, inoircct allusions to thc conoition of castratco mcn. In thc
first instancc, a cunuch vho is also cupbcarcr of thc king cxprcsscs his occi-
sion to aoopt a son b, rcfcrring to himsclf as a cunuch ,I shall makc him m,
son, although I am a cunuch,.
8
But thc most striking casc is vhcn Artoxarcs

1hc voro is attcstco bcforc Ctcsias, cspcciall, among Asiatic Grccks vho hao con-
tact vith L,oia ano thcn vith Fcrsia, such as Hipponax ,fr. 6 Dcgani, in thc latc 6th c.
BC, ano Hcroootus ano Hcllanicus ,FGrHist 68;a I ;c, in thc th c. BC. 1hc classic stuo,
of cunuchs in Grcco-Roman antiquit, is Gu,ot ,:q8o,, vhich is still hclpful, although it
somctimcs tcnos to confusc all sorts of sourccs, timcs ano arcas. 1oughcr ,.oo8,, although
conccrnco vith cunuchs in B,zantium, incluoc man, cxccllcnt insights not onl, on that
pcrioo ,scc also Ringrosc ,.oo, ano thc rcccnt clcar s,nthcsis of Siocris ,.o:o,,, but also
on cunuchs in gcncral in a comparativc pcrspcctivc. Ior othcr comparativc matcrial, scc
also 1oughcr ,.oo.,.

Chantrainc ,.ooq, 68. garoicn oc la couchc, cunuquc. As notco b, Gu,ot ,:q8o,

.o, thc gcncral mcaning is unsuitco to rcproouction or, morc rcstrictivcl,, castratco
,that is, unsuitco to rcproouction ouc to an opcration,.
6
1hcsc arc voros vhich rcfcr to thc mooc of castration , rcfcr to cxcision,
thc latcr attcstco rcfcr to thc comprcssion of tcsticlcs,. Cn moocs of castration,
scc 1oughcr ,.oo8, .q:.
;
Hcroootus uscs thc vcrb , vhich rcfcrs to thc mutilation pcrformco b, Fan-
ionios in orocr to makc cunuchs ,8.:o,. In thc samc va,, hc alluocs clscvhcrc to thc cas-
tration ,, of bo,s from thc Ionian citics, b, orocr of thc Fcrsian gcncrals ,6..,. In
both cascs, thc maoc in this va, is cxplicitl, opposco to thc , thc malc
vith tcsticlcs. A sccono cxprcssion is usco about Hcrmotimos rcvcngc on Fanionios. hc
forccs his prcvious mastcr to , that is, to cut off thc privatc parts, of
his ovn sons, thcn hc compcls thc lattcr to inflict thc samc on thcir fathcr ,8.:o6,. Horn-
blovcr ,.oo, : thinks that thc sccono cxprcssion rcfcrs to a morc raoical amputation
,thc pcnis voulo also bc cut off, ano not onl, thc tcsticlcs,, but it is far from ccrtain that
vc shoulo makc a oistinction bctvccn ano . Hc also con-
siocrs thc sccono opcration as ncccssaril, fatal, vhich is contraoictco, c.g., b, Chincsc
practiccs.
8
I 8o* ,6. Notc that this fragmcnt is provioco b, Nicolaus, ano that thc bclicf that
it gocs back to Ctcsias is both h,pothctical ano likcl, ,scc abovc,.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .6q
thc plots against thc king ,Darius II, bccausc hc vishcs to bccomc
king himsclf. hc orocrs a voman to procurc, accoroing to Fhotius, a bcaro
ano a moustachc for him so that hc coulo look likc a man ,,,
q
bcaro-
lcssncss bcing a vcll-knovn cffcct of castration, at lcast vhcn pcrformco bc-
forc pubcrt,.
6o
1hc bcaro is a usual virilc attributc in antiquit,,
6:
ano, abovc
all, if Artoxarcs vants to look likc a man, that clcarl, mcans that hc oocs not
look likc a man, cvcn that hc is not a man.
6.


. Function and Role of Ctesias Eunuchs
Nov vhat about thc function ano rolc of Ctcsias cunuchs? As vc havc
sccn, accoroing to ct,molog,, cunuchs arc kccpcrs of thc bco, but in Ctc-
sias narrativc thc, arc in fact mcntionco as attcnoants at thc scrvicc of
mcmbcrs of thc ro,al famil,. It shoulo bc notco that thc, oo not appcar as
guaros of vomcn. In othcr voros, cunuchs arc not kccpcrs of a harcm, thc
cxistcncc of vhich oocs not appcar in Ctcsias fragmcnts. In his Persica, thc
vomcn of thc court oo not sccm to bc cspcciall, vatchco ovcr. 1hc, rathcr
havc cunuchs at thcir scrvicc ,thc mothcr of thc king, Far,satis, has hcr ovn
cunuchs, ano also fcmalc scrvants ,such as Gigis,.
6
Eunuchs appcar far morc
oftcn arouno thc kings ano thc mcn than arouno thc vomcn.
6
Accoroingl,,

q
I : ,.
6o
Anothcr ph,siological cffcct, thc shrill voicc, is not mct vith in Hcroootus or Ctc-
sias accounts. 1hat coulo mcan that in somc cascs thc, rcfcrrco to post-pubcrtal
cunuchs. 1oughcr ,.oo8, . obscrvcs that thc abscncc of facial hair ano thc unbrokcn
voicc arc fcaturcs of malcs vho havc bccn castratco prior to pubcrt,. Cn thc ph,sical
cffccts of castration, scc 1oughcr ,.oo8, ..
6:
As for Grcccc, rcmcmbcr that in Aristophancs Ecclesiazusae, thc vomcn vho vant
to bc takcn for mcn havc bcaros scvco on ,.,, ano thc lack of a bcaro mcans cithcr
slavcr, or ,outh or cffcminac, ,:o.,. In Ctcsias Persica, scvcral figurcs havc no bcaro in
orocr to look likc a voman ,thus Saroanapalos, Nanaros, Farsonocs. I :p, I 6b*,. 1hc
rolc of thc bcaro as a visiblc attributc of mcn as opposco to cunuchs ano vomcn is obvi-
ousl, not confinco to antiquit,. scc Siocris ,.o:o, 8 on B,zantium.
6.
1his sharp formulation might also rcvcal Fhotius ovn conccption of gcnocr
bounoarics ,scc abovc,, but it is not unlikcl, for Ctcsias cithcr, sincc, accoroing to his
prcocccssor Hcroootus ,8.:o6,, Hcrmotimos also sa,s that hc is a man ,, no morc.
6
Llcvcll,n-]oncs ,.oo., .; anal,scs cunuchs in conncction vith thc harcm ano spcaks
of harcm socict, in Ctcsias, although it is harol, pcrccptiblc in his fragmcnts ,ano no
morc in Xcnophon,.
6
Morc gcncrall,, 1oughcr ,.oo8, : concluocs his survc, on cunuchs in histor, b,
sa,ing that Although in thc popular imagination thcir prcscncc at court is associatco
vith thc guaroing of vomcn , cunuchs vcrc morc likcl, to bc founo in thc compan, of
mcn.
.;o Dominique Lenfant
thc, sccm to knov thc sccrcts of thc rulcrs ano can somctimcs makc somc
occisivc rcvclations.
6

Somc cunuchs assumc othcr functions, likc taking thc kings corpsc to
Fcrsia ,I : ,,q, :, ano also sitting bcsioc his tomb ,I : ,.,. In onc casc, a
cunuch is also askco to takc a militar, commano.
66
Man, pla, a rolc that
probabl, cxcccos an, prcocfinco function. 1hc, gcncrall, appcar as aovi-
sors to thc king. for ncarl, cvcr, rcignat lcast until Darius II, at thc cno of
thc th c.thcrc arc cunuchs vho arc qualifico as influcntial. Morcovcr,
thcrc arc man, cascs of cunuchs taking part in plots or assassination at-
tcmpts.
6;
Somc also appcar as kingmakcrs,
68
anoas alrcao, sccnthcrc is
cvcn onc ,thc famous Artoxarcs, vho aspircs to kingship.
1hc onl, pcrioo vhich sccms to bc ocvoio of such cvcnts is thc rcign of
Artaxcrxcs II, aftcr thc allcgco failurc of Artoxarcs unocr Darius II, prc-
ciscl, thc timc vhcn Ctcsias vas living at thc court. ,Eunuchs arc still mcn-
tionco thcn, but no longcr in influcntial positions., All in all, cunuchs arc
omniprcscnt in Ctcsias fragmcnts, ano thcrc is at lcast a mcntion of somc
cunuchs unocr every Fcrsian king from C,rus to Artaxcrxcs II.
6q
In othcr
voros, it is not thc sign of an cvolution, but is rathcr a constant feature of thc
ro,al court. Eunuchs appcar as onc of thc major agcnts vho pla, a rolc in
thc vholc of Fcrsian histor, as picturco b, Ctcsias.

Interpreting Ctesias Eunuchs
Such a picturc is obviousl, puzzling for a moocrn historian, ano plcnt, of
intcrprctations havc bccn proposco. arc thcsc cunuchs purcl, litcrar, crca-
tions, in fact Ctcsias invcntions? Arc thc, historical figurcs? Arc thc, Fcr-

6
c.g. I : ,,:, :. thc usurpation of thc Magus is rcvcalco b, a cunuch.
66
I : ,:. thc cunuch Natacas is scnt to plunocr thc sanctuar, at Dclphi ,a most
ooubtful inciocnt,.
6;
1hcrc arc at lcast somc unocr Scmiramis ,I :b ,.o.:, I :l*,, C,rus ,I q ,6,, thc Ma-
gus ,I : ,:6,, Xcrxcs I ,,,, Xcrxcs II ,I : ,8,, ano Darius II ,,,.
68
1hc Magus rulcs thanks to thc cunuch Bagapatcs ,ano also to Artas,ras, I : ,,:
:6,, ano CchosDarius II partl, bccomcs king thanks to thc cunuch Artoxarcs ,I : ,o,.
6q
At first glancc, Darius sccms to bc an cxccption, but thc cunuch Bagapatcs, vho has
hclpco in thc plot against thc Magus ,I : ,:6,, is saio to havc sat bcsioc Darius tomb for
scvcn ,cars ,I : ,.,, vhich implics that hc vas a trust, scrvant of thc king vhcn thc lat-
tcr vas alivc.
Eunuchs vcrc also prcscnt prcviousl,, at thc Ass,rian ano Mcoian courts, vhich, in
Ctcsias account, arc supposco to havc prcccoco thc Fcrsian onc ano arc to a largc cxtcnt
imaginco accoroing to thc samc pattcrn. Somc arc mcntionco from Scmiramis rcign ,I
:b ,.o. plot of Nin,as against his mothcr Scmiramis vith thc hclp of a cunuch,, that is,
not far from thc bcginning of Ctcsias stor,.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .;:
sian fictions? Do thc, ovc thcir cxistcncc to Grcck misunocrstanoings of his-
torical figurcs vho vcrc in fact not castratco? Cr shoulo onc or thc othcr of
thcsc intcrprctations bc aooptco ad hoc accoroing to cach casc? All thcsc op-
tions havc bccn proposco, ano in orocr to cxaminc thcm, I voulo nov likc
to prcscnt thc cviocncc vhich vc can comparc vith Ctcsias account, ano
thc conclusions vhich can possibl, bc rcachco in cach casc.


. Eunuchs in Greek Accounts of Persian history
\c first ncco to knov hov original Ctcsias stor, vas in his ovn culturc. \c
ma, first comparc it vith othcr Grcck accounts, thosc bcforc ano thosc aftcr
it.

. Before Ctesias: Herodotus
1hc first comparison to bc maoc, ano thc onc vhich clcarl, oominatcs
scholarship, is that vith Hcroootus account. this, of coursc, vas anothcr
Grcck histor, of Fcrsia, vhich vas vrittcn a gcncration carlicr ano stoppco
vith thc first ,cars of Xcrxcs, vhcrcas Ctcsias vcnt somc 8o ,cars furthcr, to
thc sixth ,car of Artaxcrxcs II.
Eunuchs ,, , alrcao, appcar in Hcroootus account as
pcrsonal attcnoants scrving thc king or his oignitarics. 1hc, takc up oiffcr-
cnt functions, such as scrvants cmplo,co in thc man, tasks of thc ro,al scr-
vicc in thc palacc as vcll as on campaign,
;o
but also as boo,guaros
,, vho can bc cmplo,co as spics ,, scnt outsioc,
;:
ro,al
mcsscngcrs vho control thc acccss to thc king,
;.
or cvcn trustvorth, agcnts
vho arc givcn important missions b, thc king, such as bcing thc guaroian
,, of his sons ouring a oangcrous trip.
;
1his varico picturc shoulo,
hovcvcr, not mislcao us, sincc thcrc arc harol, tcn allusions to cunuchs in
thc vholc vork of Hcroootus, ano most of thcm coulo probabl, cscapc thc
rcaocr. Morcovcr, thcsc cunuchs ncvcr influcncc thc king or plot against
him. Somc ccrtainl, bccomc honourco at thc court
;
ano havc a ccrtain

;o
.o ,at Darius court,, ;.:8; ,in Xcrxcs arm,,, 8.:o ,cunuchs in thc court of
Xcrxcs,.
;:
1hcsc boo,guaros ,:.::, scrvc in fact Harpagos unocr thc Mcoian rulc. 1hc, arc
subscqucntl, iocntifico as cunuchs ,:.::;,.
;.
.;;8. cunuchs tr,ing to block thc va, of thc conspirators going against thc Magus.
;
8.:o. Xcrxcs makcs Hcrmotimos thc guaroian of his illcgitimatc sons for thcir rc-
turn trip aftcr thc battlc of Salamis.
;
8.:o.
.;. Dominique Lenfant
frccoom to movc for thcir ovn busincss,
;
but all arc trustvorth, scrvants
vithout prctcnsion to cxcrcising an, form of povcr.
In Ctcsias Persica, cunuchs arc far morc prcscnt, ano somc of thcm also
assumc morc important rolcs, incluoing in cvcnts vhich hao cquivalcnts in
Hcroootus ,for instancc, thc murocr of thc Magus,.
;6
It is, hovcvcr, in thc
pcrioo vhich bcgins vith Xcrxcs murocr ano cnos vith thc cxccution of
Artoxarcs unocr Darius II that cunuchs arc most oftcn mcntionco ano
abovc all as bcing most influcntial. But this pcrioo is not incluoco in Hc-
roootus ano thus an, comparison cluocs us.
1hcrc havc bccn tvo major trcnos in intcrprcting a comparison of thc
tvo accounts. thc oivcrgcncc coulo bctra, cithcr a historical cvolution or a
historiographical cvolution. In thc first casc ,historical cvolution,, it voulo
mcan that until Xcrxcs first ,cars vc shoulo follov Hcroootus but that for
thc folloving pcrioo vc shoulo follov Ctcsias. Eunuch influcncc voulo,
thcn, bcgin vith thc latc Xcrxcs. 1his trcno is vcll illustratco b, Clmstcaos
History of the Persian Empire ,:q8,
;;
ano also, ocspitc somc rcscrvations, b,
Cooks The Persian Empire ,:q8,.
;8
Ior historians, this has thc obvious aovan-
tagc of avoioing a ncarl, total ignorancc of thc inncr histor, of thc Fcrsian
Empirc aftcr thc Grcco-Fcrsian vars. But it also lcaos to an inconsistcnt usc
of Ctcsias, vho b, this rcckoning voulo invcnt storics vith cunuchs in thc
pcrioo vhcrc hc ovcrlaps Hcroootus, but voulo not in thc folloving pcrioo.
1his is clcarl, thc position of Gu,ot in his book on cunuchs in thc Grcco-
Roman vorlo.
;q
In a va,, onc coulo suggcst that for thc latcr pcrioo Ctcsias
oio not ncco to justif, his stor, ano provc original ,assuming that such vas
his main goal,, ano/or that hc hao bcttcr cviocncc for rcccnt timcs. But it
rcmains avkvaro.

;
8.:o6. Irom Sarois, vhcrc thc Fcrsian arm, is, Hcrmotimos gocs oovn to thc coast
on somc busincss.
;6
1hc Magus partl, bccomcs king thanks to a cunuch ,I : ,:,, hc is latcr unmaskco
b, anothcr cunuch ,,:,, ano is finall, killco thanks to thc complicit, of a cunuch ,,:6,. In
thc corrcsponoing account of Hcroootus, cunuchs arc not complctcl, abscnt, but thc,
appcar onl, oncc ano not as cfficicnt agcnts. thc, onl, tr, to bar thc conspirators va,
ano arc cut oovn ,.;;,.
;;
Clmstcao statco, Ior thc cvcnts of thc last ccntur,, Ctcsias givcs us much informa-
tion vhich vc shoulo othcrvisc scriousl, miss, though vc must rcgrct that hc oio not
makc bcttcr usc of his opportunitics ,8o,. Clmstcaos account of Fcrsian histor, aftcr
Xcrxcs murocr takcs up that of Ctcsias ano rcports cunuch influcncc ,.6;, ;,,
cunuchs involvco in plots ,.8q,, cunuchs as ro,al favouritcs ,.8q, ,, ano cvcn as all-
povcrful ,:., on Artoxarcs,.
;8
Cook, although first oispla,ing oistrust of Ctcsias account ,..,, acccpts it conccrning
thc rolc of cunuchs ,:.qo, :6,.
;q
Gu,ot ,:q8o, 8q:.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .;
A sccono intcrprctativc trcno consiocrs thc oivcrgcncc bctvccn thc tvo
Grcck historians as thc sign of an cvolution vithin historiograph,. It has
bccn bcst illustratco b, a papcr publishco in :q8; b, Hclccn Sancisi-
\ccrocnburg. accoroing to hcr, moocrn common opinion hclo thc Fcrsian
Empirc as bcing occaocnt in thc th c. BC, bccausc actual rulc vas supposco
to bc that of quccns, quccn-mothcrs, cunuchs ano courticrs, but such a pic-
turc, shc arguco, vas basco on a Grcck historiograph, that hao in fact lost
its original vigour ano vas mcrcl, rcpcating clichcs. In a voro, instcao of
thc occaocncc of thc Empirc, Ctcsias account voulo rathcr provc thc
occaocncc in thc sourccs in thc th c. BC.
8o


. Historians after Ctesias
As thc comparison vith Hcroootus alonc is not a satisf,ing touchstonc, Ctc-
sias picturc of cunuchs shoulo also bc comparco vith thc cviocncc offcrco
b, latcr Grcck historians.
Xcnophon is a spccial casc. although hc livco at thc samc timc as Ctc-
sias, hao a rcal knovlcogc of thc Fcrsian Empirc, ano vrotc in somc octail
on its cunuchs, his Cyropaedia is not so much Fcrsian histor, as Grcck politi-
cal thcor,, vhcrc cunuchs cmboo, abovc all a moocl of unfailing faithful-
ncss.
8:
1his faithfulncss is both cxcmplifico b, Fanthcas cunuchs vho attcno
to hcr pcrfcctl,, ano thcorisco b, Xcnophon vhcn hc cxplains vh, C,rus
chooscs cunuchs as his boo,guaros.
8.
Apart from thcsc anon,mous cunuchs,
thcrc is also Gaoatas, an Ass,rian noblc vhom his king has castratco ano
vho takcs rcvcngc b, hclping C,rus to ocfcat this king, bcforc bccoming a
oignitar, at thc Fcrsian court.
8
It coulo bc ocoucco that cunuchs as boo,-
guaros or court oignitarics vcrc not ncccssaril, consiocrco unlikcl, or unoc-
sirablc, but bccausc of Xcnophons original pcrspcctivc in that vork ano thc
obviousl, fictivc charactcr of his figurcs, his construction oocs not givc an,
inoication of thc rolc ano action of rcal cunuchs, not cvcn such as thc, vcrc
pcrccivco b, Grccks. As a conscqucncc vc hao bcttcr lcavc thc Cyropaedia
asioc for our currcnt intcrcsts.
Ctcsias account shoulo rathcr bc comparco vith othcr Grcck accounts
of a latcr pcrioo of Fcrsian histor,, that is to sa, latcr Persica ,thc sourccs of

8o
Sancisi-\ccrocnburg ,:q8;,. 1his trcno, hovcvcr, appcars carlicr, sincc Lcvis ,:q;;,
.: alrcao, rcactco to such a sccptical ano ironic attituoc tovaros Ctcsias account ,It is
customar, to makc fun of Ctcsias vhcn hc attributcs grcat importancc to cunuchs ano
quccns,.
8:
Briant ,:qq6, .8. ,.oo., .;:, Azoula, ,.ooo,, scc also Azoula, ,.oo,, csp. 6;;o.
8.
Fanthcas cunuchs. Xcn. Cyr. 6.:., 6..::, ;.., ;..:. C,rus boo,guaro.
;..q6.
8
Xcn. Cyr. ....8;.. Gaoatas as a oignitar,. 8..:;...
.; Dominique Lenfant
thc last chaptcrs of Flutarchs Artaxerxes, ano thc historians of Alcxanocr.
Nov in thcsc accounts, cunuchs appcar in similar rolcs as in Ctcsias narra-
tivc, cspcciall, involvco in, or ocnouncing somc court plots. In fact, in latcr
Persica as knovn through Flutarchs Artaxerxes, cunuchs still appcar as thc
kings pcrsonal attcnoants,
8
but somc arc also usco, among othcrs, b,
Cchos to convincc Ariaspcs to commit suicioc,
8
vhcrcas a plot against thc
king Artaxcrxcs II is also ocnouncco b, a cunuch.
86

1hc main figurc, hovcvcr, is clcarl, that of Bagoas, thc povcrful
cunuch of thc last occaoc of thc Empirc,
8;
ano his achicvcmcnts rccall thosc
of Ctcsias Artoxarcs. likc Artoxarcs, hc vas a king-makcr ,hc sccurco thc
thronc for Darius III,, ano, likc Artoxarcs, hc vas finall, cxccutco for hav-
ing trico to kill thc king.
88
But, bcforc that, hc hao oonc morc than Artox-
arcs, sincc hc succccoco in killing anothcr king ,Cchos Artaxcrxcs III, ano
his son ano succcssor ,Arscs Artaxcrxcs IV,. Morcovcr, hc also hao con-
siocrablc propcrt, ,garocns in Bab,lon, a palacc in Susa,
8q
ano hc hao im-
portant official functions ,a militar, commano,
qo
thc aoministration of satra-
pics, thc function of chiliarch,. Bagoas is thus a far morc succcssful ano
povcrful figurc than Ctcsias Artoxarcs.
1his figurc has givcn risc to thrcc moocrn intcrprctations. In thc traoi-
tional vicv, Bagoas vas likc that. 1hus, Clmstcao cvcn consiocrco that, b,
killing thc last ablc rulcr ,Cchus,, Bagoas vas no lcss than thc onc vho hao
ocstro,co thc Fcrsian Empirc.
q:
In this va,, Bagoas ma, appcar as bcing at
thc cno of an cvolution, of vhich a stcp coulo bc obscrvco in thc carlicr timc
ocscribco b, Ctcsias. Accoroing to a sccono intcrprctation, Bagoas is, for
thc most part, a litcrar, fiction, vhich voulo bc an amplification of thc cli-

8
Dinon, FGrHist 6qo I :.a, Hcraclciocs of C,mc, FGrHist 68q I ..
8
Flut. Art. o..
86
Flut. Art. .q.:.
8;
Scc Hcckcl ,.oo6, 6;.
88
Dioo. :;..6.
8q
If thc Artahar mcntionco in thc Mura archivc rcfcrs to thc samc pcrson as Ctc-
sias Artoxarcs ,Lcvis ,:q;;, .:,, thc cstatcs hc ovnco arc a furthcr common fcaturc vith
Bagoas.
qo
Notc that Bagoas vas not alonc in acting as a militar, commanocr ,at Sioon ano in
Eg,pt in o/q BC,. vhcn Alcxanocr arrivco at Gaza in ., thc ocfcncc vas conouctco
ouring tvo months b, anothcr cunuch, Batis ,Hcckcl ,.oo6, ;:,.
q:
Clmstcao ,:q8, 8q. Blooothirst, as Cchus hao shovn himsclf to bc, hc vas an
ablc rulcr, ano it is not too far vrong to sa, that, b, his murocr, Bagoas ocstro,co thc
Fcrsian Empirc.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .;
chc vhich hao bccn sprcao b, Ctcsias.
q.
Ano for a thiromcoiantrcno,
Bagoas is a historical figurc, but hc vas not a cunuch, cspcciall, sincc hc
vas a chiliarch, a major officc at thc Fcrsian court.
q

As can bc sccn, Grcck accounts latcr than Ctcsias oo not solvc thc prob-
lcm.
q
Instcao, thc, havc givcn risc to similar controvcrsics,
q
ano vc can ob-
scrvc for Ctcsias cunuchs thc samc t,pc of intcrprctativc trcnos, vhich I vill
nov commcnt upon.


. The Persians Eunuchs as a Greek Fiction
1hc first intcrprctativc trcno consists in sccing Ctcsias cunuchs as a ,morc
or lcss, Grcck fiction.

. A Greek Clich in General
Aftcr ccnturics in vhich Grcck litcraturc on Fcrsia vas mostl, acccptco at
facc valuc, thc tvcnticth ccntur, introoucco a morc critical approach.
q6
Ior
somc occaocs, cunuchs clcarl, appcarco as a constitutivc clcmcnt of thc
Grcck picturc of thc barbarian vorlo.
q;
Such a portra,al of thc barbarians
vas in largc part a oisparaging picturc of allcgco cultural ano political con-
trasts vith Grcccc, ano its claboration vas anal,sco as a proccss of construc-
tion of Grcck cthnic iocntit, b, opposition.
q8

\ithin such a framcvork, cunuchs appcar to bc highl, s,mbolic, as thc,
first appcar as a sort of slavc, ano thc Fcrsian Empirc vas oftcn picturco b,
Grccks as thc placc vhcrc thcrc vas a contrast bctvccn an all-povcrful king
ano his subjccts ocscribco as slavcs.
qq
1hc, arc furthcrmorc mutilatco
mcnano mutilation vas ccrtainl, in Grcck c,cs a striking part of thc cul-

q.
Firngrubcr ,.o::, .8. 1his vicv is basco on thc ooubtful assumption that Ctcsias
account voulo havc hao a hugc influcncc ano that thc historians of Alcxanocr voulo
havc just invcntco instcao of rcporting local hcarsa,.
q
Briant ,:qq6, .86, .88 , Briant ,.oo., .;, .;;,.
q
It might also bc notco that in thcsc latcr accounts cunuchs appcar in ncv rolcs rc-
latco to scx, cithcr as kccpcrs of thc numcrous concubincs of thc king ,Curtius, or as
thcmsclvcs availablc for an crotic rclation vith thc king ,1irioatcs, lovco b, Artaxcrxcs
II, accoroing to Acl. VH :..:, Bagoas, succcssivcl, lovcr of Darius III ano Alcxanocr
,Curt. 6....,,.
q
In Bagoas casc, hovcvcr, thc prcvailing vicv is clcarl, thc first onc.
q6
Scc Briant ,.ooo,, Lcnfant ,.o::, :.
q;
Hutzfclot ,:qqq, passim.
q8
Hall ,:q8q,.
qq
E.g. Isoc. Paneg. :o:, |Arist.] Mund. q8a.
.;6 Dominique Lenfant
tural antagonism bctvccn Fcrsia ano Grcccc.
:oo
Last, thc, arc not rcal
mcn,
:o:
ano thc, might contributc in this va, to rcprcscnting thc Fcrsian
Empirc as cffcminatc, that is to sa,, vcak.
:o.
In that scnsc, cunuchs fco
Grcck litcrar, clichcs on Fcrsia as carl, as thc th c. BC.

. Ctesias Touch
Ctcsias amplifics this trcno ,in no othcr vork oo cunuchs figurc so promi-
ncntl,,, ano hc ccrtainl, aoos somc ncv fcaturcs. Gcncrall, spcaking, hc of-
tcn challcngcs thc common catcgorics. in his book on Inoia, hc blurs thc ois-
tinctions bctvccn animals ano mcn, ano in his Persica hc oocs thc samc vith
gcnocr bounoarics. Eunuchs look ncithcr ,totall,, malc nor ,mcrcl,, fcmalc.
Morcovcr, thc thcmc of an cffcminatc vorlo is cspcciall, vcll ocvclopco in
Ctcsias Ass,rian ano Mcoian histor,. thcrc ,ou can fino cffcminatc mcn
,Saroanapalos, ano virilc vomcn ,Scmiramis,, ano cvcn changcs of mcn into
vomcn ,Nanaros,. 1hcn, in his Fcrsian histor,, cunuchs ano vomcn of thc
ro,al famil, continuc to givc Asia a fcmininc aspcct.
:o
Lct us aoo that
cunuchs appcar in Ctcsias account among thc man, oangcrs to thc kings
povcr, as oo rcbcls or othcr figurcs vho vant to scizc povcr.
:o
Ior thcsc
rcasons, somc scholars tcno to scc thcsc cunuchs as iocological construc-
tions, rcsulting from so-callco oricntalist Grcck prcjuoiccs that tcno to oc-
prcciatc Fcrsian povcr ano culturc.
:o


:oo
Lcnfant ,:qqqb, .o8. Alcxanocrs cncountcr vith mutilatco Grccks ncar Fcrscpolis
is a litcrar, illustration of this opposition. Yannick Mullcr is currcntl, vorking on a FhD
about Grcck vicvs ano practiccs of mutilation, scc alrcao, Mullcr ,forthcoming,.
:o:
As sccn abovc, it is clcarl, cxprcssco about Artoxarcs, vho nccos a bcaro to look
likc a man. ,Notc inciocntall, that hc is not cffcminatc cnough to scv ano appcals to a
voman for this., Latcr, Aristotlc iocntifico cunuchs vith vomcn ,Gen. an. ..;8b;8a,
cf. 1oughcr ,.oo8, ,. Cn cunuchs as cffcminatc in Grcck ano, abovc all, Roman lit-
craturc, scc Gu,ot ,:q8o, ;..
:o.
Scc cspcciall, Hall ,:q8q, :;. 1hc palacc cunuch of thc Grccks imagination cn-
capsulatcs thcir s,stcmatic fcminisation of Asia, cmotional, vil,, subscrvicnt, luxurious,
ano cmasculatco, hc cmbooics simultancousl, all thc various thrcaos in thc fabric of thcir
oricntalist oiscoursc, Hall ,:qq, ::6 cvcn statcs that thc Eastcrn castratco malc stooo
as a paraoigm for cvcr, oricntal malcvhich is, to sa, thc lcast, cxaggcratco.
:o
Blurring oistinctions bctvccn mcn ano animals. Lcnfant ,:qqqb, .:o, cao. ,.oo,
CLV, vhcrc Ctcsias is contrastco vith Hcroootus. Blurring gcnocr oistinctions. Lcnfant
,.oo, CXXXVVI. Scc also Gcra ,.oo;,. Saroanapalos has common fcaturcs vith
cunuchs, sincc hc has his bcaro shavco ano his skin smoothco vith pumicc stonc ,I :p,.
1his lcaos Arbaccs to ocspisc him as vorthlcss ,I :b ,.,. Nanaros. I 6b*.
:o
Lcnfant ,.oo, CXIICXXIII.
:o
Ior Sancisi-\ccrocnburg ,:q8;, , Ctcsias might bc crcoitco vith introoucing in
Grcck ano Europcan historiograph, thc iocological ano ocprcciativc notion of thc Cri-
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .;;
. Questions Regarding a Clich
Iocntif,ing cunuchs as a Grcck clichc about Fcrsia, hovcvcr, oocs not solvc
cvcr,thing, ano it rathcr raiscs scvcral qucstions. Iirst, thc qucstion of truth.
is a clichc ncccssaril, vrong? Cf coursc, noboo, contcsts that thcrc vcrc
cunuchs ,that is, castratco mcn, at thc Fcrsian court, so that thc qucstion bc-
comcs. \hat is vrong vith thc Grcck ,or Ctcsias, clichc? Is it thc allcgco
povcr ano influcncc of cunuchs? Arc vc to think that Ctcsias vas vrong in
cvcr, casc, or that hc gcncralisco somc inoivioual cascs?
Sccono, thc qucstion of cvaluation. vcrc cunuchs, in Ctcsias c,cs, bao
mcn ocscrving contcmpt? It is gcncrall, saio that Ctcsias picturco cunuchs
as trcachcrous,
:o6
but this is an asscrtion of moocrn scholars, not backco b,
Ctcsias fragmcnts, vhich ocscribc cunuchs as most influcntial
,, , or most trustvorth, ,,,
ano vc havc sccn that thcsc labcls cvcn oiffcr accoroing to thc authoritics
prcscrving fragmcnts. 1o bc surc, Ctcsias cunuchs arc involvco in plots ano
instanccs of trcason, but thc, arc not alonc in ooing so. among thc traitors
arc also mcmbcrs of thc aristocrac, ano thc ro,al famil, ,such as Mcgab,zus
or C,rus thc Youngcr,. Abovc all, in most cascs, cunuchs arc involvco cithcr
b, hclping or b, ocnouncing thc plottcrs, but, if a plot vas bcing hatchco,
vas thcrc a thiro possiblc choicc? Lct us aoo that somc cunuchs arc also rc-
markabl, trustvorth,, somctimcs bc,ono ocath.
1ruc, contcmpt tovaro cunuchs of Fcrsia is cxprcssco b, Grcck or Latin
authors, but it is b, othcr vritcrs, such as Flato or thc historians of Alcxan-
ocr. Somc of thc lattcr cxprcssco contcmpt for cunuchs as such ,likc thc
Roman Curtius, ..., or ocscribco somc of thcm as cspcciall, oark ,likc
Diooorus picturing Bagoas,. Yct thcir charactcrisations arc linkco to a spc-
cific contcxt
:o;
or to a spccific pcrson. 1hc, oo not tcll us vhcthcr cunuchs
vcrc in Ctcsias c,cs a thcmc for oisparagcmcnt. Cf coursc, opinions ma,
rcmain uncxprcssco all thc morc sincc thc, sccm obvious vithin thc framc
of a common valuc s,stcm. But oocs cvcr, Grcck author sharc thc samc
valucs as cvcr, othcr Grcck? Cnc ma, ooubt it, just thinking about Hcrooo-
tus or Xcnophon. 1hc fact that Ctcsias vas not a t,pical Grcck, ncithcr in


cnt, vhich shc ocfincs as provoking associations of harcms, cunuchs, luxur, ano in-
trigucs. It has connotations of softncss, closconcss, inoulgcncc ano lack of rigour. 1o sum
this up. it mcans cffcminac,. Scc also, c.g., Hall ,:q8q, :;, cao. ,:qq,, Briant ,:qq6, :6
,.oo., ;, Rollingcr ,.oo;,.
:o6
Briant ,:qq6, .;q ,.oo., .68. pcrfioious cunuchs. Azoula, ,.ooo, . statcs that
thc Grcck vorlo vas usco to consiocring cunuchs, cspcciall, vith Ctcsias, as trcachcrous
ano alva,s rcao, to bctra,.
:o;
Cn Curtius voros, scc bclov.
.;8 Dominique Lenfant
tcrms of cxpcricncc nor b, his litcrar, unocrtaking, shoulo also invitc somc
caution. Somc of his rcprcscntations sccm rathcr to challcngc thc common
opinion. It is, in fact, risk, to postulatc uncxprcssco intcntions, ano, as far as
vc can scc from his fragmcnts, Ctcsiasunlikc Flato or Curtiusoio not
cxprcss contcmpt for cunuchs as such.
A thiro qucstion conccrns thc Grcckncss of thc clichc. Is that stcrco-
t,pco picturc of cunuchs onl, a Grcck clichc, is it morc viocl, a forcign cli-
chc, or coulo it in fact also bc a Fcrsian clichc? As sccn abovc, somc scholars
havc ascribco thc picturc of cunuchs arouno thc king to Grcck iocolog, or
oricntalising imagination, but this is far from bcing sclf-cviocnt.
:o8
1ruc,
othcr forcign vicvs coulo bc comparco, cspcciall, books of thc Hcbrcv Bi-
blc, such as Esther, vhcrc cunuchs
:oq
arc to bc sccn both as attcnoants of thc
king Ahasucrus ,:.:o, ano as plottcrs against thc king ,...:,. Lnfortunatcl,,
thc oatc of composition is unccrtain, just as is its inspiration, sincc somc
scholars holo it to bc a Hcllcnistic novcl inspirco b, Grcck litcraturc, vhilc
accoroing to othcrs thc stor, voulo havc hao its origins in folk-talcs, ano
Mcsopotamian folk-talcs rathcr than Grcck oncs.
::o
1hat lcavcs opcn thc
qucstion of a forcign clichc that voulo bc cquivalcnt to thc Grcck onc ano
at thc samc timc complctcl, inocpcnocnt of it.
At lcast, onc might vonocr if thc picturc of cunuchs coulo not bc also a
Fcrsian clichc. 1hat shoulo not bc a priori cxcluoco. In fact, thc tcrms vhich
morall, ocscribc cunuchs in Ctcsias account arc most banal,
:::
ano it shoulo
bc notco that cxactl, thc samc havc bccn usco about court cunuchs in cvcr,
civilisation vith court cunuchs, in thc latcr Roman ano B,zantinc Empircs
::.

as vcll as in Impcrial China.
::
Such an analog, suggcsts tvo things. first,

:o8
Ior a critical vicv on thc oricntalist approach of Ctcsias Persica, scc Llcvcll,n-
]oncs ano Robson ,.o:o, 8o;.
:oq
Notc that cunuch is hcrc a translation of thc Hcbrcv saris ,itsclf translatco as
in thc Septuagint,, vhich is altcrnativcl, intcrprctco as ro,al official ,e.g. Kuhrt
,.oo;, q, 66,, in vhich casc it voulo not ,ncccssaril,, rcfcr to cunuchs. Cf. bclov on
thc Akkaoian a ri.
::o
Scc Macchi ,.oo;, for thc first vicv, Bcrlin ,.oo:, for thc sccono. Scc also Kuhrt
,.oo;, :o.
:::
Cn thc cocxistcncc of a ncgativc stcrcot,pc ,thc trcachcrous cunuch, vith a positivc
onc ,thc ocvotco scrvant, in Grcck vritings on Fcrsia ,not limitco to Ctcsias,, cf. Briant
,:qq6, .;q8 , ,.oo., .68;., ano Kuhrt ,.oo;, ;; ano 88qo.
::.
Cf. 1oughcr ,.oo8, q6. Eunuchs coulo bc prcscntco as uttcrl, trcachcrous as vcll
as uttcrl, lo,al, ano thc vholc chaptcr on Imagcs ano iocntitics of cunuchs, vith B,z-
antinc ncgativc ano positivc vicvs of cunuchs.
::
]a, ,:qq,, csp. 6o, Dan Shi ,:qq, :q. ,utmost ocvotion, ano Fcrronts introouc-
tion at p. .. ,trcachcrousncss,.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .;q
that such a clichc is not incxtricabl, bouno vith a forcign vicv ano an
cthnic prcjuoicc ,in B,zantium ano Impcrial China it vas sprcao among
nativc pcoplc,, sccono, that thcrc coulo bc univcrsal clichcs conccrning
court cunuchs, simpl, ouc to thcir conoition ano thcir possiblc proximit, to
rulcrs. It voulo bc rathcr surprising that such clichcs hao not bccn sprcao in
ancicnt Fcrsia too. In fact, thc h,pothcsis is somcvhat supportco b,
consiocring thc cunuch vhom Ctcsias callco Combaphis.
::
1his figurc has
bccn conncctco vith an Iranian lcgcno of a ccrtain Combabos, vho voulo
havc maoc himsclf a cunuch ano bccn honourco b, thc king for his
trustvorthincss.
::
It has bccn suggcstco that Ctcsias kncv this Ncar Eastcrn
talc, ano, among othcr things, it lco Briant to think that clichcs about
cunuchs in Grcck litcraturc might bc basco on coif,ing oral Ncar Eastcrn
folk-talcs.
::6
1hat is vh, it cannot bc rulco out that Ctcsias account is
somctimcs basco on local folk-talcs or gossip, ano not mainl, on an
oricntalist construction.


. Near Eastern Sources and their Aporias
. Persian Terminology and Iconography
Cbviousl,, vc voulo likc to fino somc vicvs on cunuchs in Ncar Eastcrn
sourccs, but thc cviocncc is oisappointing. 1hcrc is no tcrm in official Fcr-
sian tcxts, ncithcr in ro,al inscriptions nor in aoministrativc oocumcnts such
as thc Fcrscpolis tablcts, that coulo bc iocntifico as signif,ing cunuch or
corrcsponoing to thc Grcck tcrm .
::;

Archacolog, has bccn appcalco to, cspcciall, iconographic matcrial,
ano thcrc has bccn for a long timc a ocbatc on thc bcarolcss attcnoants in
thc palacc rclicfs ,thc Achacmcnio oncs of Fcrscpolis, as vcll as thc Nco-
Ass,rian oncs of Khorsabao,. arc thc bcarolcss mcn cunuchs or not? Somc
scholars consiocr that thc, rcprcscnt cunuchs,
::8
ano that this attcsts to thc
prcscncc of cunuchs in povcrful positions,
::q
vhilc for othcrs somc of thcsc

::
I : ,:o.
::
Bcnvcnistc ,:qq,, Foscncr ,:q86,. Cf. Lcnfant ,.oo, LXX ano n. .8.
::6
Briant ,:qq6, .8. ,.oo., .;:..
::;
Cf. Briant ,:qq6, .8; ,.oo., .;6.
::8
Clmstcao ,:q8, .:8 obviousl, consiocrs thc iocntification bcarolcss/cunuch as sclf-
cviocnt, sincc hc sa,s about thc cupbcarcr vho stanos bchino Xcrxcs that his unbcaroco
facc is sufficicntl, cxposco to inoicatc that hc is a cunuch. Scc also rcccntl, Llcvcll,n
]oncs ,.oo., . ano, conccrning bcarolcss officials picturco on Nco-Ass,rian scals, \ata-
nabc ,:qqq, :q.o.
::q
E.g. Gra,son ,:qq, 8q.
.8o Dominique Lenfant
coulo bc non-castratco ,oung mcn, that is kings pagcs.
:.o
1hc ocbatc is far
from bcing closco,
:.:
ano this oocs not hclp in solving thc issuc.

. Cuneiform Sources
a ri: Eunuch or not Eunuch?
A similar aporia rcsults from thc ocbatc on cunciform sourccs, vhich coulo
havc hclpco shco somc light on thc qucstion. In fact, thc Akkaoian tcrm a
ri ,plural t ri, has raisco man, oiscussionsas oio thc corrcsponoing
tcrms in othcr Ncar Eastcrn languagcs, such as thc Biblical Hcbrcv tcrm
sarisso that thcrc arc still tooa, tvo main positions among Ass,riologists.
for somc scholars, thc voro alva,s ocsignatcs castratco mcn,
:..
vhilc for
othcrs it voulo not alva,s ocsignatc castratcs.
:.
1his ocbatc is no morc
closco than that on thc bcarolcss mcn.

a ri and : an Unfruitful Comparison?
Coulo at lcast thc tcrms of thc ocbatc on a ri shco somc light on that on
in Grcck sourccs? At first sight, thc, shoulo, all thc morc sincc in
onc casc thc samc pcrson has bccn ocscribco both as a ri in a Bab,lonian
oocumcnt ,thc Bab,lonian D,nastic Frophcc,

, ano as in Grcck lit-
craturc. it is thc onc vho killco thc Fcrsian king Arscs |Artaxcrxcs IV], thc
famous Bagoas of classical sourccs.
:.
Yct vhilc Gra,son consiocrs thc coin-

:.o
Cppcnhcim ,:q;, csp. , Firngrubcr ,.o::, .88. Siooal ,.oo;, . also points
out that somc bcarolcss figurcs havc bccn rc-iocntifico as vomcn or pricsts. Cppcn-
hcims papcr qucstions thc intcrprctation of both bcarolcss attcnoants ano a ri ,scc bc-
lov, as alva,s rcfcrring to cunuchs. Accoroing to him, thc oilcmma cunuch or not
cunuch voulo at lcast go back to :8qq.
:.:
1hc rcccnt papcr of Firngrubcr oocs not closc thc ocbatc. 1o thc h,pothcsis of
,oung pagcs on Ass,rian rclicfs, Gra,son ,:qq, q objcctco that thc bcarolcss figurcs
lookco likc maturc aoults, not bo,s. 1ruc, Cppcnhcim ,:q;, hao trico to forcstall
that objcction b, suggcsting that thcrc voulo bc in fact thrcc catcgorics of bcarolcss fig-
urcs. cunuchs, ,oung mcn, ano clcan-shavcn grovn mcn vho voulo havc bccn prcvi-
ousl, ,oung mcn supposco to kccp thcir ,outhful appcarancc b, shaving thcir bcaro
vhcn groving olocr. But onc is not compcllco to subscribc to such an acrobatic suggcs-
tion.
:..
E.g., Gra,son ,:qq,, Dcllcr ,:qqq,, vho follovs on from Gra,son ano takcs thc fact
as grantco, \atanabc ,:qqq,, csp. :;q. Firngrubcr ,.o::, ocfincs this position as thc
mainstrcam.
:.
Cppcnhcim ,:q;,, Siooal ,.oo;,, Firngrubcr ,.o::,. ]ursa ,.o::, oocs not oiscuss this
point.
:.
Gra,son ,:qq, 8q n. ... Bab,lonian tcxt. Gra,son ,:q;, , iii, .8, van ocr
Spck ,.oo,, tcxt ,1hc D,nastic Frophcc,,, col. V, l. ,pp. : ano :6. 1hat king a
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .8:
ciocncc of both tcrms for thc samc pcrson as an illustration that both tcrms
mcan cunuch, othcrs arguc that both ocsignatc in this casc a oignitar, vho
vas not castratco.
:.

But I vonocr vhcthcr thcrc is not a flav in such a comparison. most of
thc occurrcnccs of a ri arc carlicr than thc Fcrsian pcrioo, vhcrcas for
it is thc rcvcrsc. Nov thc mcaning of a tcrm can changc, ano prc-
ciscl, this has bccn assumco in thc casc of a ri, although in oiffcring oircc-
tions. somc scholars havc arguco that thc changc vas from cunuch to
,non-castratco, high oignitar,, othcrs havc arguco that it vas thc othcr va,
arouno, ano still othcrs that it alva,s mcant cunuchs.
:.6
Nov, if a ri oio
havc tvo mcanings ,cithcr succcssivcl, or at thc samc timc,, arc vc allovco
to infcr that it vas also thc casc for ? It oocs not sccm to bc sclf-
cviocnt.
:.;



. Eunuchs Not Being Eunuchs ,D. M. Lcvis,
. Two Sorts of Eunuchs?
Ncvcrthclcss, thc possibilit, that thc samc tcrm coulo somctimcs rcfcr to
cunuchs, ano somctimcs to non-castratco high oignitarics, although a oc-
batco h,pothcsis in Ass,rian stuoics, has bccn introoucco in thc intcrprcta-
tion of Grcck supposco to livc in thc Fcrsian Empirc. Curiousl,,
scholars, cvcn thc most sccptical about Ctcsias crcoibilit,, havc oiscussco
thc naturc of thc rcfcrcnts vho hao inspirco thc charactcrs that hc ocscribco
as .
1hc first sccms to havc bccn Iricorich Konig in his commcntar, on
Ctcsias Persica publishco in :q;.. thcrc hc ooubtco that charactcrs ocscribco
as coulo bc castratco mcn ano suggcstco that Grccks vantco to


cunuch ,a-re-[i, |vill murocr],, Kuhrt ,.oo;, ., ,:o, no. ,i,. Grcck sourccs. scc cspc-
ciall, Dioo. :;.. ano Strabo :....
:.
Briant ,:qq6, .88, ;q ,.oo., .;;, ;;.
:.6
Irom cunuch to ,non-castratco, high oignitar,. Firngrubcr ,.o::, .q; ,on mio-
olc-Ass,rian palacc-coicts,. Irom ,non-castratco, high oignitar, to cunuch. Dallc,
,.oo., quotco b, Firngrubcr ,ano obviousl, isolatco,. Constant mcaning of cunuch.
Gra,son ,:qq,, vhich rcprcscnts thc prcvailing vicv.
:.;
1hat is still, it sccms, thc prcsupposition that unocrlics Firngrubcrs approach. ]ursa
,.o::, is morc cautious sincc hc anal,scs a ri in Nco-Bab,lonian sourccs as mcaning
courtcsan ,a titlc rathcr than a prccisc function, vithout concluoing an,thing on Grcck
nor on thcir rclationship to castration.
.8. Dominique Lenfant
translatc an unknovn Fcrsian tcrm.
:.8
Iivc ,cars latcr, in his authoritativc
book on Sparta and Persia, Davio Lcvis maoc thc folloving commcnt about
Konigs book. Iantastic intcrprctations involving cunuchs not bcing
cunuchs.
:.q
1hc major trcno tooa, is, hovcvcr, that vhich vas in part sug-
gcstco b, Konig, ano has bccn rcfinco b, Ficrrc Briant. accoroing to thc lat-
tcr, it is tcmpting to assumc that thcrc vcrc at thc Fcrsian court tvo sorts of
cunuchs ,hc obviousl, mcans ,. on thc onc hano, castratco mcn,
vho vcrc slavcs ano attcnoants, on thc othcr hano, high oignitarics, vho
vcrc Iranian noblcs ano hao thc court titlc of cunuchs.
:o

It is ccrtainl, a tcmpting h,pothcsis, but it rcmains a h,pothcsis, vhich
is, in fact, givcn as such b, Briant himsclf. Yct it has bccomc oogma in rc-
ccnt scholarship, ano man, scholars vho rcfcr to Briant havc ncglcctco his
rathcr cautious voroing.
::


. A Mere Hypothesis and its Questionable Premises
1his h,pothcsis is ,ct vorth anal,sing. 1hc rcason for it is that, as sccn
abovc, somc arc also ascribco high court titlcs ano functions b,
Grcck vritcrs othcr than Ctcsias.
:.
1hc argumcnt is ,ct basco on ccrtain

:.8
Konig ,:q;., , vithout an, conclusivc argumcnt, but confusco rcasoning basco on
variants of manuscripts, vhich oo not provc an,thing. 1o thcir iocntit, as cunuchs, hc
objccts that Ctcsias havc chilorcn, arc oftcn marrico, ano holo thc most impor-
tant posts ,;.,, ano hc assumcs that Artoxarcs coulo not bc a castratco man, bccausc in
that casc his ambition voulo bc unlikcl, ano bccausc hc vas marrico ,88,. Nov in aooi-
tion to thc fact that marrico cunuchs ma, cxist ,bclov, n. :q,, thcrc is no instancc in
Ctcsias fragmcnts of a cunuch vith a biological chilo nor of a marrico cunuch ,scc Ap-
pcnoix on Artoxarcs allcgco vifc,, ano that a cunuch coulo not holo an important post
is, in aooition, a qucstionablc postulatc. Scc bclov.
:.q
Lcvis ,:q;;, 8. n. .o. 1hc scholar hao not hcsitatco to vritc carlicr in his book ,:
n. ;:,. It ma, bc ocsirablc to sa, that Konig, Die Persika des Ktesias von Knidos ,:q;., shoulo
not bc usco at all, I shall citc him occasionall, for amuscmcnt onl,.
:o
Briant ,:qq6, .8; ,.oo., .;6. It is rathcr tcmpting to think that thcrc vcrc tvo
kinos of cunuch at thc Fcrsian court. ,:, thc castratco mcn, rcoucco to palacc slavcr, ano
usco in spccific contcxts ,at a highcr or lcsscr rank in thc oomcstic hicrarch,,, ano ,., thc
cunuchs in thc scnsc of court hicrarch,, that is, noblcs ,Fcrsian or Iranian, in thc kings
immcoiatc circlc
::
1hc cautious introouctor, voros ,It is rathcr tcmpting to think , havc thcn bccn
forgottcn b, thosc vho rcfcr to this phrasc ,c. g. Hubcr ,.ooq, .oo, Firngrubcr ,.o::, .;q,,
ano, in a scnsc, also b, Briant himsclf in his furthcr ocvclopmcnts.
:.
Mithrioatcs as ,chambcrlain, at Xcrxcs court ,Dioo. ::.6q.:,, Sati-
barzancs unocr Artaxcrxcs II ,Flut. Art. :.., Apophth. :;c,, ano abovc all
Bagoas as chiliarch unocr Artaxcrxcs III ,Dioo. :;..,.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .8
prcmiscs. first, that a castratco man coulo not bc a high oignitar, or cvcn
cxcrcisc grcat influcncc,
:
sccono, that an Iranian coulo not bc castratco.
Nov such incompatibilitics arc far from bcing sclf-cviocnt. ,:, Lct us rc-
pcat that thc availablc non-Grcck cviocncc on thc Fcrsian Empirc oocs not
givc an, cluc on such mattcrs. ,., But if vc turn to othcr socictics vith court
cunuchs, likc B,zantium ano impcrial China, it can bc statco that it was pos-
siblc to bc both a castratco man and a oignitar, or, morc gcncrall,, somconc
influcntial at court.
:
1hcrc vcrc cvcn nativc familics vho oio not hcsitatc
to castratc onc of thcir sons so that hc coulo cntcr thc carccr of a high offi-
cial.
:
I oo not suggcst that this vas thc casc in Fcrsia ,in fact, vc oont
knov,,
:6
onl, that it is not impossiblc to bc both a castratco man ano somc-
onc influcntial. ,, It furthcrmorc cannot bc provco that an Iranian coulo
not bc castratco. Briant himsclf has notco that ncarl, all namco cunuchs
hao Iranian namcs,
:;
but that thcsc coulo bc cunuch namcs givcn to thcm
vhcn arriving at thc kings scrvicc,
:8
a practicc attcstco in Ass,ria.
:q


:
Briant ,:qq6, .86 ,.oo., .;. It sccms ooubtful that cunuchs in thc functional
scnsc ,castratco mcn of humblc status, coulo havc obtainco positions as high as thc
cunuchs mcntionco b, Ctcsias,.
:
Cn cunuchs in B,zantium. scc thc rcfcrcnccs abovc n. , csp. Siocris ,.o:o,, 8.
,a summar, of thc functions assumco b, court cunuchs,, in China. ]a, ,:qq,, 1sai ,:qq6,,
1sai ,.oo.,, scc also thc biographics of tvo Chincsc cunuchs from thc bcginning of thc
tvcnticth ccntur,. Yu Chunhc ,Dan Shi ,:qq,, ano Sun Yaoting ,Yinghua ,.oo8,,. Scc
also thc casc of cunuchs at thc latc Roman court ,Hopkins :q6, ano at thc Sassanian
court ,Hubcr ,.ooq, .o;,.
:
Gra,son ,:qq, 88 ano q citcs thcsc cxamplcs of B,zantium ano China ano sug-
gcsts that it might also havc bccn thc samc in Ass,ria. Scc also Dcllcr ,:qqq, o6.
:6
1hc attcstco rcasons for bccoming a cunuch in thc Fcrsian Empirc arc. ,:, as an in-
oivioual or collcctivc punishmcnt, ,., as part of a tributc from a subjcct pcoplc, ,, as part
of thc spoils of var, ,, as onc to bc solo as a slavc to a cunuch-makcr. scc Briant ,:qq6,
.8 ,.oo., .;. 1hc voros vith vhich, accoroing to Curtius, thc Fcrsian Crsincs voulo
havc cxplainco his contcmpt for Bagoas ,thc kings lovcr, suggcst a voluntar, transforma-
tion ,:o.:..6, scc bclov,. But this coulo rcfcr in fact to thc crotic function of that cunuch,
not to his castration itsclf, ano it voulo thcn bc just an apparcnt cxccption.
:;
A linguistic stuo, of cach Iranian namc founo in Ctcsias fragmcnts is provioco b,
Schmitt ,.oo6,.
:8
Briant ,:qq6, .86 ,.oo., .;. ncarl, all of thc cunuchs mcntionco b, namc havc
Iranian namcs. Ior this thcrc arc tvo possiblc cxplanations. cithcr thc, rcall, vcrc
cunuchs vho vcrc givcn Iranian namcs vhcn thc, arrivco at court, or clsc thc, vcrc
Iranian noblcs intcgratco into thc court hicrarch, b, bcing givcn thc labcl cunuch.
:q
Cn thc ncv namcs givcn to thc cunuchs vho cntcrco thc Ass,rian court scrvicc, scc
Dcllcr ,:qqq, o6.
.8 Dominique Lenfant
,, All this sccms to prcsupposc that Fcrsians hao onl, contcmpt for
cunuchs, but on this mattcr vc havc no firm cviocncc.
:o
Iirst, classical
sourccs arc inconclusivc vhcn thc, cxprcss gcncral asscrtions. Ior instancc,
vhcn Xcnophon claims that cunuchs arc ocspisco ,, Cyr. ;..6:,, hc
tcstifics at thc vcr, most, as notco b, Firngrubcr, to thc fccling of most
Grccks,
::
ano vhcn hc convcrscl, scts thc cunuch up as thc vcr, moocl of
faithfulncss, this is in thc scrvicc of proving Grcck political thcor,.
:.
1hc
samc argumcnt can bc hclo about Curtius, vho statcs in onc placc that Fcr-
sians oio not ocspisc cunuchs
:
ano in anothcr has a Fcrsian noblc sa, that
Fcrsians arc not usco to consiocring as malcs thosc vho havc bccn turnco
to vomcn b, thcir turpituoc.
:
In this casc, contcmpt sccms to bc con-
ncctco vith thc crotic function of thc cunuch in qucstion, that is, Bagoas,
Alcxanocrs lovcr, not to bc confusco vith his alrcao, mcntionco namcsakc.
Such instanccs clcarl, shov hov gcncral asscrtions can bc hclo to scrvc a
purposc in thcir contcxt, ano hov thc, can contraoict cach othcr vithin thc
samc vorkthat is, hov inconclusivc as cviocncc thc, arc.
Morcovcr, classical sourccs also oispla, countcr-cxamplcs, such as Hcr-
motimos ,cxplicitl, a castratco man,, vho vas highl, honourco b, king
Xcrxcs, accoroing to Hcroootus, ano vas also povcrful cnough to cxccutc
his pcrsonal rcvcngc on Fanionios, thc man vho hao maoc him a cunuch.
:

1hcn vc havc sccn that thc talc of Combabos suggcstco an Iranian back-
grouno for thc positivc imagc of thc most trustvorth, cunuch. Last, othcr
civilisations vith court cunuchs attcst both ncgativc prcjuoiccs ano fcarful
rcspcct tovaro thcm. In othcr voros, thc allcgco unlikclihooo of castratco
oignitarics might bc cast in ooubt.


:o
In fact, onc can vonocr if it is not a possiblc inconsistcnc, of thc oiscussco h,pothc-
sis, sincc if Fcrsians hao rcall, callco high oignitarics ano cunuchs b, thc samc namc,
cithcr at thc samc timc or succcssivcl,, it voulo suggcst that it vas not such a oisparaging
tcrm.
::
Firngrubcr ,.o::, oo.
:.
Azoula, ,.ooo,.
:
Curt. .... spadonumque grex haud sane illis gentibus uilis ano a hcro of cunuchs, vho
arc not at all ocspisco b, thosc pcoplcs ,trans. ]. C. Rolfc,.
:
Curt. :o.:..6. nec moris esse Persis mares ducere, qui stupro effeminarentur.
:
Hot. 8.:o ,Hornblovcrs thcsis ,.oo, that Hcrmotimos stor, voulo bc no morc
than novclistic fantas, is unconvincing,. Scc also Artoxarcs, vho, likc Hcrmotimos, is cx-
plicitl, a castratco man.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .8
. The Two Sorts of Eunuchs and Ctesias Fragments
As for Ctcsias, thc oistinction suggcstco b, Briant coulo harol, bc applico to
his cunuchs. ,:, It must bc notco that thc voro is absolutcl, un-
cquivocal for a Grcck. I knov of no instancc vhcrc it coulo bc statco that
thc voro coulo ocsignatc in Grcck c,cs a non-castratco man. B, using this
voro, Ctcsias mcant castratco mcn ano his rcaocrs unocrstooo castratco
mcn.
:6
,., All fcaturcs of Ctcsias arc compatiblc vith thcir bcing
cunuchs. nonc of thcm has a biological chilo,
:;
nonc appcars to bc marrico
:8

,ano cvcn if this vcrc thc casc, it voulo not bc unparallclco in othcr civilisa-
tions,,
:q
ano as alrcao, sccn, onc of thcm has a bcaro maoc for him so that
hc looks likc a manvhich implics that hc has no bcaro ano oocs not look
likc an man.
:o
,, Assuming that bchino Ctcsias thcrc voulo bc
rcal rcfcrcnts
::
vho voulo bc somctimcs castratco somctimcs not, hov
coulo we makc thc oiffcrcncc?
\c havc sccn that somc scholars sccm to takc thc functions cxcrcisco b,
thc inoivioual as a critcrion. But thc summar, of Ctcsias b, Fhotius oocs not
makc that function clcar for us. Ior instancc, thc murocrs of scvcral kings
takc placc in thcir bcorooms.
:.
Nov vhcn a cunuch is involvco ano hclps
thc murocrcr,s, to cntcr thc bcoroom, vc oo not knov vhcthcr hc is a sim-

:6
1hat is vhat Lcvis mcant vhcn ironicall, spcaking of cunuchs not bcing cunuchs.
1hcrc is nothing to support Firngrubcrs claim ,,.o::, oq, that thc voro voulo
bc cquivocal.
:;
As sccn abovc, Konig ,:q;., makcs a mistakc about it, ano unocrstanoabl, hc
oocs not provioc an, cxamplc. In thc fragmcnts, thcrc is just thc singlc casc of a cunuch
vho aoopts a man.
:8
Scc abovc ano thc Appcnoix bclov.
:q
Ior instancc, cunuchs coulo marr, in China ,]a, ,:qq,, csp. 6;8, 1oughcr ,.oo8,
6, vho proviocs othcr cxamplcs, but cxplains that it vas not possiblc in B,zantium,. A
marrico cunuch, although aomittcol, rarc, is not, thcn, such a rioiculous ioca as Firn-
grubcr sccms to consiocr vhcn anal,sing Ctcsias account of Artoxarcs ,,.o::, .8, scc
Appcnoix,.
:o
Briant ,:qq6, .8 ,.oo., .; thinks that this rcfcrs to thc hairpicccs vorn b, thc
king ano thc court noblcs, although in that casc CtcsiasFhotius shoulo sa, so that hc
looks likc a noblc.
::
1hat is curiousl, assumco b, Rollingcr ,.oo;,, although claiming that thc omni-
prcscnt cunuchs provioc a picturc ouc to iocological prcconccptions. \c ma, cvcn
ooubt that thc so callco cunuchsonc of thc stanoaroizco ingrcoicnts of an oricntal
courthavc really bccn castratcs ,m, italics,.
:.
1hc Magus is founo in bco thanks to thc complicit, of a cunuch vho hclo all thc
kc,s of thc palacc ,I : ,:6,. 1hc assassination of Xcrxcs follovs thc samc pattcrn ,,, cf.
Dioo. ::.6q..,. Ano accoroing to a latcr sourcc, Artaxcrxcs II failco to bc murocrco b,
his son Darios, thanks to thc ocnunciation b, a cunuch ,Flut. Art. .q.:,.
.86 Dominique Lenfant
plc attcnoant or a chambcrlain. Having saio that, cvcn if vc hao morc than
fragmcnts, it voulo probabl, bc impossiblc to classif, man, of Ctcsias
accoroing to onc of thc proposco catcgorics. Lct us takc thc cxam-
plc of Artoxarcs. on thc onc hano, although his namc is Iranian,
:
hc is oc-
scribco as a Faphlagonian
:
ano castratcoano shoulo thcn bc classifico in
Briants first catcgor,, on thc othcr hano, hc is a closc aovisor to King Ar-
taxcrxcs I, hc pla,s a rolc in ncgotiations ,I : ,.,, hc is noncthclcss ban-
ishco to Armcnia ,,,, but hc comcs back a fcv ,cars latcr as onc of thosc
vho crovn Darius II ,I : ,o,, hc bccomcs a closc aovisor to thc king ,,:,,
but conccivcs a plot to takc ovcr povcr ,,,, bcing a sort of prccursor of
Bagoashc is ccrtainl, not a simplc attcnoant ano thcn shoulo not bc classi-
fico in thc first catcgor,.
:

Lct us aoo that influcncc is somcthing vhich is not ncccssaril, linkco to
an institutional function. Ccrtainl, thcrc vas a hicrarch, among rcal
cunuchs of thc Fcrsian court ano most scrvco as scrvants, just caring for thc
matcrial nccos ano ocsircs of thc king ano his famil,.
:6
Ano thc most rclc-
vant oistinction among cunuchs at thc Fcrsian court coulo bc thc onc cstab-
lishco b, Amclic Kuhrt, a oistinction vhich is not an absolutc onc in somc
cascs. shc notcs that somc of thc cunuchs holoing vcr, high positions ap-
pcar to bc mcmbcrs of promincnt familics ano that a oistinction nccos to
bc oravn bctvccn cunuchs in lcaoing positions ano thc horocs of run-of-
thc-mill oomcstic staff, vho pcrformco thc m,riao tasks of thc ro,al housc-

:
Schmitt ,.oo6, ::.
:
I : ,.. Schmitt ,.oo6, : suggcstco corrccting ,Faphlagonian, to
,blustcring,, but this cmcnoation oocs not sccm convincing, as it oocs not fit
in thc contcxt. Artoxarcs hclps in ncgotiations to rcconcilc Mcgab,zus vith thc king, so
that hc sccms far from bcing blustcring. Morcovcr, thc vcrb , vhich ncvcr
occurs in Fhotius, is harol, usco outsioc poctic ano mcoical tcxts. If Faphlagonian rc-
fcrs, as cxpcctco, to Artoxarcs cthnic origin, Artoxarcs coulo bc cithcr a loan namc that
hc rcccivco at birth or a cunuch namc ,scc abovc,.
:
It coulo bc saio inciocntall, that, apart from Ctcsias, Bab,lonian tablcts also sccm
to spcak against a classification of Artoxarcs in thc first catcgor, ,attcnoants,. Artoxarcs is
likcl, to corrcspono to thc Artahsaru vhom Bab,lonian tablcts mcntion in thc latc .os
as ovning cstatcs ,scc c.g. Lcvis ,:q;;, .:, ;6, Cook ,:q8, :6, Schmitt ,.oo6, ::.,.
Hcrmotimos is no casicr to classif,, sincc hc is inoisputabl, castratco, but not a simplc
scrvant. accoroing to Hcroootus ,8.:o,, hc hao von a placc sccono to nonc among
thc cunuchs scrving thc King ano hao bccomc thc most honourco of all thc cunuchs in
thc court of Xcrxcs.
:6
Kuhrt ,.oo;, q:, ,:. no. .:, n. : rightl, notcs that man, of thcsc outics arc mcn-
tionco onl, in passing. In Ctcsias fragmcnts, thc, appcar in Flutarchs ano Nicolaus ci-
tations ,vhich offcr octailco accounts, morc oftcn than in Fhotius summar, ,vhich
probabl, onl, mcntions allcgco influcntial uppcr cunuchs,.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .8;
holo. Shc aoos that to go from thc lov catcgor, to thc lcaoing onc oocs not
sccm impossiblc, as Hcrmotimos cxamplc suggcsts. initiall, a Grcck slavc,
castratco b, a Grcck traocr, solo in Sarois to Fcrsians ano thcn arriving at
thc court as a gift to thc king, hc bccamc thc most honourco of Xcrxcs
cunuchs ano vas assignco to takc carc of his bastaro chilorcn. But shc also
strcsscs that such a casc might bc rarc.
:;



. Eunuchs of Persia as a Greek Experience
Ior classical Grccks, as sccn abovc, cunuchs vcrc ccrtainl, litcrar, clichcs
ano a componcnt of cthnic prcjuoicc against thc Fcrsian Empirc ano its po-
litical s,stcm. Yct rcal lifc is also vorth consiocring. for Grccks, cunuchs
vcrc not just litcraturccspcciall, for thc Grccks of Asia. 1ruc, somc Ana-
tolian local govcrnors or rulcrs hao cunuchs arouno thcm. onc thinks of
C,rus thc Youngcr,
:8
Artcmisia of Halicarnassus,
:q
or Eubulus of Assos.
:6o

Ano Grccks of Asia coulo thcmsclvcs bccomc cunuchs, vhcthcr as a rcsult
of Fcrsian rcprcssion against a rcbcllious cit,
:6:
or as slavcs that a traocr cas-
tratco in orocr to incrcasc thcir markct valuc.
:6.


:;
Somc of thc inoiviouals rcaching thc court b, such routcs might, if luck,, risc to
occup, rclativcl, privilcgco positions, such as thc carc of ro,al chilorcn, most oio not
,;;,. 1hat is thc bcst summar,. Scc also thc translatco oocumcnts ,88q:) ano thc ini-
tial oistinction, in Grcck vritings, bctvccn a ncgativc stcrcot,pc ,thc trcachcrous cunuch,
ano a positivc stcrcot,pc ,thc ocvotco scrvant,.
:8
Cf. Xcn. Anab. :.q..8q ,vith Azoula, ,.ooo, q:., vho convincingl, argucs that in
thc Anabasis Artapatcs, thc most faithful of C,russ sccptrc-bcarcrs ,,, is
mcant to bc a cunuch likc thc othcr sccptrc-bcarcrs in thc Cyropaedia,. Acl. VH 6.., Flut.
Art. ::.;, :..:.
:q
Fol,acn. Strat. 8...
:6o
Eubulus hao Hcrmias as cunuch slavc in Assus. Latcr, Hcrmias vas associatco vith
Eubulus vho vas t,rant of Atarncus ano Assus ,Strabo :.6:o, ano succccoco to his prc-
vious mastcr aftcr his ocath, ma,bc aftcr having killco him. Cf. Gu,ot ,:q8o, .o;q. 1hc
cascs of Artcmisia ano Eubulos shov that cunuchs also usco to bc cmplo,co b, Grcck
o,nasts. 1o thcsc coulo bc aooco, although not rulcrs attcnoants, thc cunuch
of Ephcsus callco Mcgab,zus, anothcr occasion for Grccks to scc cunuchs in Asia Minor.
Ior thc casc of Xcnophon, scc bclov vith n. :66.
:6:
It vas thc casc vhcn thc Ionian rcvolt vas supprcssco in thc carl, th c. BC ,Hot.
6.q., 6.., ano pcrhaps Chalccoonians hao to suffcr thc samc in thc latc th c. BC b, or-
ocr of Fharnabazus ,Arrian, FGrHist :6 II ;q8o,. Cf. Bosvorth ,:qq;,, vho oatcs thc
inciocnt to carl, oq.
:6.
It vas, as sccn abovc, thc casc of Hcrmotimos, vho vas thc victim of Fanionios of
Chios. 1hc lattcrs traoc vas to bu, slavcs ano changc thcm into cunuchs in orocr to scll
.88 Dominique Lenfant
Conscqucntl,, thc main Grcck authors on Fcrsia hao ccrtainl, mct
cunuchs or hcaro Grcck pcoplc vho hao knovn somc of thcm. Hcrmotimos
vas from Fcoasa, not far from Halicarnassus,
:6
ano his colourful stor,, sup-
posco to occur in thc first occaocs of thc fifth ccntur, vhcn Hcroootus vas
cithcr a chilo or not ,ct born, coulo havc rcachco him through local traoi-
tion in his ovn nativc cit,. Ano thc samc ma, bc assumco about thc cunuch
of Sataspcs vho voulo havc flco to Samos aftcr thc cxccution of his mastcr
unocr Xcrxcs. Hc is onc of thc rarc cunuchs alluoco to b, Hcroootus
,..;,, ano thc historian notcs that hc camc to Samos vith a grcat hoaro
of vcalth, of vhich a man of Samos got posscssion. I knov thc mans namc
but oclibcratcl, omit it. Samian sourccs arc clcarl, suggcstco ano sccm all
thc morc likcl, sincc Hcroootus is supposco to havc livco in Samos for somc
timc.
:6

Inciocntall,, familiarit, vith cunuchs vas obviousl, not thc samc for thc
Grccks of Europc. It is not b, chancc that vc fino in Athcns somc of thc
most caricaturco ano oisparaging vicvs on cunuchs.
:6
Xcnophon is an cx-
ccption vhich is cas, to unocrstano, sincc hc vas onc of thc fcv Grcck au-
thors from Europc vho sta,co for somc timc in thc Fcrsian Empirc, vhcrc
hc oio at lcast scc cunuchs arouno C,rus thc Youngcr.
:66
It has bccn notco,
hovcvcr, that, all in all, allusions to cunuchs in Athcnian litcraturc itsclf arc
rathcr scarcc.
:6;

Ior Ctcsias himsclf, cunuchs vcrc cvcn morc rcal. As a man vho livco
at thc Fcrsian court for scvcral ,cars, hc must havc comc closc to court
cunuchs. As a ph,sician ano cvcn as a mcrc vitncss, hc coulo ccrtainl,
makc a oistinction bctvccn cunuchs ano othcrs. Fh,sicians ano cunuchs
vcrc among thc kings ano thc quccns attcnoants, vhatcvcr function vas


thcm in Ephcsus ano Sarois to non-Grcck customcrs. If vc bclicvc Hcroootus, Hcrmo-
timos vas onl, onc of man, victims of Fanionios ,8.:o,.
:6
Hot. 8.:o.
:6
\c cannot sa, vhcthcr that cunuch vas a Grcck ano originall, from Samos.
:6
Scc thc Fhr,gian in Euripiocs Orestes, thc cunuchs of Aristophancs Acharnians or
Flatos Laws ,6qa,. It sccms that nonc of thcsc authors oircctl, kncv thc Fcrsian Empirc.
Cn cunuchs in tragco, ano Aristophancs, scc Hall ,:q8q, :;8 ano Hutzfclot ,:qqq,.
:66
Azoula, ,.oo, 6q n. ..o also points out that Xcnophon pcrsonall, kncv anothcr
cunuch, Mcgab,zus, of Artcmis in Ephcsus.
:6;
1uplin ,:qq6, :6q. Hall ,:q8q, :; is at lcast cxaggcrating vhcn shc sa,s that
cunuchs appallco ano fascinatco thc phalloccntric Hcllcncs. Aftcr all, vc onl, knov of
thrcc cunuchs in tragco,. in Fhr,nichus Phoenissae, Sophoclcs Troilus ano Euripiocs
Orestes. Sincc onl, thc lattcr pla, is prcscrvco, thcrc is onl, onc cunuch in thc prc-
scrvco tragcoics.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .8q
cxcrcisco b, cunuchs ,humblc attcnoants, cupbcarcrs or somconc morc im-
portant,.
:68
Ano among cunuchs might bc Grccks vho must havc bccomc
bilingual. Nov vc havc sccn that Ctcsias cunuchs sccmco to knov man,
sccrcts of thc king ano somctimcs rcvcalco somc of thcm.
:6q
In thc samc va,,
accoroing to vitncsscs of thc tvcnticth ccntur,, cunuchs of thc Iorbioocn
Cit, kncv all thc pcculiaritics of thcir mastcrs ano ocvotco most of thcir
convcrsations to gossip about thcm, sincc thcrc vas nothing cxciting to sa,
about thcir ovn monotonous livcs.
:;o
Nov local gossip has oftcn bccn put
forvaro as a main sourcc for Ctcsias Persica. 1hat gossip from cunuchs
about thc past coulo bc onc of thc sourccs of Ctcsias vicvs ano account of
Fcrsia
:;:
is not lcss likcl, than mcrc compctition vith Hcroootus or consulta-
tion of ro,al parchmcnts.
:;.

As for thc timc of Ctcsias sta, at thc Fcrsian court, as sccn abovc, thc
rolc of cunuchs at thc court is in his stor, onl, suboroinatc ano far morc ois-
crctc than in his prcvious account. Ctcsias himsclf sccms to ascribc thc
changc to thc oominating pcrsonalit, of Far,satis, succcssivcl, vifc ano
mothcr of thc king. hcr influcncc voulo havc rcplacco that of cunuchs.
:;

1hc attcmpt of Artoxarcs, if historical, coulo also havc alcrtco thc court.
:;

1hat oiffcrcncc bctvccn past ano contcmporar, timc coulo also suggcst that
Ctcsias oio not tr, to vritc scnsationalisticall, about cunuchs vhcn hc vrotc
as an c,cvitncss.

:68
In Hot. .:o., thc ph,sician Dcmoccocs is cscortco to Darius vivcs b, cunuchs.
In Dioo. :;.., Cchos is poisonco b, his ph,sician b, orocr of thc cunuch Bagoas.
:6q
In Ctcsias ovn timc, Satibarzancs is saio to havc slanocrco Cronocs, allcging that
hc vas slccping vith Far,satis ,I :6 ,6o,, but Ctcsias sa,s that Far,satis vas cxtrcmcl,
chastc. ,1hcrc arc thrcc mcntions of a Satibarzancs in Ctcsias fragmcnts ano for thc
samc pcrioo of thc rcign of Artaxcrxcs II, vhich suggcsts that thc, all rcfcr to thc samc
figurc. Satibarzancs is also saio to havc rcccivco from Evagoras gifts for thc king ,I o
,;, ano at Cunaxa, vhcn thc king is closc to o,ing from thirst, hc runs arouno looking
for somcthing to orink ,I .o ,:... Satibarzancs is onl, callco cunuch in thc last passagc,
vhich is in Flutarch, but this ,:. gocs back to Ctcsias ,Lcnfant ,.oo, n. 688,,.
:;o
Dan Shi ,:qq, :. 1hc biograph, of Sun Yaoting ,Yinghua ,.oo8,, also proviocs
cxamplcs, c.g. at :oo, :8, ano :;8..
:;:
Alrcao, suggcstco b, Drcvs ,:q;, :o; ano Lcnfant ,.oo, LXVIII, CXX.
:;.
Ior Ctcsias rcfcrcncc to thc ro,al parchmcnts, scc 1 , Lcnfant ,.oo, XXXVI
XXXIX. Stronk ,.o:o, :6. takcs thc rcfcrcncc scriousl, bccausc of similar rcfcrcnccs in
Ezra ano Esther, thc inocpcnocncc of vhich has hovcvcr bccn qucstionco ,scc c.g.
Macchi ,.oo;,,. Bc that as it ma,, hc too concurs vith thc usc of oral sourccs. Llcvcll,n-
]oncs ano Robson ,.o:o, 86:.
:;
I : ,:. Lcnfant ,.oo, CXVI.
:;
Lcnfant ,.oo, CXVI.
.qo Dominique Lenfant
Some Concluding Remarks
Asscssing thc historical backgrouno of Ctcsias cunuchs is a oifficult issuc.
Nov vc shoulo pcrhaps first makc clcar vhat vc mcan vith Ctcsias
cunuchs. If vc think of thcm as litcrar, charactcrs, I voulo rcpl, vithout
hcsitating that thc, were castratco mcn, in thc authors c,cs as vcll as in his
rcaocrs vicv. I havc arguco that this oio not ncccssaril, impl, contcmpt for
thcm on thc part of Ctcsias himsclf, vhcrcas it might havc bccn thc casc for
man, of his rcaocrs. 1hc Grccks picturc of thc Fcrsian court coulo not rc-
main ncutral, it hao to unocrlinc somc stark contrasts bctvccn both cul-
turcs, ano cunuchs coulo bc onc of thcm. But if bc,ono thc litcrar, charac-
tcrs vc think about thc historical figurcs vho coulo havc inspirco thcir stor,,
Ctcsias cunuchs arc an iocal illustration of thc man, oifficultics that moo-
crn historians havc to facc vhcn thc, tr, to stuo, Fcrsian rcalitics through
Grcck litcraturc.
:;

1hc first onc is to cross-chcck Grcck asscrtions vith Ncar Eastcrn cvi-
ocncc. vc havc sccn that thc cunciform sourccs ano palacc rclicfs vhich
possibl, rclatco to cunuchs oio not in somc cascs rcfcr to thc samc pcrioo
ano abovc all that thc, raisco man, oiscussions of vhcthcr thc, rcall, rc-
fcrrco to castratco mcn or not, so that this has rcmainco a mattcr of ocbatc.
\c shoulo aoo that cvcn if this Ncar Eastcrn cviocncc unocniabl, shovco
castratco mcn of thc samc pcrioo, it coulo not, bccausc of its vcr, naturc
ano purposc, bctra, an, tracc of possiblc plots or influcncc of subaltcrn
pcoplc, vhich rathcr bclong to thc so-callco pctitc histoirc. As thc stor, of
Combabos shovs, figurcs of cunuchs ma, also somctimcs originatc from
Ncar Eastcrn talcs, vhich, hovcvcr, gcncrall, cscapc our knovlcogc. 1his
mcans that in this casc as in man, othcrs vc lack an, surc primar, cviocncc
ano havc to turn to Grcck litcraturc.
1hc sccono oifficult, is to anal,sc inoivioual Grcck rcprcscntations as
such. Cnc has ccrtainl, to asscss thc possibilit, of cultural misunocrstanoing
on thc part of Grccks, as vcll as thc part pla,co b, possiblc cthnic prcju-
oiccs ano ,ncgativcl, or cvcn positivcl,, connotco picturcs of thc Fcrsian
Empirc. Cnc must ccrtainl, takc into account that Grccks vcrc cspcciall,
attcntivc to oiffcrcnccs, but also that thcrc vcrc various vicvpoints among
thc Grccks thcmsclvcs, cspcciall, among Grcck authors vho, in aooition to
having thcir ovn backgrouno, cach hao a spccific purposc. Cnc logicall,
cannot cxcluoc a priori that a Grcck coulo also bc somctimcs vcll-informco
ano not cspcciall, malicious. It is in fact vcll knovn that thc rclationship bc-
tvccn Grccks ano Fcrsians vas far from bcing confinco to mcrc hostilit,.
\c havc sccn thc spccificit, of Ctcsias cunuchs comparco to thosc of Hc-

:;
Kuhrt ,.oo;, 6:o, Lcnfant ,.o::, .o.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .q:
roootus account, his man, rcfcrcnccs to thcm as attcnoants to mcmbcrs of
thc ro,al famil,, cvcn kings aovisors, ano thcir rolc as involvco in, or oc-
nouncing, somc court plots. Such rolcs, hovcvcr, arc ascribco as vcll to
cunuchs in Grcck accounts of a latcr pcrioo of Fcrsian histor,, ano thc fig-
urc of thc povcrful Bagoas has much in common vith Ctcsias Artoxarcs,
vho vas also a kingmakcr ano also trico to kill thc king. Such a picturc of
cunuchs in Fcrsia is, thcn, not limitco to Ctcsias account. As for Ctcsias in-
tcntions ano his fccling tovaros cunuchs, thc, arc all thc morc oifficult to
asscss as vc knov his vork onl, through fragmcnts.
A thiro rcquircmcnt has bccn thcrcforc to cxaminc thc authors vho givc
us an ,inoircct ano biasco, acccss to Ctcsias account itsclf, not onl, b, con-
siocring in gcncral tcrms hov thc, usco it, but also b, taking into account
thcir pcrsonal rclationship to cunuchs, cithcr rcal or not, as that coulo bc
obscrvco cithcr in thcir vork or in thcir lifc. 1his cxamination, vhich vas of
authors of thc Hcllcnistic, Roman ano B,zantinc pcrioos, coulo shov first
that cunuchs vcrc not an important componcnt of thcir picturc of Fcrsia,
ano thcn that thcrc vas no rcason to suspcct thcm of invcnting Ctcsias
cunuchs, but that somc of thcm vcrc morc inclinco to unocrlinc thcir influ-
cncc, cspcciall, Fhotius, prcciscl, our richcst sourcc on thc mattcr.
A last oifficult, is to anal,sc ano asscss thc founoations of currcnt prc-
vailing positions, ano tvo things arc at issuc hcrc. Iirst, vc havc sccn that a
h,pothcsis on tvo sorts of catcgorics ocsignatco b, thc Grcck voro for
cunuchs has bccomc thc doxa, but also that this h,pothcsis is basco on qucs-
tionablc prcmiscs ano cannot bc applico in practicc to Ctcsias cunuchs.
1hc succcss of this h,pothcsis has at lcast tvo basic rcasons vhich havc a
oircct link to our povcrt, as historians of thc Fcrsian Empirc. 1hc first is
that vc lack cviocncc on cvcnts aftcr Hcroootus, so that vc hcsitatc to rcjcct
totall, Ctcsias account ocspitc its obvious vcakncss ano its fragmcntar,
transmission, cvcn if this somctimcs lcaos to an inconsistcnt usc of it. 1hc
sccono is that vc arc oftcn rcoucco to basing a statcmcnt on likclihooo. Cf
coursc, this critcrion is frcqucntl, usco b, historians on man, issucs ano I oo
not intcnt to contcst its usc ano its uscfulncss in gcncral. But in this spccific
casc, thanks to comparisons vith court cunuchs from othcr civilisations, thc
allcgco unlikclihooo of scvcral points can bc contcstco, c.g., that a castratco
man coulo not bc marrico, that hc coulo not bc a oignitar,, or that a ncga-
tivc stcrcot,pc of cunuchs must bc ascribco to a forcign vicvpoint.
1hc sccono issuc is thc intcrprctation of cunuchs as figurcs of an oricn-
talist Grcck vicv of Fcrsia. 1his raiscs, in m, opinion, tvo sorts of prob-
lcms. 1hc first is thc sounoncss of thc analog, vhich is suggcstco b, this la-
bcl. it implics that cunuchs of Achacmcnio Fcrsia vcrc in Grcck c,cs vhat
cunuchs of Fcrsia vcrc for Montcsquicus rcaocrs, vhich is partl, truc, but
for thc most part mistakcn. c.g., Ctcsias cunuchs arc not kccpcrs of a
.q. Dominique Lenfant
harcm, ano thcrc arc, convcrscl,, ncithcr plottcrs nor influcntial figurcs
among thc cunuchs of thc Persian Letters, thcsc havc in fact a spccific mcan-
ing in Montcsquicus picturc of ocspotism, vhcrcas thcrc is nothing to sug-
gcst that Ctcsias account vas intcnoco or cvcn pcrccivco as a rcprcscnta-
tion ano inoictmcnt of ocspotism. In m, vicv, thc oiffcrcnccs arc far largcr
than thc similaritics ano I am thcrcforc rcluctant to usc such a labcl vhich
introouccs thc prcjuoiccs of anothcr timc ano makcs us run thc risk of
anachronistic or confusco intcrprctations.
:;6

But bc,ono thc sounoncss of thc analog,, thc intcrprctation of Ctcsias
cunuchs or morc gcncrall, of Grcck rcprcscntations of Fcrsia as oricntalist
raiscs thc problcm of thc voro ano its usc b, scholars. Cricntalism is a po-
lcmical voro, usco for ocnunciation, ano this is in itsclf a qucstionablc atti-
tuoc for an historian.
:;;

I hopc to havc shovn that it is not as absuro or impossiblc as is usuall,
hclo that if Ctcsias cunuchs in somc va, rcflcct historical figurcs, thcsc
coulo havc bccn castratcs, havc cxcrcisco influcncc on mcmbcrs of thc ro,al
famil,, or takcn part in plots. Such a possibilit, can, of coursc, bc contcstco,
but not b, simpl, postulating that this is a rioiculous, uncritical or oricntalist
vicv, nor b, basing oncsclf on oisputablc prcmiscs. Iinall,, onc ma,
ccrtainl, fino it oisappointing ano uncomfortablc to lack a clcar ano ccrtain
rcsult, but bringing to light thc founoations of a prcvailing vicv ano its
possiblc fragilit, ma, also bc consiocrco progrcss.


Universit de Strasbourg DCMINIQLE LENIAN1
olcnfantunistra.fr


:;6
A gooo cxamplc of such a confusing approach is givcn b, Briant ,.o::, :, vho
strangcl, cquatcs Ctcsias vicv of thc Ancicnt Ncar East vith that of Europcan travclcrs
likc Ilaubcrt oun Cricnt-fcmcllc offcrt a lcur scxualitc ano quotcs ,folloving Eovaro
Saio, thc Ircnch novclists rcmark that 1hc oricntal voman is no morc than a machinc.
It is nccolcss to sa, that thcrc is nothing likc this in Ctcsias fragmcnts. Briant cvcn vishcs
for a book on Grcco-Fcrsian oricntalism consiocrco as a prcocccssor of moocrn oricntal-
ism as anal,sco b, Saioin othcr voros, a book vhosc conclusion comcs bcforc thc
prcmiscs. Harrison ,.o::, :.. instcao rightl, qucstions thc assumption of continuit, in
ancicnt attituocs to thc Cricnt from thc ancicnt vorlo to thc prcscnt oa,.
:;;
Marc Bloch famousl, invitco thc historian to unocrstano rathcr than to juogc. As
for Achacmcnio histor,, Harrison ,.o::, 6;q rightl, strcsscs hov a rcouctivc moralising
pcrspcctivc has bccn in somc va,s rcintrooucco in thc last occaocs ,scc also Lcnfant
,.o::, :, ano cmphasiscs that it is a part of thc historians rolc to stano back ano asscss a
givcn socict, in as oispassionatc tcrms as possiblc.
Ctesias and his Eunuchs .q
Appendix: Artoxares Alleged Wife

In a rcccnt papcr, Firngrubcr ,.o::, .8 ooubts that Ctcsias Artoxarcs coulo
bc a castratc, simpl, bccausc hc has a vifc. But this is basco on a misunocr-
stanoing of thc folloving Grcck tcxt of Fhotius ,Ctcsias I : , ,Fhotius ;.,
a,,.


.
.

Artoxarcs thc cunuch, vho vas vcr, influcntial vith thc King, plots
against thc King bccausc hc vishcs himsclf to bc king. Hc orocrco a
voman ,, to suppl, ,, him ,, vith a mous-
tachc ano a bcaro so that hc lookco likc a man.

is a pronoun vhich complctcs . In manuscripts, thcrc is
thc non-rcflcxivc form , vhich moocrn coitors havc changco to thc rc-
flcxivc form bccausc it rcfcrs to thc samc pcrson as thc subjcct of thc
main vcrb . In fact, mcoicval cop,ists oftcn ncglcct to put a
rough brcathing vhcrc moocrn grammarians vish to havc it.
In an, casc, it oocs not impl, that thc voman is Artoxarcs vifc.
alonc normall, mcans a voman ,scc c.g. Fhot. :;o, ::;bo, .., ;b;, .;q,
b..,, ano for his vifc onc voulo rathcr cxpcct ,scc c.g. Fhot.
;., .b6, a6, ;q, 6a8, q6, 8:a:q, :66, :::b. ano .;, .8, :8a. ano .:,
.., qa, .., :a:o, .., a6,. As for , vhich Firngru-
bcr givcs as an altcrnativc, it is in fact a corrcction vhich vas proposco vith
a qucstion mark b, Iclix ]acob,. It has against it that it is a ooublc corrcc-
tion ,aooition of ano changc of , ano has onl, rarc parallcls in
Fhotius ,.;, o8a:, , corrcctco b, Bckkcr from ,.
1hat is vh,, unlikc Firngrubcr ,ano bcforc him Konig ,:q;., .:, Lcvis ,:q;;,
8., Gu,ot ,:q8o, qo ano :86, ano Stronk ,.o:o, :,, I voulo translatc a
vomanas oio Mullcr ,mulieri, ano not uxori,, Hcnr,, Lcnfant ,.oo,, Gcra
,.oo;, 8., ano Llcvcll,n-]oncs ano Robson ,.o:o,.


.q Dominique Lenfant
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