Chapter 9.

The Respiratory System

The term respiration is defined as the union of oxygen with food in the cell, and the subsequent
release of energy for work or for heat, with the release of carbon dioxide and water.
General Functions
The respiratory system functions to supply oxygen for the metabolic needs of the cells and to
remove one of the waste materials of cellular metabolism, carbon dioxide. This involves the process of
external respiration, absorption of O2, and removal of CO2 from the lungs, and the internal respiration,
gaseous exchange between the cells of the body and their fluid medium.
While the intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide are the primary functions of the
respiratory system, it plays other important roles in the body. The respiratory system helps regulate the
balance of acid and base in tissues, a process crucial for the normal functioning of cells. It protects the
body against disease-causing organisms and toxic substances inhaled with air. The respiratory system
also houses the cells that detect smell, and assists in the production of sounds for speech.
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
The organs of the respiratory system extend from the nose to the lungs and are divided into the
upper and lower respiratory tracts. The upper respiratory tract consists of the nose and the pharynx, or
throat. The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx, or voice box; the trachea, or windpipe, which
splits into two main branches called bronchi; tiny branches of the bronchi called bronchioles; and the
lungs, a pair of saclike, spongy organs. The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles
conduct air to and from the lungs. They lead to the alveoli, the functional units of the lungs. Gaseous
exchange between blood and air occurs only in the alveoli.
Nose. The nose includes the external nose (external nares), the part of the upper respiratory tract
that protrudes from the face, and nasal cavity: only a small part of the nasal cavity is in the external
nose, most of it lying over the roof of the mouth.
The functions of the nose are:
1. Serves as air passage
2. Warms the air
3. Filters the air
4. Serves as organ of smell
5. Aids in phonation
Filtering prevents airborne
bacteria, viruses, other potentially
disease-causing substances from
entering the lungs, where they may
cause infection. Filtering also
eliminates smog and dust particles,
which may clog the narrow air
passages in the smallest
bronchioles. The nose filters Fig. 9.1. Illustration showing the different parts of the respiratory system.
substances in two ways:
1. Vibrissae (the hairs that can be seen in the nose) filter out the coarsest bodies, such as insects.
2. Air currents passing over the moist mucosa in curved pathways deposit fine particles, such as
dust, powder and smoke, against the wall. The cilia embedded in the mucous membrane wave

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 constantly, creating a current of mucus that propels the particles out of the nose or downward to
the pharynx. These fine particles are subsequently conveyed to the pharynx and swallowed.
If more particles are in the nasal passages than the cilia can handle, the particles build up on the
mucus and irritate the membrane beneath it. This irritation triggers a reflex that produces a sneeze to
get rid of the polluted air.
The Pharynx. The pharynx is a musculo-membranous tube, about 5 inches in length, extending
from the base of the skull to the esophagus. It is divided into three parts:
1. Nasopharynx – lies behind the nose with four openings – two from the auditory (Eustachian)
tubes and two from the nose, the posterior nares.
2. Oropharynx – lies behind the mouth with a single opening, called the isthmus of the fauces,
which communicates with the mouth.
3. Laryngopharynx – lies below the hyoid bone and behind the larynx which opens into the larynx
and esophagus.
The pharynx serves as a passageway for both the respiratory and digestive systems. It also
assumes an important function in the formation of sound, particularly in the creation of vowel sounds.
In addition to serving as an air passage, the pharynx houses the tonsils, lymphatic tissues that contain
white blood cells. The white blood cells attack any disease-causing organisms that escape the hairs,
cilia, and mucus of the nasal passages and pharynx. The tonsils are strategically located to prevent
these organisms from moving further into the body. One tonsil, called the adenoids, is found high in
the rear wall of the pharynx. A pair of tonsils, the palatine tonsils, is located at the back of the pharynx
on either side of the tongue. Another pair, the lingual tonsils, is found deep in the pharynx at the base
of the tongue. In their battles with disease-causing organisms, the tonsils sometimes become swollen
with infection. When the adenoids are swollen, they block the flow of air from the nasal passages to
the pharynx, and a person must breathe through the mouth.
The Larynx. The larynx, or “voice box”, connects the pharynx with the trachea. Its opening is at
the base of the tongue. It is broad superiorly and shaped like a triangular box. It joins with the trachea
inferiorly, where it is narrower and round. It consists of nine cartilages united by extrinsic and intrinsic
muscles as well as ligaments.
While the primary role of the larynx is to transport air to the trachea, it also serves other functions.
It plays a primary role in producing sound; it prevents food and fluid from entering the air passage that
causes choking; and its mucous membranes and cilia-bearing cells help filter air. The cilia in the larynx
waft airborne particles up toward the pharynx to be swallowed.
The Trachea (Windpipe). The trachea is a membranous and cartilaginous tube. It lies in front of
the esophagus and extends from the larynx on the level of the sixth cervical vertebra to the upper
border of the fifth thoracic vertebra, where it divides into the two bronchi, one for each lung.
The most distinctive feature of the trachea are the cartilages, which in most species are roughly C-
or U-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage that are incomplete dorsally. The number of cartilages in the
wall of the trachea varies, not only among different species, but among different individuals of the
same species. In some individuals, they are fused in places so that instead of being separate, distinct
entities, they form a continuum. The “open” portion is toward the esophagus. The trachea functions as
a simple passageway for air to reach the lungs.
The Bronchi and Bronchioles. The two bronchi into which the trachea divides differ slightly, the
right bronchus being shorter, wider and more vertical in direction than the left. They enter the right and
left lung respectively, and then break up into a great number of smaller branches, which are called
bronchial tubes and bronchioles.
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 Each bronchiole terminates in an alveolar duct which in turn terminates in one or more elongated
saccules called alveolar sacs.
The Lungs. The lungs (pulmones) are cone-shaped organs that fill the two lateral chambers of the
thoracic cavity and are separated from each other by the heart and other contents of the mediastinum.
The substance of the lungs is porous and spongy; owing to the
presence of air, it crepitates when handled and floats in water. It
consists of bronchioles and their terminal dilatations, numerous blood
vessels, lymphatics, nerves and an abundance of elastic connective
tissues. Each lobe of the lung is composed of many lobules, and into
each lobule a terminal bronchiole enters then terminates in one or
more alveolar sacs. Each sac presents on its surface numerous small
pouches, or alveoli. The alveoli increase the surface area of the lungs
for the exchange of gases without necessarily increasing the size of
the lungs. Each lung is enclosed in a serous sac called pleura. The
pleura is a thin, transparent membrane that forms the serous fluid.
Mechanics of Breathing
Quiet breathing is accomplished by the alternate contraction and Fig. 9.2. The alveoli.
relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles. Most
of the air movement is accounted for by the action of the diaphragm.

Fig. 9.3 Demonstration of the mechanics of breathing

(inhalation on the left and exhalation on the right.

Inspiration. When the diaphragm contracts, it descends and elongates the thoracic cavity. The
contraction of the external intercostal muscles raises the ribs at the sternal end. This action forces the
sternum outward, increasing the anterior–posterior diameter of the thorax. As the thorax enlarges,
cohesion between the visceral and parietal pleurae causes both layers to expand, thereby enlarging the
lungs. This reduces the pressure within the lungs (intrapulmonic pressure). The reduction in
intrapulmonic pressure causes air to rush into the lungs. At the end of inspiration the pressure between
the lungs and atmosphere is equalized.
Expiration. Expiration during quiet breathing is a passive process, occurring as the diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles relax. The thoracic cavity returns to its resting size and lungs recoil.

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Recoil contraction of the lungs increases intrapulmonic pressure, forcing the air out of the lungs at the
end of the expiration the pressure between the lungs and atmosphere is equalized.
Types of Breathing
1. Eupnea – normal, quiet breathing
2. Apnea – temporary cessation of breathing
3. Dyspnea – difficult breathing
4. Orthopnea – inability to breath easily in a horizontal position
5. Hyperpnea – an increased depth of breathing
6. Tachypnea – is the excessively rapid and shallow breathing
Common Respiratory Disorders
1. Emphysema – a condition characterized by a breakdown of alveolar walls and loss of elasticity
of the lungs, usually is a final stage of a lung disease which causes chronic bronchiolar
obstruction.
2. Atelectasis – term used to describe any condition that causes collapse of alveoli in a localized
region, an entire lung, or both lungs.
3. Asthma – an allergic reaction caused by substances in the air, such as pollen when inspired
creating localized edema in the walls of the small bronchioles, secretion of thick mucus into
their lumens; and spasm of their smooth muscular walls.
4. Pneumonia – an inflammation of the alveoli and supportive tissues, usually with an
accumulation of fluid and blood cells in the alveoli.
5. Tuberculosis – caused by tubercle bacilli that invade the lungs, and initially there is acute
inflammation in the area of the bacilli, with accumulation first of neutrophils and later
macrophages.
6. Pulmonary edema – caused by an insufficiency of the left heart in pumping blood received
from the lungs to the rest of the body, causing blood to back up into the pulmonary circulation.
7. Sinusitis – in acute stage in manifested by pain referred to the maxillary and frontal sinuses; the
nose is plugged, and nasal and postnasal mucus discharged occur.
8. Epistaxis – (nose bleed) occasionally results in an animal because of the highly vascular nasal
mucous membrane. Some race horses develop epistaxis during races, perhaps because of the
high blood pressure involved.
9. Pharyngitis – (sore throat) is an inflammation of the pharynx and may involve the digestive
system as well as the respiratory system and may result in tonsillitis.

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