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Device Theory P-N Junctions

Qualitative illustration of a p-n junction in equilibrium. One of the most important and basic ideas in semiconductor device physics is that of a p-n junction. It is well known that a semiconducting material can be doped with impurities which are either capable of donating electrons or accepting electrons. A semiconductor that is doped with donor impurities is an ntype semiconductor. This means that the impurity energy level lies close to the bottom of the conduction band, and the donor impurity is capable of donating electrons to the conduction band. A semiconductor that has acceptor impurities is referred to as a p-type semiconductor. In this case, the impurity energy level lies close to the top of the valence band, and is capable of accepting electrons from the semiconductors valence band (leaving behind holes in the valence band). For any standard semiconductor at room temperature, kT << EG. In this case, the Fermi level must lie between the impurity level and its corresponding band. This means that for an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies very close to the bottom of the conduction band, while for a p-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies very close to the top of the valence band. When these two types of materials are brought into contact, a p-n junction is formed. At first, electrons and holes move through this junction in such a way as to establish an equilibrium state (in the absence of an applied external voltage) which brings the Fermi levels of the two types to a constant value throughout the sample. This equilibrium is established as follows. The n-type side has a surplus of electrons, and so electrons diffuse into the p-type side. Similarly, the p-type side has a surplus of holes, so they diffuse into the n-type side. On both sides of the junction, the diffusing electrons and holes recombine and annihilate each other. Because of this, the n-type side is left behind with positively ionized donors, while the p-type side is left with negatively ionized acceptors. Of course these ionized impurities begin to set up an electric field which opposes the diffusion of the charge carriers. Equilibrium is established once this electric field is strong enough such that no more diffusion of charge carriers occurs. At this point the Fermi level must be constant throughout the sample; otherwise a current would continue to flow. Once equilibrium is established, there is no more diffusion of electrons and holes through the junction, and the electrons and holes that initially diffused through the junction were annihilated. This creates a region devoid of charge carriers,

which is known as the space-charge region, or the depletion region. A p-n junction in equilibrium is illustrated in the figure shown.

Energy band diagram for a forward biased p-n junction. The resulting electric field in the space charge region creates a potential barrier known as the built in potential, bi, which is the difference between the initial Fermi levels of the n and p type materials. Once equilibrium is established, this barrier potential can be thought of as being responsible for blocking further diffusion of charge carriers. The significance of the built in potential barrier is that it causes a p-n junction to act as a rectifier, meaning that current can only flow in one direction through the junction. This is due to how the potential barrier is affected by an external applied voltage. The term forward bias refers to the situation in which the p-n junction is given an external applied voltage, VA, with the positive bias connected to the p-type material and the negative bias connected to the n-type material. The energy band diagram for a forward biased p-n junction is illustrated in the next figure.

Energy band diagram for a reverse biased p-n junction. In this case, the bottom of the conduction band in the p-type material has moved down in energy while the bottom of the conduction band in the n-type material has moved up in energy. This results in the barrier potential being reduced to bi VA, and once again electrons and holes can diffuse through the junction. This situation also causes a narrowing of the space charge region.

Reverse bias refers to VA being given the opposite polarity; i.e. the positive bias is connected to the ntype material and the negative bias connected to the p-type material. The energy band diagram for a reverse biased p-n junction is illustrated in the following figure.

Band structure for a metal and a p-type semiconductor before contact. The situation for a reverse biased p-n junction is exactly opposite to the case of forward biasing. In the reverse biased case, the bottom of the conduction band of the p-type material has moved up in energy, while the bottom of the conduction band of the n-type material has moved down in energy. This results in the barrier potential being increased to bi + VA, and both types of charge carriers are repelled away from the junction. In this case, the width of the space charge region is increased, and essentially no current can flow through the junction. Schottky Barriers As in the case of a p-n junction, if a metal and a semiconductor are brought into contact, band bending will occur. In equilibrium, with no external applied voltages, no current is allowed to flow. This means that just like a p-n junction, the Fermi level must be constant throughout the two materials (in thermal equilibrium). For a metal, the Fermi level is the top of the free electron sea, while for the semiconductor, the Fermi level is determined by the dopant level. The energy band diagrams for a metal and a p-type semiconductor (such as a polymer) before contact are shown in the first figure.

The band structure showing the Schottky barrier formed after the contact of a metal and a p-type semiconductor. If the Fermi level of the metal is taken as the reference, then the Fermi level of the (p-type) semiconductor must shift upward upon contact. Consequently, the valence and conduction bands of the (p-type) semiconductor must also shift upward, resulting in band bending. This is illustrated in the next figure. It is important to note that this also results in an area known as the depletion region, as shown existing from x=0 to x=L in the second figure. Due to the band bending in this area, holes tend to leave this region, drifting to the top of the valence band. This results in an absence of holes in this region, which are the majority carriers for a p-type semiconductor. The term depletion region refers to the fact that this region is devoid of the majority carriers. The barrier height, B, is the potential difference between the metals Fermi energy and the band edge for the semiconductors majority carriers. Inspection of the energy band diagrams gives the relationship between B and the parameters (before contact) of the metal and semiconductor. For a p-type semiconductor, such as a polymer (for instance, P3HT) the equation for B becomes:

(1).

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