VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q. 1. What is a transducer? Ans.

The device which converts an energy from one form to another is known as transducer The input energy may be electrical, mechanical, chemical, thermal or optical Q 2 Give classification of transducers Ans The transducers may be classified as (1) Electrical Transducers. These are the transducers which give electrical energy as output (voltage, current, frequency) etc. (2) Displacement Transducers. These transducers convert displacement (mechanical energy) into electrical energy (3) Optoelectronic Transducers These transducers convert light energy into electrical energy, For example photoconductive cell, photovoltaic cell, solar cell, etc Out of the above, electrical transducers are the most popular These transducers tire used for measurement of non-electrical quantities (force, pressure, etc.) by changing them into electrical quantities. Q 3 Define electrical transducers

Ans The transducers, which convert non electrical quantities (force, pressure, sound Ltd) into electrical quantities are called Electrical transducers, it then becomes easier to measure a non electrical quantity Q. 4. What are Inverse transducers? Ans The inverse transducers convert electrical quantities into non-electrical quantities, e g Piezo electrical transducers The recording devices which are used in feed-back measurement systems are also a type of Inverse transducers Q. 5. What are variable inductance type transducers? Ans. These are analog passive transducers. They work on one of the following Principles: (i) Change of self inductance of a coil. (ii) Change of mutual inductance of a coil. (iii) Production of eddy currents. Q. 6. Differentiate between Transducers and Inverse transducers? Ans. Transducers are normally associated with a circuit which has non-electrical input and electrical output e.g. pressure gauge, strain gauge etc.

An inverse transducer is a device that converts electrical quantities into non-electrical quantities e.g. piezo-electric crystal. Q. 7. What is a strain gauge? Ans. The strain gauge converts strain into a change of electrical resistance. Q. 8. What are the types of strain gauges? Ans. There are four types of strain gauges namely: 1. Wire strain gauge 2. Foil strain gauge 3. Film strain gauge 4. Semiconductor strain gauge Q. 9. Give other classification of strain gauges. Ans. 1. Bonded 2.Unbonded Q. 10. What is a Resistance Strain Gauge? Ans. It is the most commonly used transducer for measurement of displacement. A resistance strain gauge consists of a grid of fine wire cemented to a thin paper or bakellite sheet and covered with a protective covering.

Q. 11. What is a semiconductor strain gauge? Ans. A semiconductor strain gauge employs a semiconductor material commonly silicon. As the resistively of semiconductor is higher than a conductor, it is possible to have a sensitive element as shorter, wider and simpler. Q. 12. What is a thermocouple? Ans. A thermocouple consists of dissimilar metals which when joined produce an e.m.f when their one junction is heated. Q. 13. What is thermocouple gauge used for detection of leaks in vacuum systems. Ans. The thermocouple gauge consists of an electrically heated wire operating at a temperature of approximately 320K mounted inside a glass or metal envelope. Q. 14. Write desired properties of thermocouple metals. Ans. 1. They should not melt within the range of temperature requirements. 2. They should not corrode at their highest temperature.

3. The emf generated by the couple must remain constant for a given temperature throughout its life. Q. 15. What type of scale is used in thermocouple meters? Ans. In a thermocouple meter, there is a square law scale. Q. 16. What is the main application of thermocouple meter? Ans. It is mainly used to measure radio frequency currents having frequencies to thousands of megahertz. Q. 17. Can a thermocouple measure AC. Ans. Thermocouple is capable of measuring AC of high frequencies very accurately. It is based on the principle of generation of heat due to current. Q. 18. What is Hall Effect transducers, how it can be used for measuring displacement? Ans A Hall Effect transducer is based on the effect of magnetic fields on moving charges. A Hail Effect transducer is located within a gap. The output voltage in this hafi effect transducer depends upon the strength of the magnetic field in

the gap. Any displacement in the ferro-magnetic Structure changes the magnetic field and hence the output voltage. This method can be used to measure displacement down to 0.001 inch Q. 19. What are the possible applications of Hall Effect Transducers? Ans. 1. It can be used to measure strength of a magnetic field in terms of an electrical voltage.. 2. It can also be used to measure current without cutting the conductor and without making any electrical connections between conductor circuit and the meter. 3. Hall effect transducer can be used as an analog multiplier. Q. 20. What are the points to be considered for selecting transducer? Ans. 1. Range . 2. Sensitivity 3. Electrical output characteristics - 4. Physical environment 5. Errors Q. 21. What are Pyrometers? Ans. Pyrometers are instruments, which are used for the measurement of very high temperatures. Q. 22. Name the types of Pyrometers.

Ans. 1. Resistance pyrometers. 2. Thermo-couple pyrometers 3. Radiation pyrometers 4. Optical pyrometers i Q. 23. What is LVDT? Ans. It is a Linear Voltage Differential Transformer. Q. 24. Define Gauge Factor of a strain gauge. Ans. Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of unit change in resistance to unit change in length. Gauge factor, K = AR/R AL IL where, R = Resistance of gauge wire AR = Change in resistance L Length of wire AL = Change in length Q. 25. Give Gauge Factor for few materials. Ans. The table lists gauge factors for different commonly used wire materials. Table 1. Material nickel manganin nichrome Gauge factor 12.10 0.47 2.0

Constanant platinum Carbon Soft iron Doped crystals

2.1 4.8 20.0 4.2 100 to 5000

Q 26 Mention applications of a resistance strain gauge for measurement of non electric quantities. Ans 1 Strain gauges are extensively used for analyzing dynamic strains in complex structures such as in Bridges, Automobiles, Roads, etc. 2 Resistance wire strain gauges are very useful for measurement of Tension, Torque, Force and Stresses in structures. 3. Strain gauges are used in load cells and load rings to measure force producing strain. Q 27 Strain in a beam is being measured with the help of a strain gauge attached to the beam. The resistance of the strain gauge (having a gauge factor of 3) changes from 150 ohms to 151 ohms when strained. Determine the strain in the beam to which the gauge has been attached. I Ans. Strain (AL/L) = Change in resistande/ Unstrained resistance Gauge factor

= 1/150 3 = 0.0022 Ans Q. 28. What is a SYNCHRO TRANSDUCER? Ans. Synchro transducer is a POSITION MEASURING DEVICE. Q. 29. What are optical pyrometers? Ans. The optical pyrometers are used for higher temperature measurement up to 3500C such as temperature of furnaces, molten metals and other heated materials. Q. 30. Give advantages of Radiation Pyrometers. Ans. 1. They can measure very high temperature. 2. They can be kept away from hot body. 3. They can measure temperature of moving object. Q. 31. Give disadvantages of Radiation Pyrometers. Ans. 1. They are costly. 2. High maintenance is required. 3. Each pyrometer has individual calibration.

Q. 32. What are the different types of strain gauges ? Name four resistance materials used in wire and foil gauges. Ans. Nichrome, constantan, nickel, platinum. Q. 33. Name two light sensitive transducers. Ans. These are 1. Photo conductive cell 2. Photo voltaic cell Q. 34. What is an Eddy current tachometer? Ans. This meter can measure rotational speed of a shaft. This works on the principle of eddy currents. Q. 35. What is Tacho generator? Ans. This. can measure rotational speed from a distance. Q. 36. What is stroboscope? Ans. This is an equipment which produces pulses of light at a controlled frequency. This, is used to measure rotational speeds of shaft with more accuracy. Q. 37. Mention major applications of L.V.D.T.s? Ans. 1. These are used for direct displacement measurement e.g., thickness measurement, gauging machine profile, surface roughness etc.

2. LVDTs have also been used for force and pressure measurement. Q. 38. Enlist advantages of LVDT. Ans. These are 1. Frictionless instruments. 2. Hence, long mechanical life 3. Infinite resolution. Q. 39. What is V.R.I.T. ? Ans. It stands for Variable Reluctance Inductive Transducer. It is used for measuring displacement. Q. 40. What are the essential components of a Thermocouple instrument that can be used for measurement of an unknown current or voltage? Ans. 1. The HEATER ELEMENT that carries the current to be measured. 2. The THERMQCOUPLE having its hot junction in contact with the heater and its cold junction at room temperature. 3. A sensitive PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL METER that operates on the thermal e.m.f generated in the thermocouple. Q. 41. What are, the various advantages of thermocouple instruments?

Ans. The thermocouple instruments have the following advantages: 1. The thermocouple instruments correctly indicate the R.M.S. value of current or voltage. 2. These instruments are not affected by stray magnetic fields. 3. These instruments can be used over a wide frequency range. 4. They can measure a.c. as well as d.c. Q. 42. Give disadvantages of thermocouple instruments. Ans. The thermocouple instruments have the following disadvantages: 1. The overload capacity of thermocouple instruments is small as compared to that of other instruments. 2. The fuses dont provide any protection as the heater wire may burn before the fuse blows off. Q. 43. Define : Thermoelectric Inversion and Neutral Temperature. Ans. Thermoelectric inversion means reversal of polarity of thermoelectric e. m.f As the temperature of the hot junction is increased above the temperature of the cold junction, the thermoelectric e.m.f increases proportionally. After a certain temperature for the hot junction, the e.m.f starts decresing with increase in

temperature. This transition temperatures is called the NEUTRAL TEMPERATURE. Q. 44. What is the principle of operation of a RESISTANCE THERMOMETER? Ans. The variation in resistance of a metal with temperature is the basis of temperature measurement in a resistance thermometer. Platinum or Tungsteri wire is wound on a former to give a resistance in the range of 10 ohms to 10 kilo-ohms. Q. 45. Give advantages and disadvantages of resistance thermometers. Ans. (a) Advantages : These provide the most accurate method for temperature measurement. These have a simple installation and need only copper cables for long rims. (b) Disadvantages : These need energising current. These are large in size as compared to thermo couples. Q. 46. Give advantages and disadvantages of thermocouples. Ans. (a) Advantages These have a wide temperature range, are versatile and are simple in application. These are available in a variety of package configuration. They

are available in an insulated cable housing or ultra fine wires. (b) Disadvantages : Thermocouples need a temperature reference for their operation. They need great attention where high accuracy is needed. They need extension cables for long runs. Q. 47. What are the advantages of semiconductor strain gauge? Ans. 1. They are free from hysteresis and creep error. 2. They have good frequency response. 3. They are of small size. Q. 48. Give disadvantages of semiconductor strain gauge. Ans. These semiconductor gauges are expensive, brittle, highly sensitive to temperature variations and have poor linearity. Q. 49. Mention one disadvantage of LVDT. Ans The major disadvantage of LVDT is the hazard of induced noise in an Electro magnetically noisy environment: However, this can be overcome with proper shielding.

Q. 50. Give some thermocouple materials and temperature range. Ans Table 2 Combination of Thermocouple materials Copper-Constantan Iron-Constantan Chromel-Alumel + 10% Rhodium Platinum-Platinum + 13% Rhodium Temperature Range - 200C to 550C - 20C to 750C 300C to 1000C 700C to 1600C

Q. 51. Mention desirable characteristics of strain gauges. Ans. 1. Should have very good frequency response. 2. Should have high value of gauge factor. 3. Should not have hysteresis or creep effect. Q. 52. What are the following: Shaft encoder, Incremental encoder and Absolute encoder. Ans. 1. Shaft encoders are ANGULAR MEASUREMENT devices that make use of optical or magnetic technique to measure the shaft angle in terms of a digital

number. 2. Incremental encoders have simple ON and OFF coded pattern. The output is in the form of number of counts between start and end of displacement. 3. The absolute encoders have a coded pattern that gives a unique digital output for each discrete displacement increment. Different codes are practiced for this purpose such as Binary, Binary coded decimal and Gray code. Q. 53. What is the principle of operation of HOT WIRE GAUGES? Ans. HOT WIRE GAUGES depend for their operation on the thermal conductivity of the heated wire due to change in pressure. These are normally used to measure pressure of gases and vapours. Q. 54. What is a Thermistor? Ans. A thermistor is a device whose resistance varies with temperature. These devices have a very high temperature co-efficient of rsistance. Q. 55. What are NTC and FTC thermistors. Ans. The NTC thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance

i.e. their resistance decreases with increase in temperature. These are basically ceramic materials. PTC thermistors have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance i e their resistance increases with temperature Q 56 Define for thermistors 1 Dissipation constant 2. Time constant 3 Break point Ans 1 DISSIPATION CONSTANT is the amount of power dissipated by the thermistors which will raise its temperature by I C. Typical value IOmW/C. 2 The TIME CONSTANT is the time taken b the thermistor to mdicate 63% of the newly impressed temperature input Agam it may be several seconds 3 The BREAK POINT of a FTC thermistor is a point of the rapidly rising portion of its resistance vs temperature characteristics after the Curie temperature, where its resistance is approximately five times its base resistance Q 57 Give basic requirements of a transducer Ans Following are the basic requirements of a transducer 1 Ruggedness It should be capable of withstanding overloads and some safety arrangement should be provided for over load protection

2. Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these characteristic in symmetrical way. 3. No Hysterisis. It should be free from hysterisis while input signal is varied from its low value to high value and vice versa Q. 58. What are primary and secondary transducers? Ans. When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and is converted into electrical form directly, such a transducer is called primary transducer. When the input signal is first sensed by some detector or sensor and its output being of some form other than input signal is given as input to a transducer for conversion into electrical form, such transducer is called secondary transducer. Q. 59. What are the advantages of an electrical transducer? Ans. Following are the advantages of an electrical transducer 1; Frictional error will be less in electrical transducer. 2. Mass-inertia effects are reduced to the minimum possible. 3. Very small power is required for controlling electrical system.

4. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired value. Q. 60. What is a spring? Ans. A spring is a simplest transducer, which converts force into proportionate displacement. Q. 61. What is the basic principle of operation of INDUCTION TYPE transducers? Ans. Induction type transducers are based on the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction which talks about an e.m.f being induced in a conductor placed in a magnetic field whenever there is a rate of change of flux linking the conductor. Q. 62. How capacitive transducers are superior to other transducers? Ans. 1. Their power requirements is very small. 2. These have a very good dynamic response, as the capacitor plates themselves have very little mass. Q. 63. What are Active and Passive transducers? Ans. The transducers, which develop their output in the form of electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source are called the active transducers.

Transducers in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance change with change in input signal are called the passive transducers. Q. 64. What are Analog and Digital transducers? Ans. Analog transducers convert input signal into the output signal which is a continuous function of time, e.g. thermistor, strain gauge thermocouple etc. Digital transducer convert input signal into the output signal in the form of pulses. Q. 65. What is pulse counter? Ans. This is an electronic instrument used to count pulses. Q. 66. What is Float? Ans. This is a simple device of measuring displacement of liquid surface. In other words it is a water level Indicator. Q. 67. What is the use of spring as a transducer? Ans. The spring can measure force by converting it into displacement. Q. 68. What is Bourden Pressure Tube?

Ans. It is a transducer, which can measure pressure. Q. 69. What is a Piezeo electric transducer? Ans. It is used to measure pressure by converting into electrical energy. Q. 70. What are the factors to be kept in mind to select a transducer? Ans. (a) The quantity to be measured. (b) Accuracy required. Q. 71. Write advantages of Flow meters. Ans. (i) There is no obstruction in the velocity. (ii) The output is proportional to the velocity. (iii) They are not affected by the viscosity, density and change in temperature. (iv) There is no moving part. (v) They lend themselves to bidirectional flow. But due to complexity and high costs, their use is limited. Q. 72. Enlist few mechanical transducers and modes of operatin. Ans. Few mechanical transducers and their mode of operation is given: Table 3.

Sr.no Mechanical transducers 1. Burden tube 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Mode of operation (conversion) Pressure to displacement bellow Pressure to displacement diaphram Pressure to displacement spring Force to displacement Pendulum Force to displacement manometer Pressure to displacement Thermocouple Temperature to current bimetal Temperature to displacement Float Fluid level Pressure to displacement hydrometer Sp gravity to displacement venturi Velocity to pressure vane Velocity to force

Q. 73. Write a note on selection of transducer. Ans The transducer are selected on the basics of following points

(i) Range The transducer should have sufficient range of operation (ii) Sensitivity It should give sufficient output per unit of measured input (iii) Good electrical characteristics The electrical characteristics such as output impedence, frequency response, response time of transducers output signal should be compatible with the recording device (iv) Environment friendly. The transducer selected should be able to withstand the environmental conditions such temperature, moisture, etc. (v) Errors. The errors produced by transducer and caused by environment should small. Q 74 What are the basic requirement of a transducer? Ans The basic requirements of a transducer are (i) Ruggedness It should be capable to withstand overloads (ii) Linanty Its input-output characteristic should be linear (iii) Repeatability It should give same output for the same input, if applied again and again (iv) High output quality The output should have high signal noise ratio (v) No hysterisis It should not give any hysterisis effect, when varied from low

to high value or vice-versa Q 75 Enlist advantages of Electrical transducers Ans Advantages of Electrical Transducers Usually, physical quantities before measurement are converted into electrical quantity It has the following advantages I Amplification Attenuation of an electrical quantity can be done easily 2 The effects of friction are minimized. 3 The electrical/ electronic system can be easily controlled and that too with little power 4 Telemetry used now-a-days in modem instrumentation This is possible only in electrical/electronic systems 5 The use of I C s has brought a revolution in the field of instrumentation 6 The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed Note More Short Answer Questions are given at the end of the Chapter SHORT & LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q 76 Describe elements and requirements of transducers Ans. (a) Elements. A transducer may be thought of consisting of two closely related elements (Fig. 1).

1. Sensing or Detecting Element. This element senses detects the physical quantity under measurement. 2. Transduction Element. This element transfers the output of the sensing element into, an electrical output. In addition, a transducer may have amplifiers, power supply, calibrated scale, etc. (b) Requirements. The transducers should have the following requirements: 1. Mechanical Ruggedness. The transducer should be mechanically rugged. It should be able to withstand the working conditions and mechanical strains. 2. Linear Output I Input Characteristic. The transducers should have linear output/input characteristic. 3. Reliability. The results of the transducers should be reliable. The result should also be stable

and should not change with temperature and other changes. 4. Good Response. If the input to the transducer varies with time (in few cases, it does) the transducers should have good response to the variations. 5. Low Noise. The noise / signal ratio of the transducers should be low so that its output can be directly measured with sufficient accuracy. Q. 77. Give comparison between Active and Passive transducers. Ans. Sr.no Active transducers 1. They are self generating i.e. they develop output (voltage or current) without any. auxiliary device, 2. They draw energy from the quantity under measurement. 3. They give very low output and amplification is Table 4. Passive transducers They are not self generating i.e. they need an external power source to give electrical output (voltage, current). They need an external energy source. They give sufficient output, which may not need any

4.

necessary. Examples : Thermocouples, Piezo- electric transducers etc.

amplification. Examples Inductive and capacitive transducers etc.

Q. 78. What are variable resistance type transducers? list few examples. Ans. In these transducers, resistance between the output terminals gets varied according to the quantity under output terminals. where R = resistance of the conductor p = resistivity of the material of the conductor = length of conductor a = cross-section of the conductor. Resistance transducers are preferred as ac and dc both supplies are suitable fa resistance measurement. Examples of there transducers are (1) Potentiometer (2) Strain gauge (3) Thermistor (4) Resistance hygrometer. Q. 79. Explain the following as transducers: (1) microphone and loudspeaker (2) Video cameras

(3) Human ear (4) Human eye. Ans. (1) A microphone is a transducer, which converts sound into electrical energy. A loudspeaker is a transducer which converts electrical energy back to sound energy. The two constitute a public address (PA) system Fig. (2). This principle is used in radio transmission and reception.

(2) The video camera is a transducer which converts picture (light) into electrical energy. The picture tube is a transducer which converts the electrical energy back into light (picture). The principle is used in TV transmission and reception (Fig. 3).

(3) The human ear acts as a transducer which converts sound into electrical pulses which go to our brain; the brain also acts as a transducer and converts back the electrical pulses into the original sound and we feel the sound.

(4) The human eye acts as a transducer which converts a picture into electrical pulses which go to our brain which, in turn also acts as a transducer and reconverts back the electrical pulses into the original picture and thus we can see the object. Our eye is like a camera which can take infinite photographs black and white as well as colour simultaneously and can send them to the brain. Our eye can change focal length to see near and distant objects, while camera cannot. Q. 80. Explain the term Hysterisis effect found in transducers. Ans. The output of a transducer depends not only on the input quantity applied at present, but also depends on the input quantities applied previously. A different output

is obtained, when the same input quantity is applied repeatedly For decreasing values, a greater output is obtained than increasing value of the same quantity.

This phenomenon is called as Hysterisis, all transducers suffer from this effect.

Q. 81. Explain: (i) Primary and secondary transducer (ii) Passive and active transducers (u) Analog and digital transducers (ii) Transducers and inverse transducers. Ans. (1) Primary and secondary transducers. This will be better explained with the help of Fig. 5.

The Bourden tube acting as a primary detector, senses pressure (P) and converts it into displacement of its free end, which moves the core of L V D T whose output is voltage proportional to the pressure Thus there are two stages of transduction The Bourden tube acts as primary transducer and the L V D T acts or a secondary transducer

In most of the cases there is a suitable combination, where a mechanical device (e g Bourden tube) acts as a primary transducer and an electrical device (e g L V D T) acts as a secondary transducer 2. Passive and active transducer (a) The passive transducers are those that denve the power required for transition from an auxilliary power source They also derive a part of the required power from the quantity under measurement They are also called Externally powered transducers The passive transducers cannot function without an external power source The examples of passive transducers are resistive inductive and capacitive transducers (b) Active transducers are those, that do not require an external power source They are called self generating as they develop their own power The power reeffect required for production of output power is obtained from the quantity under measurement Examples are Taco generators thermocouples, photovoltaic cell, piezo electric crystal etc 3. Analog and digital transducers. (a) Analog transducers are those, that convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous function of time Examples are Strain guage, L V D T thermocouple, thermistor etc

(b) Digital transducers are those that convert the input into an electrical output which is in the form of pulses. As a binary number uses only two digits 0 and 1, itcan be easily be represented by opaque and transparent areas on a glass scale (Fig 6) or by non-conducting and conducting areas on a metal scale The complete binary number denoting position is obtained by scanning the pattern across the scale at a stationary index mark The glass scales can be read by means of light sources, an optical system and the photocells The

metal scales are scanned by brushes making electrical contact with individual tracks The resolution depends upon the digits, comprising the binary number and is n/2 of full scale where n is the number of digits 4. Transducers and Inverse Transducers. Transducers are the devices, which convert a nonelectrical quantity into electrical output. Inverse transducers are the devices which convert an electrical quantity into non electrical output. The examples of inverse transducers are:

(i) A piezo electrical transducer: as, when a voltage applied to its surface, it changes its dimensions i.e. it converts the voltage into a displacement. (ii) A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field produces a rotational torque! displacement. (iii) An ammeter or voltmeter. Converts current into mechanical displacement. (iv) Data indicating/recording devices such as pen recorder, C.R.O. etc. The most useful application of inverse transducers is in Feedback measurement system. The Fig. 7 shows a block diagram of a feed back measurement system using inverse transducers. The firm lines show electrical devices/signals and dotted lines show mechanical devices! signals.

In this, the output signal (Usually in electrical form) is fed back and converted by passing through an inverse transducer into a non electrical form suitable for comparison with the quantity under measurement (non electrical). The resulting error signal is passed through a transducer into the

electrical form and is applied to give output indication. Q. 82. Give examples with applications of active and passive transducers. Ans. (a) Active transducers (self-generatingno external power) Table5 Sr.no Name of tranducers 1. 2. 3. 4. Application (The physical quantities measured) Thermocouple and Temperature, heat Thermopiles Moving coil Velocity, vibrations generator Piezoelectric Sound, velocity, transducers acceleration, pressure vibration Photovoltaic cell Phoovoltaic cell

(b) Passive transducers (externally powered) Sr no Name of the transducers Application (The physical quantities measured) Force, torque, displacement

1.(a) Strain gauge

(b) Hot wire meter (c) Resistance thermometer (d) Thermistor (e) Resistance hygrometer 2.(a) Capacitor pressure gauge (b) Capacitor microphone 3.(a) Differential transformer (LVDT) (b) Magnetostriction gauge 4.(a) Hall effect generator (b) Photoemissive cell (c) Photomultiplier tube

Gas pressure Temperature Temperature Humidity Displacement, pressure Speech, music, noise Pressure, displacement vibrations Force, pressure, sound Magnetic flux, current Light Light

Q. 83. Explain Gauge factor. Describe working principle and types of wire strain gauges Write about materials used for making wire strain gauges and applications Ans (a) Gauge Factor

If a metal conductor (wire) is stretched or compressed, its dimension (length and cross sectional area) change and due to strain, the resistance of the conductor also angages This is also called Piezo resistive effect Note that resistance = p -f-, where p is the resistively, 1 the length and a is the cross sectional area If a wire is stretched and its original length L Let change m the length = & Strain= change in length Original length If the resistance of the conductor wire R Due to strain,, change in the resistance = d R New resistance = R+ zR . . . (ii) The gauge factor of a strain gauge is defined as the ratio of the change in resistance per unit resistance to the change in length per unit length.

(b) Wire Strain Gauge. This is a device used for measurement of strain/stress. This is also, used as secondary transducer. Type of wire strain gauges. They are of the following types:

(1) Unbounded wire strain gauge. It consists of an unbounded wire structure on a platform. These wires have equal length. The four wires form a Wheatstone bridge. See Figs. 8 (a), (b). When the force (or pressure) to be measured is applied to the strain gauge, the resistance wire P and S increase in length while the resistance wires R and Q decrease in length. This unbalances the Wheatstone bridge. The change in the resistance s proportiona1iQtheienth, and the unbalance ridge causes an ps Ue terminals, the output voltage being proportional to the force (or pressure) applied.

Note that the bridge is balanced, only when P/Q = R/S The Fig. 9. shows an unbounded strain gauge.

(ii) Bonded wire strain gauge. It consists of fine wire mesh (about 30 m dia.) which is connected to a thin box of bakelite or paper sheet. The base is bonded to the structure, the bonding material helps in transfer of strain from base to the wires. Figs. 10 (a to d) show different bonded wire strain gauges.

(c) Material for strain Gauges. (i) For wire. Table shows the material used for wire in wire strain gauges and their specifications. Table 7: Materials used for the wire of strain gauges Sr.n Name of Compositi Resistiv Max. Gau o material on ity Permissi ge

(Q m) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Nichrom e Constant an Nickel Ni 80% Cr20% Ni 50% Cu50% .. 100 x 10^8 50 x 10 ^8 6x 10^8 9x 10^8 48 x 10^8 75 x 10^8 400 x 10^8

ble ftmp facto (C) r 1300 2.5 450 1000 1100 70 1200 3000 2.0 -12 5.1 0.48 4.3 2.0

Platinum .. Mangnin e Iron (soft) Carbon Cu 85% Mn 15% .. ..

(ii) For Base. The material used for the base (carrier) of the wire gauges are: (1) Epoxy-up to 150C (2) Bakelite / cellulose / fibre glass up to 300C. (iii) Adhesive materials. The adhesive (banding materials) used are: ethyl cellulose, cement, epoxy, bakelite, etc. They can work up to 200C. They are used as binding materials in bonded strain gauges to bind wire with the base. Applications of Wire Strain Gauges:

(a) They are used to analyze stress and strain in bridges, roads, etc. The strain gauge is used in wheat-stone bridge connections, and the output can be displayed on a calibrated C.R.O. and the stress / strain may be measured. See Fig. 11.

(b) They are also used effectively ta measure tension, torque, force, pressure, etc. in a structure. Q 84 Write a note an Rosettes Ans. The rosettes are a combination of single element strain gauges. They are used for specific stress/strain analysis. An element may be subjected to stresses in any direction and it is not possible to locate the direction of the principal stress. It is not possible to orient the strain gauges along the direction of principal stress, Therefore, necessity was felt to have strain gauge, which measures the value of principal strain and strains without knowing the direction. There are the following types of rosettes.

i.

Two element rosettes. These are used in force transducers. The elements are connected in the Wheatstone bridge configuration. The Fig. 12 shows two element rosette (90) stacked (Foil type) strain guage.

(ii) Three element rosettes. These are used for determination of direction and magnitude of principal strains resulting from complex structural leading.

Generally the three elements are displaced from each other at 45C or 6O. The 45C provide better angular resolution and are used when the direction of the principal strain is known, while

600 rosettes are used when the direction of principal stress is not known. Q. 85. Explain construction and applications of Thermistors. Ans. (a) Thermistors. These are basically thermal resistors, their resistance varies non linearly to the temperature. The Fig. 14 shows the characteristic of thermistors. Infact, these are semi-conductor devices ; with negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.

Thermistor are manufactured from oxides of metals like manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, aluminium etc. The temperature of thermistor vary at a very high range from several hundred ohms to mega ohms. They are available in various shapes such as discs, rods, beads etc. The various shapes of thermistor are shown m Fig 15

Applications. (1) The main measurement. application Of thermistors is for temperature

For this, thermistor is connected in series with a battery and a micro ammeter, which may be calibrated m terms of temperature (Fig 16) (2) The other applications of thermistors are (z) For control of temperatures (n) To measure difference in temperatures (iii) To measure composition of gas (iv) To measure flow Q 86 Explain working principle and various types of photo electric transducers Ans (a) Photoelectric transducers Principal. cThese are used to measure light intensity examples of Photo electric cells Photo voltic cells conductive cells Photo diodes and

photo transistors etc These convert the bghtfal1ir them into voltage, which can be mea4yyoltmeter calibrated in units of (b) Types : Below few photoelectric transducers have been described: 1.. Photo Emissive Cell (Photo Tube). The cathode of photo emissive cell emits electrons, when light falls These electrons are accumulated at its anode or plate The fig 17(a) shows construction Fig (b) shows characteristics between negative voltage and leakage current The curves shows electrical intensities in watts per m2 at different currents

The tube is used to measure luminous flux or intensity The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig 18

The voltmeter is calibrated in terms of luminous flux/Intensity. The output voltage may be amplified to drive next stages of measurement. These devices are stable and do not change their characteristics with time but their sensitivity is low 2 Photo conductive cells These are also called Light dependant resistors (LDR) or photo resistors When light falls, their resistance decreases For making these devic germanium, silicon or cadmium suiplude (CdS) are used The construction (Fig 19a) and symbol (Fig b) is shown

These are used for street light control, and automatic Iris control of camera and to operate relays The fig shows its use to control relay operations When the cell receive light, its resistance decreases and current is sufficient to energise the relay When the cell does not get light, the current is decreased and the relay is de-energised

3 Photovoltaic cell (Fig 21) A solar cell is the most popular example of photo voltaic cells, These cells generate electricity, when light falls on them. Solar cells are used to charge batteries of satellites. These can also be used for reading punch cards in an industry. They can also be used as Infra red detectors. In series parallel grouping they can act as battery charger. Their operating range is from - 80 .C to 120C These do not require any external power source and they have a fast frequency response. 4 Photo diodes A photodiode is a diode made of silicon with an opening at Its cover containing a lens, which focusses the light on the diode A photo diode with no bias operates as a photovoltaic cell, and with reverse bias, it acts as a photo conductive cell

The photodiodes have fast frequency response and time constant of 1 gS. These can be used for reading punch cards and tape.

5. Photo transistors. The photo transistor is a device, whose operation depends upon light and not on the base current. The fig. 23(a) shows symbol of a photo transistor, note that it has no base lead and (b) shows characteristics. The curves show electrical intensity in watt/rn2.

The photo transistor does not have response as linear as that of junction transistors, i.e. collector current is not linear to light intensity. A photo transistor is much more sensitive than a photo diode. Photo transistors find use in the operation of relay, reading punch cards/tapes and control of digital processes.

Q. 87. Explain construction, working, Advantages, Disadvantages and uses of L.V.D.T. Ans. LV.D.. (Linear Variable Differential Transformer):
1.

An L.V.D..is an inductive transducer. Its working principle is shown. When a force is applied to the armature (or core) the are gap changes and as a result inductance of the coil changes which is the measure of the appplied, force.

(b) Construction and Working: An LV.D.T it consists of a primary winding and two exactly similar secondary windings with a magnetic armature or core m between. When an A.C. signal is connected across the primary, the voltages induced in two secondary windings (by transformer action) are V1 and a V2 which are exactly equal in the ideal case and output of the secondary is zero. This occurs when the core is positioned in the centre (null position). But practically, the coil is not at the centre position and the output of the transformer is equal to the difference of V1 and V2, as the secondary are connected in opposition. The differential output voltage of the transformer (produced by the displacement of core) is linear over a considerable range AB as shown. This explains the name L.V.D.T.

As explained above, when the force (or pressure) to be measured is applied at the input of the L.V.D.T., the output of the transformer is the measure of the resultant displacement of the core and hence of the input. (c) Advantages of L.V.D.T: (a) The output of L.V.D.T. is more or less linear. A linearity of 0.05% can be obtained. (b) The L.V.D.T. has infinite resolution, practically a resolution of i0 mm can be obtained. (c) It has considerably high output, hence amplification in not much needed.

(d) It has a high degree of sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm. (e) The power consumption is less than 1 W. Signal first causes a change in the resistance of the wire, then this change is converted into an electrical output. But in the case of L.V.D.T., the input is directly converted into the differential electrical output. In this respect, L.V.D.T.s are superior to the strain gauges. (d) Disadvantages of L.V.D.T.: (a) A relatively high core displacement is needed for appreciable output. (b) They need shielding to minimize the effect of stray magnetic fields. In this respect, these are inferior to the capacitive transducers. (c) They are also affected by vibrations. (d) Their dynamic response is not good, i.e. if the input signal is changing with time, the accuracy of the result is affected. Uses of L.V.D.T.s: The L.V.D.T.s can be used, where displacement is from a fraction of a mm to a few xn. They can also be used to measure force, pressure, weight, etc. But as dynamic response poor, the L.V.D.T.s are not used for dynamic (changing with time) measurements.

Q. 88. What is R.V.D.T.? Ans. Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) : The RVDT can measure angular displacement up to 90. The car diode shaped core is specifically taken, as it gives highly linear output. The typical applications of RVDT is measurement of thickness of hot strip or slab in rolling mills.

Q. 89. Define sensitivity of LVDT. Ans. Sensitivity. The value of rms voltage developed by LVDT for unit displacement is called sensitivity. S = rms output voltage = V Displacement d It is usually specified in V/mm voltage induced in a L.V.D.T. will be given as V =s.d

Q. 90. State laws of thermocouples. Ans. The thermocouples are governed by the following laws: (i) Law of homogeneous metals. According to this law a thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit single homogeneous metal by varying in cross-section and applying heat alone. In simple words, a thermocouple can be made only of two dissimilar metals. (ii) Law of intermediate metals. According to this law, a homogeneous metal can always be added to a thermocouple circuit and this has no effect on the emf a the circuit.

For example, there is no harm if in a thermocouple made of platinum and platinum rhodium alloy with both copper leads or one of copper and other of aluminium lead I used due to heavy cost of platinum (See Fig. 28).

Q. 91. Write note on: 1. Thermocouple 2. Seebeck effect 3. Peltier effect 4. Thomson effect Ans. 1. Thermocouple. This is a simplest device for measurement of temperature. It consists of two dissimilar metals A and B insulated from each other but welded or brazed at their ends making two junctions.

When one end is kept in the fumance whose temperature is to be measured, the meter connected at the other end gives temperature of the fumance. 2. Seebeck effect. This operation of a thermocouple is based on the seeback effect. It states that when two wires of dissimilar metals are joined together at each and end form a complete electric circuit, then a current flows through the circuit when the two junctions are kept at different temperatures.

The current is caused by the potential difference between two thermoelectric emfs e1 and e2 induced at the two ends. The amount of potential difference only depends upon the metals of the device and is independent of other factors like size of wires, are a of contact etc.

3. Peltier effect. This is just reverse of Seeback effect, i.e. when an electric current is made to flows across a junction of two dissimilar metals the heat is either generated berated) or absorbed depending upon the direction of flow of current (Fig. 31). When the current flows in the same direction as the See beck current, heat is absorbed at the hot junction and liberated at cold junction. In this case, if thermocouple voltage is measured with potentiometer no current flows and heating and cooling are not present but if the voltage is measured by a milli voltmeter, current flows and

heat is absorbed at the cold junction and heat is liberated at hot junction, however heating and cooling is negligible. This principle is used In instrument amplifier. 4. Thomson effect. According to Thomson effect, when current flows through a conductor having a temperature gradient (and thus a heat flow) along its length, heat is liberated (generated) at any point where the current flow is in the direction as the heat flow, while the heat is absorbed at any point, where these are opposite (i e, the current flow and heat flow are opposite (or in reverse direction to each other The effect is not observed if potentiometer is used to measure the thermocouple voltages, If even a milli voltmeter is used the effect is negligible In this way, the Thomson effect speaks about the temperatures of the conductors between Junctions rather the Junctions itself

The total emf set up in a thermocouple is partly due to Peltier effect which is localized at each junction and is proportional to the difference in junction temps and parily due to Thomson effect, which is distributed along each conductor between the junclions and is proportional to the square of difference in junction temperatures. If E = Total thermoelectric emf set up in a thermocouple We can write T1 absolute temperature of hot junction T2 = absolute temperature of cold junction The a and j3 are constants whose values depend upon the two metals used in the thermocouple. Q. 92. Describe how thermocouple output is measured.. Ans. The measurement of thermocouple output involves two steps:

1.

To maintain the cold junction temperature constant. While using a thermocouple to measure temperature (or emf), one junction is kept in the furnace whose temperature is to be measured, the meter calibrated in terms of temperature or in volts is connected at the other (cold) junction gives the output value directly; For this, foremost condition is that temperature of the cold junction should be maintained constant.

Following methods are used to maintain constant temperature.

1.

The cold junction of the thermocouple may be immersed in ice water (Fig. 33)

1.

The temperature of the cold junction may be controlled by automatic temperature control device placed away from hot junction. Note the arrangement carefully. (Fig. 33)

(2) To measure the thermocouple output. The various methods are: (a) By millivoitmeter. This is simplest method. In this a sensitive millivoitmeter is used. A high resistance may be connected in series with the instrument. This will give a sufficient current through the meter and will reduce the errors. This method is not very accurate. This causes loading error and also errors due to variation of resistance.

1.

By potentiometer. This method is widely used as it gives high accuracy, and does not cause any loading error because it does not

draw any current from the thermocouple. The problem due to variation of resistance are also eliminated.

A secondary transducer senses the magnitude and direction of unbalance current and moves, a slider to eliminate it the same by employing a servomotor to the null balance position. (c) Electronic method In this method,. I.C. technology is employed. Art amplifier amplifies the thermocouple output emf and feeds to the meter. This method is free from errors but needs an extra power source.

Q. 93. Write note on Thermocouple pyrometer with advantages, disadvantages and applications. Ans. (a) Thermocouple Pyrometer (Radiation Pyrometer). Thermocouples are also employed for making pyrometers which can measure very high temperature, e.g. temperature of furnace and also of the sun. Along with thermoelectric effects these pyrometers are also based on the principle of radiations that all objects emit radiations at high temperatures. This produces two effects (a) The object appears bright. (b) There is change in the colour of the light due to change in the wavelength. (b) Construction: A thermocouple (radiation) pyrometer is shown. It consists of a highly polished concave mirror C which can be moved to and fro along the axis of the tube by means of screw S. In the tube, thermocouple (T.C.) is also kept which is connected to a milli voltmeter calibrated in the temperature scale. For the purpose of focussing an eye-piece (E.P.) is also provided in the opening of the mirror.

1.

Working :

Suppose the temperature of a furnance is to be measured The eyepiece of the pyrometer is kept near the eyes and the other en4 towards the furnace. The radiations from the furnace after reflection from C are focused at one junction of the thermocouple (T.C.) whereas the other junction is shielded from radiations. Now the temperature of the furnace is read directly on the millivoltmeter calibrated in degrees Centigrade. (d) Advantages of thermocouples (i) The thermocouples are small and rugged m construction (ii) These are cheaper than resistance thermometers (iii) The temperature range of thermocouples is about 1400C

(iv) These have a time constant of 10 us (e) Disadvantages of thermocouples (i) These axe less accurate than resistance thermometers (ii) Compensation is to be provided for reference junction Applications (1) Pyrometers can used for measurement at a number of points. (ii) Thermocouples can indicate rapid change in temperature. (iii) They can measure surface temp. Q. 94. Write note on Piezoelectric transducer. Ans (a) PIEZOELECRIC TRANSDUCER According to the piezoelectric effect, if a piezoelectric material is subjected to a pressure, an e.m.f appears across its surfaces. Conversely, if an alternating voltage is applied across the crystal, it will change the dimensions of the crystal, i e crystal will be deformed The materials which exhibit this effect are Rochelle salt, quartz, lithium sulphate, ceramics, barium titanate, etc. The crystal of these

materials are used in piezoelectric transducers, which can measure force, pressure, etc.

When force F to be measured is applied, to the transducer, it converts it into voltage Vo, which can be easil9 measured by a voltmeter calibrated in Newton (Fig. 38). (Ii) The equivalent circuit of the transducer can be drawn as shown. In Fig. 39 (a) C is the capacitance of the crystal, R is the leakage resistance of the crystal and Q is the charge generated by the crystal.

Now

Q/C = V

So, the equivalent circuit can also be drawn as shown in the Fig. (b), in which Q has been replaced by a voltage source V. (c) Advantages of Piezo Electric transducers (1) These are small, compact in size and light in weight. (ii) These are active transducers and do not need any external source of power (iii) They have a temperature range from 1500 to 3000 C (iv) They have a good frequency response from 1 Hz to 30 KHz (d) Disadvantages (i) Though leakage resistance of the transducer is very high (1012 ohm). But the charge generated leaks through the leakage resistance very rapidly, when a voltmeter is connected across its terminals for measurement This creates problems in measurement of static displacements. (ii) The output voltage is affected by temperature variations. (e) V Uses of Piezoelectric Transducers: (a) They are more used for dynamic measurements, such as surface roughness etc. (b) They are also used in SONAR (sound navigation and ranging)

(c). They are used to measure force, pressure, deformation etc. (d) They can also be used t measure temperatures. The crystal can give a very linear relation between its resonant frequency and temperature of the order of 1 kHz per second. Q 95 Provide analytical explanation, how force can be measured by a piezo crystal transducer Ans The fig 40 (a) shows a piezo electric crystal used for measurement of force (F) The fig.. (b) shows usually adopted axis numbering system for the crystal. Note that a crystal has six axes.

A crystal used for converting mechanical motion deformation to electrical signal may be taken as a Charge generator and a capacitor. The mechanical deformation generates a charge and

this charge appears as a voltage across the electrodes. The piezo electric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force generates a voltage of one polarity and a compressive force generates a voltage of opposite polarity. The magnitude and polarity of the charge are proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force. In the same way application of electric field may deform the crystal to contract or to expand, depending upon the polarity of the electric field. As told above, the magnitude and polarity of the induced surface changes are proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force, we can write down: Q = d.F, where is the charge in coulombs and F is the force. Also, d is a constant is called charge sensitivity of the crystal in coulombs per Newton; and is constant for a given crystal cut. The force F causes a change in thickness equal to zt (in meters) and so, where A is area of crystal in m2, E is the young modulus of elasticity and t is the thickness of the crystal. The charge at electrodes generates an output voltage V0 which can be expressed as

where C is the capicatance between the electrodes with crystal is an insulation between two conductor electrodes hence, behaves as a crystal]. where, e is the absolute permittivity (8 854x1042) and er is the relative permattivaty So we can write down by putting the values of Q from e.g. (i) and value of C from eg (ii)

Where note that g is called voltage sensitivity of the crystal and P= F/A is the pressure in pascals applied an the crystal. The e.g. (i.ii) can be rewritten as

Q. 96. (a) Write a note on materials used for piezoelectric transducers. (b) Explain equivalent circuit of piezo electric transducer along with analysis.

Ans. (a) the piezoelectric transducer materials are of three types: (i) Natural crystals. Such an Quartz and Rochelle salt. The natural Quartz is the most suitable material ; it has lower lower temperature sensitivity and higher receptivity (about 1012 2/rn3) It gives large time constant and allows static calibration. It exhibits linearity over wide range of stress level with very low hysterisis. The Rochelle salts performance is affected, if humidity rises above 80% or falls below 30% and so requires a wax coating for protection. The quartz is most stable but its output is small, on the other head, the trochee salt provides highest output but its highest working temperature is 45C and needs a protection against humidity told above. Polarized ferroelectric ceramics. Such as Barium Titanate etc.

i.

The ferroelectric ceramics, as artificially polarized by applying a strong field as the materials, simultaneously, the material is heated to an temperature above curie

point where it looses the perro electric properties. Then it is cooled down with the field, still applied. Now removing the electric field a remnant polarization is retained and the material exihibits piezoelectric effect. As compared to Quartz, piezo electric ceramics have higher sensitivity but have poor temperature characteristics. Barium titanate can be made in any shape and size and it has also a high permittivity. The crystal axis can be obtained as per requirement by selecting the direction of polarization. It is a polycrystalline and has a higher dielectric constant.

i.

Synthetic materials. Such as Lithium sulphate, ammunium hydrogen phosphate etc. These have in general a higher voltage sensitivity.

1.

Equivalent circuit of Piezo electric transducer along with analysis. The piezoelectric effect can cause mechanical deformation of the material in many modes. Such as thickness expansion, transverse

expansion, thickness shear and face shear mode. But the common mode is thickness expansion the mode depends upon the factors:- Such as shape and orientation of the body w.r.t. crystal axis, and location of electrodes. The electrodes are metallic materials and the crystal is an insulator, so when the electrodes are plated on the crystal the arrangement acts as a capacitor/charge generator. A charge produced to mechanical deformation results in definite voltage appearing across the electrodes and is given by V0 = Q/C, where Q is the charge produced and C is the capacitance of the piezo electric element.

The equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric transducer (charge generator) is shown in Fig. 42. In this, charge is generated by the crystal acorss its capacitance C and leakage resistance. R.

The charge generator can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source having a voltage V m series with a capacitance C and resistance R (Fig. 43).

1.

Analysis. Let the transducer be loaded. The load has a capacitance CL and resistance RL. The CL! Loading effect is the combination of capacitance of the load, capacitance of the cable and the stray

capacitance. The fig. 44 shows the loaded

transducer. The value of leakage resistance R of the crystal is very large (about 1011 ). The value of load resistance R1 is comparatively smaller than R, So the leakage resistance R can be dropped. Note that due to high leakage current resistance R, the leakage i.e. power loss will be negligible and the equivalent circuit can be reduced to as shown in Fig. 45.

Impedence of Load,

Total impedence offered to the voltage source

The voltage output of the loaded transducer.

Putting value of V = Q = dF , where F is the force C C The equation (i) becomes:

The eq. (ii) is the output voltage V0 of the transducer with applied force F. At medium and high frequencies,

This is the expression for output voltage of the transducer at medium and high frequencies. The output voltage V0 is independent of frequency but depends upon the load capacitance CL It can be observed that under steady state, force F i.e. when w 0, the transducer provides no output, while the high frequency is imposed by the mechanical resonance of the piezo electric device and the mountings (electrodes). Q. 97. Explain Capacitive transducers. Ans. (a) CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS: The principle used is same as in capacitive microphones which respond to the sound pressure falling on their diaphragm and converting the sound Into electrical pulses according to the pressure of the sound. The capacitive transducers can, otherwise, be used to measure a force as explained below: The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by:

Where A is the area of each plate and d is distance between the plates. Therefore any variation in distance d between the plates will vary the capacitance of the capacitor. The force F to be measured is applied at the diaphragm of the transducer. (b) Construction : The diaphragm icts as one plate and the static plate act as cont plate of the capacitor. By applying force, the diaphragm shows deflection and the distance between diaphragm and the static plate decreases. The distance decreases Further with increase in the force. The resulting change in the capacitance can be measured by an A.C. bridge and the applied force can be accordingly calculated. Note that the diaphragm and the static plate are separated by a dielectric forms a capacitor; hence the name capacitive transducer. Fig. 46 (a) shows construction and Fig. (b) shows equivalent electric circuit for a capacitive transducer.

(c) Advantages of Capacitive Transducers: (a) They re very sensitive. (b) They have a good frequency response upto 60 kHz. (c) Their resolution is of the order of 2 x mm. (d) They need very small power to operate. Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers: (a) Sometimes they shown a non-linear behaviour. (b) They have high output impedance and hence show some loading effect. (c) Their metallic parts are to be properly earthed. Uses of Capacitive Transducers: (a) The capacitive microphones and loudspeakers are available.

(b) They can be used to measure linear as well as angular displacement may 1 small up to 10 mm and large up to 30 mm (c) They can be used to measure force and pressure. (d) They can effectively measure humidity (e) When used along with mechanical modifiers they can be used to measure volume weight and density. Q. 98. Why the gauge factor of a metallic strain gauge is approximately equal to for the most of the cases? Ans G = I + 2 v, Where v is the Poisson ratio, which is 05 for most of the metals, G = 1 + 2 (0.5) 2. This is the reason the Gauge factor, for most of the metallic stress guages is approximately 2. Q. 99. Define a transducer and distinguish between a sensor and a transducer. Ans. Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into other form. Sensor is a part of transducer, it senses and sends signal to the transduction element.

Q. 100. Why strain guage is passive transducer ? Define sensitivity of strain guage. Ans. Because in strain guage, the electrical parameters change with change. in the input signal, so the strain guage is a passive transducer, moreover it needs an external power source for the operation. Sensitivity of a strain guage is the lowest change in the input, which can be detected/ sensed by the strain gauge. Q. 101. Why the secondary windings of LVDT are connected in series opposition? Ans. The secondary windings of L.V.D.T. (Linear variable differential transformer) are connected in series opposition, so that the output voltage is the difference (or differential) of the two secondary voltages. Q. 102. What is the basic principle of strain gauge based measurements? Ans. In strain gauge based measurements, the mechanical elongation/compression

is converted into the change of resistance. The end device is accordingly calibrated to measure the input Q. 103. Name materials used for wire foil guages. Ans. (i) Nic1ome (ii) Coustantor (iii) Nickel (iv) Platinum Q. 104. Define Poission ratio. Ans. The poission ratio is the ratio of lateral strain and longitudinal strain.

It is negative and approximate value is 0.3. Q. 105. Why are Strain Gauges called piezo resistive strain gauges? Ans. If a metal conductor is stretched, there is change of resistively of the conductor due to change in its dimensions. This is called piezo resistive effect. This is the reason, that strain

gauges are also called as piezo resistive gauges. Q. 106. Why piezoelectric transducers cannot be used for static displacement measurements? Ans. As the voltage developed by application of strain is not held under static conditions, so the piezoelectric transducer cannot be used for static measurements. Q. 107. Explain the measurement of displacement using LVDT. Ans. The displacement is converted into electrical voltage by LVDT, which is proportional to the displacement of the core. This electrical voltage can be measured by a voltmeter calibrated in terms of displacement. Q. 108. What do you understand by piezoelectric effect ? How it can be used to measure pressure? Ans. When a mechanical pressure is applied between two phases of a piezo electric crystal

(such as quartz), the output is an electrical signal. The phenomenon is reversible. This is called Piezo electric effect. When pressure is applied across the crystal, we get electrical voltage as output. This electrical voltage can be measured by an instrument calibrated in terms of pressure. Q. 109. How capacitive transducers are superior to other transducers? Ans. (i) They can be used in smallest systems. (ii) They are exteremely sensitive. (iii) They have a good frequency response. (iv) A resolution of 2.5 x i0 mm can be obtained.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Problem 1. The wire of a strain gauge is 0.1 m long has initial reistance of 120 Q. On applying force, the length of the wire increases by 0.1 mm and resistance increases by 0.

Q. 1 Find gauge factor. Sol. 1 0.1 m = 100 mm

& 0.1m=100mm

R =120Q zR =0.2W Gauge factor

= 1.75Ans. Problem 2. A strain gauge with gauge factor of 2 is fastened to a metal and is subjected to a stress of 1000 kg,fcm2. The Youngs modulus of the metal is 2 x io Kg/cm2. Find percentage change in the resistance of the strain gauge. Sol.

Percentage change in the resistance of the strain gauge

Problem 3. A thermistor has a temp. coeff. of resistance as 0.5 for temperature range of 25C to 50C. Find the resistance of the thermister at 40C, if its resistance at 25C is 120i Sol:

Problem 4. A strain gauge is bonded to a steel beam of 0.lm length and 4 cm2 cross section. The modulus of beam material (steel) is 207 x i0 N/rn2. The strain

guage has initial resistance of 240 and a gauge factor of 2.2. When a load is applied the resistance of the strain gauge changes by 0.013 Q. Calculate (i) change in the length of the beam and (ii) force applied to the beam. Sol.

Change in length. 2.46x10 m. Ans (ii)

Force on the beam

Problem 5. A thermistor has a resistance temp. coeff. of 5% over a temperature range of 25C to 50C. If resistance of the thermistor at 25C is 100Q, Find its resistance at 35C.

Sol. 0.05(35 25)j

Resistance at 35C .100 [1 50 Ans.

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