Chapter 13.

The Nervous System

The nervous system is a rapid communication system that interacts continuously with the
endocrine system in the control and coordination of the body functions. It is essential to sight and
hearing, our perception of pain and pleasure, control of movements, regulation of body functions such
as digestion and breathing and the development of thought, language, memory and decision making.
The Neuron. The neuron, the basic structure of the nervous system, is a specialized cell designed
to conduct self-propagating impulses to other cells. They can be:
1. Afferent or sensory - transmit impulses received by receptors
2. Efferent or motor - carry outgoing signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands.
3. Interneurons - neither sensory nor motor, but it connects neurons with other neurons- it
received signals from the sensory then send it to either the motor or to other interneurons.
Neurons have three parts: dendrites, a body and an axon. Dendrites are the nerve cell’s receptive
apparatus. It receives information from several sources at the same time. It’s either excitatory or
inhibitory. The body connects the dendrites to the axon and contains the nucleus. The axon carries
impulses away from the cell.

Fig. 13.1. The neuron.

A bundle of elongated axon belonging to hundreds and thousand of neurons forms the nerves.
Nerves are connected to receptors (in the skin and other sense organs) whose function to convert some
environmental stimuli into nerve impulses. These impulses travel along the nerves to the brain where
information is analyzed and reactions are determined. The brain then sends impulses (through motor
neurons) to muscles, organs, glands, etc. so that these organs respond to the environmental stimuli, all
of these happening within an instant.
Ganglions are groups of neuronal cell bodies found outside the brain and spinal cord. Glial cells
are non-neural cells whose function is to hold the neuron in place.
Division of the Nervous System
The central nervous system, or CNS, includes all neurons in the brain enclosed in the cranium and
the spinal cord enclosed in the spinal column. The peripheral nervous system, or PNS, consists of
nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to other part of the body. The PNS includes 12 pairs of
cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves, and the somatic system which carries messages to and from
the sense receptors, muscles and the body surface. The autonomic nervous system, or ANS, connects
with the internal organs and glands. It is divided into the parasympathetic system, which consists of
motor neurons and active during resting conditions, and the sympathetic system, which is active during
physical activity and stressful conditions.
The Central Nervous System
The Brain. The three developmental divisions of the brain are the:

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 1. Forebrain (prosencephalon) - located in the front or anterior part of the brain; includes the
cerebrum and the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)
2. Midbrain (mesencephalon) - located at the middle
3. Hindbrain (rhombencephalon) - includes all structures or part located in the hind or posterior;
closest to the spinal cord; includes the pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum

Fig. 13.2. The different parts of the brain.

The Cerebrum. The cerebrum accounts for seven-eights of the brain’s weight. It is responsible for
discriminatory identification of and integration of sensory information, memory, reasoning, use of
language, emotional behavior, and initiation of movement. The surface layer of gray matter (cerebral
cortex) is greatly expanded by convolutions called gyri. A longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum
into two hemispheres, each divided for convenience into four major lobes bearing names of overlying
bones of the skull: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe contains areas for
initiating movement. The parietal lobe contains areas for perception of somesthetic sensation (tactile,
temperature, pain, and kinesthesia). The temporal lobe, areas for the perception of sound, and the
occipital lobe, areas for the perception of visual sensations. Association areas adjacent to sensory areas
and spread throughout the cortex correlate data and relate past and present data to give it significance.
Thalamus. The thalamus is composed of two eggs-shaped masses of gray matter just above the
midbrain. It acts as a relay station for sensory perception (except olfactory). It controls sleep and
wakefulness. It is also responsible for crude awareness of sensation (protopathic sensibility) and acts as
a relay and integration center for emotional behavior.
Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is a small structure located just beneath the thalamus. It
regulates eating, drinking, and sexual behaviors. It also regulates endocrine activities and maintains
homeostasis (normal level of functioning that a normal organism should have).
Midbrain. The midbrain is composed of four rounded masses and includes the tectum, which
contain nuclei that serve as centers for visual and auditory reflexes.
Pons. The pons lies anterior to the cerebellum between the midbrain and the medulla. It consists of
thick bundles of fibers that carry impulses from one side of the cerebellum to other and to higher brain
centers.

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 Medulla Oblongata. This is continuous with the spinal cord through the foramen magnum. It is
the structure that controls breathing, some reflexes including swallowing, vomiting, coughing and
sneezing, and upright posture.
Cerebellum. The cerebellum is attached at the rear of the brain stem, just above the medulla. Like
the cerebrum, the cerebellum has a surface layer of gray matter. It is primarily concerned with the
coordination of movement.
Spinal Cord. The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to the second lumbar vertebrae.
It has a central H-shaped core of gray matter surrounded by white matter.

The Peripheral Nervous System

Spinal Nerves. The spinal nerves, 31 pairs in all, are distributed along the spinal column in the
following manner: 8 pairs in the cervical vertebrae; 12 pairs in the thoracic vertebrae; 5 pairs in the
lumbar vertebrae; 5 pairs in the sacral vertebrae; and 1 pair in the coccygeal vertebrae.
Cranial Nerves.
Cranial Nerve Function Cranial Nerve Function
Nerve Nerve
I Olfactory Sensory VII Facial Mixed
II Optic Sensory VIII Acoustic Mixed
III Oculomotor Motor IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed
IV Trochlear Motor X Vagus Mixed
V Trigeminal Mixed XI Spinal Accessory Motor
VI Abducens Motor XII Hypoglossal Motor
Table. 13.1. List of cranial nerves and their functions.
Reflexes
Reflexes are automatic responses to specific stimuli that are not under conscious control. They
provide the body with protective and quick response especially to harmful stimuli. They are important
because, being very fast and more/less automatic, they save time and mental energy, when prompt and
oftentimes life saving action is required.
Muscle Reflexes. Vibrations in the tendons move them. Ex. knee jerks.
Orientation Reflexes. These control our speed and our posture. Ex. When we slip on a wet
pavement, our body twists to the right and our hands shoot out to stop the fall.
Bodily Function Reflexes. These are unconscious control over the muscle but eventually can be
controlled. Ex. An infant cannot control urination but as he grows older he can suppress it.
Behavioral Reflexes. These reflexes are used to prepare our body’s responses during extreme
situations. Ex. “fight or flight” reflexes wherein a pattern of reflex response are produced in answer to
a threatening situation.
Conditioned Reflexes. These are brought on by a stimulus different from that which first
produced it and become attached to a different stimulus. Ex. Ringing a bell each time you feed a dog
will produce a similar response in the dog every time you ring a bell.

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