Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes

and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunications and signal processing. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a working system. Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-mechanical science and technology, which deals with the generation, distribution, switching, storage and conversion of electrical energy to and from other energy forms using wires, motors, generators, batteries, switches, relays, transformers, resistors and other passive components. This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De Forest of the triode, which made electrical amplification of weak radio signals and audio signals possible with a non-mechanical device. Until 1950 this field was called "radio technology" because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control. The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid state physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering. This article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics.

Refrigerator

A side-by side refrigerator with an icemaker

A typical refrigerator with its door open

A refrigerator (colloquially fridge) is a common household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic, or chemical) that transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room. Cooling is a popular food storage technique in developed countries. Lower temperatures in a confined volume lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. Optimum temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 C (37 to 41 F).[1] A similar device that maintains a temperature below the freezing point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator is a relatively modern invention. It replaced the icebox, which was a common household appliance for almost a century and a half prior. For this reason, a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox.

Features

The inside of a home refrigerator containing a large variety of everyday food items.

Newer refrigerators may include:

Automatic defrosting A power failure warning that alerts the user by flashing a temperature display. It may display the maximum temperature reached during the power failure, and whether frozen food has defrosted or may contain harmful bacteria. Chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Water and ice dispensing became available in the 1970s. In some refrigerators, the process of making ice is built-in so the user doesn't have to manually use ice trays. Some refrigerators have water chillers and water filtration systems. Cabinet rollers that lets the refrigerator roll out for easier cleaning Adjustable shelves and trays A status indicator that notifies when it is time to change the water filter An in-door ice caddy, which relocates the ice-maker storage to the freezer door and saves approximately 60 litres (2 cu ft) of usable freezer space. It is also removable, and helps to prevent ice-maker clogging. A cooling zone in the refrigerator door shelves. Air from the freezer section is diverted to the refrigerator door, to cool milk or juice stored in the door shelf.

Types of domestic refrigerators

Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes. Among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large

domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Some models for small households fit under kitchen work surfaces, usually about 86 cm high. Refrigerators may be combined with freezers, either stacked with refrigerator or freezer above, below, or side by side. A refrigerator without a frozen food storage compartment may have a small section just to make ice cubes. Freezers may have drawers to store food in, or they may have no divisions (chest freezers). Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, or built into a kitchen.

Compressor refrigerators are by far the most common type; they make a noticeable noise. Absorption refrigerators or thermo-electric Peltier units are used where quiet running is required; Peltier coolers are used in the smallest refrigerators as they have no bulky mechanism. Compressor and Peltier refrigerators are powered by electricity. Absorption units can be designed to get power from any heat source. A noticeable difference between the two types is the absence of refrigerant with Peltier coolers (these use a different method of cooling). But Peltier coolers use more electricity because they are thermodynamically inefficient. Oil, gas (natural gas or propane) and dual power gas/electricity units are also available (typically found in RV's). Solar refrigerators and Thermal mass refrigerators are designed to reduce electrical consumption. Solar refrigerators have the added advantage that they do not use refrigerants that are harmful to the environment or flammable. Typical solar designs are absorption refrigerators that use ammonia as the working gas, and employ large mirrors to concentrate sufficient sunlight to reach the temperature required to free gaseous ammonia from the solvent.[21][22] Most thermal mass refrigerators are designed to use electricity intermittently. As these units are heavily insulated, cooling load is limited primarily to heat introduced by new items to be refrigerated, and ambient air transfer when the unit is open. Very little power is therefore required if opened infrequently. Refrigeration units for commercial and industrial applications can be made in various size, shape or style to fit customer needs.

Other specialised cooling mechanisms may be used for cooling, but have not been applied to domestic refrigerators.

Magnetic refrigerators are refrigerators that work on the magnetocaloric effect. The cooling effect is triggered by placing a metal alloy in a magnetic field.[23] Acoustic refrigerators are refrigerators that use resonant linear reciprocating motors/alternators to generate a sound that is converted to heat and cold using compressed helium gas. The heat is discarded and the cold is routed to the refrigerator.[24]

Microwave oven
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

A modern microwave oven

A microwave oven, often colloquially shortened to microwave, is a kitchen appliance that heats food by dielectric heating accomplished with microwave type electromagnetic radiation that is used to rotate and heat polarized molecules in food. Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 2538 mm of a dense (high water content) food item; food is more evenly heated throughout (except in thick, dense objects) than generally occurs in other cooking techniques. Percy Spencer invented the first microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the "Radarange", it was first sold in 1947. Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, which was acquired in 1965 by Raytheon. Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking vegetables. They are also useful for rapid heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats, and chocolate. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, since they rarely attain the necessary temperatures to produce Maillard reactions. Exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items (such as bacon), which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water. The boiling-range temperatures produced in high-water-content foods give microwave ovens a limited role in professional cooking,[1] since it usually makes them unsuitable for achievement of culinary effects where the flavors produced by the higher temperatures of frying, browning, or baking are needed. However, additional kinds of heat sources can be added to microwave packaging, or into combination microwave ovens, to produce these other heating effects, and microwave heating may cut the overall time needed to prepare such dishes. Some modern microwave ovens may be part of a unit with built-in extractor hoods.

Benefits and safety features

Commercial microwave ovens all use a timer in their standard operating mode; when the timer runs out, the oven turns itself off. Microwave ovens heat food without getting hot themselves. Taking a pot off a stove, with the exception of an induction cooktop, leaves a potentially dangerous heating element or trivet that will stay hot for some time. Likewise, when taking a casserole out of a conventional

oven, one's arms are exposed to the very hot walls of the oven. A microwave oven does not pose this problem. Food and cookware taken out of a microwave oven are rarely much hotter than 100 C (212 F). Cookware used in a microwave oven is often much cooler than the food because the cookware is transparent to microwaves; the microwaves heat the food directly and the cookware is indirectly heated by the food. Food and cookware from a conventional oven, on the other hand, are the same temperature as the rest of the oven; a typical cooking temperature is 180 C (356 F). That means that conventional stoves and ovens can cause more serious burns. The lower temperature of cooking (the boiling point of water) is a significant safety benefit compared to baking in the oven or frying, because it eliminates the formation of tars and char, which are carcinogenic.[17] Microwave radiation also penetrates deeper than direct heat, so that the food is heated by its own internal water content. In contrast, direct heat can fry the surface while the inside is still cold. Pre-heating the food in a microwave oven before putting it into the grill or pan reduces the time needed to heat up the food and reduces the formation of carcinogenic char. Unlike frying and baking, microwaving does not produce acrylamide in potatoes,[18] however unlike deep-frying, it is of only limited effectiveness in reducing glycoalkaloid (i.e. solanine) levels.[19] Acrylamide has been found in other microwaved products like popcorn.

Effects on food and nutrients

Raisins when cooked in a microwave produce considerable smoke[citation needed] Several studies have shown that if properly used, microwave cooking does not change the nutrient content of foods to a larger extent than conventional heating, and that there is a tendency towards greater retention of many micronutrients with microwaving, probably due to the shorter preparation time.[23] Microwaving human milk at high temperatures is contraindicated, due to a marked decrease in activity of anti-infective factors.[24] Any form of cooking will destroy some nutrients in food, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature.[25] Nutrients are primarily lost by leaching into cooking water, which tends to make microwave cooking healthier, given the shorter cooking times it requires.[26] Like other heating methods, microwaving converts vitamin B12 from an active to inactive form. The amount inactivated depends on the temperature reached, as well as the cooking time. Boiled food reaches a

maximum of 100 C (212 F) (the boiling point of water), whereas microwaved food can get locally hotter than this, leading to faster breakdown of vitamin B12. The higher rate of loss is partially offset by the shorter cooking times required.[27] A single study indicated that microwaving broccoli loses 74% or more of phenolic compounds (97% of flavonoids), while boiling loses 66% of flavonoids, and high-pressure boiling loses 47%,[28] though the study has been contradicted by other studies.[29] To minimize phenolic losses in potatoes, microwaving should be done at 500W.[30] Spinach retains nearly all its folate when cooked in a microwave; in comparison, it loses about 77% when cooked on stove, because food on a stove is typically boiled, leaching out nutrients. Bacon cooked by microwave has significantly lower levels of carcinogenic nitrosamines than conventionally cooked bacon.[25] Steamed vegetables tend to maintain more nutrients when microwaved than when cooked on a stovetop.[25] Microwave blanching is 3-4 times more effective than boiled water blanching in the retaining of the water-soluble vitamins folic acid, thiamin and riboflavin, with the exception of ascorbic acid, of which 28.8% is lost (vs. 16% with boiled water blanching).[31]

Principles
For more details on this topic, see dielectric heating.

A modern microwave oven A microwave oven works by passing non-ionizing microwave radiation through the food. Microwave radiation is between common radio and infrared frequencies, being usually at 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)a wavelength of 122 millimetres (4.80 in)or, in large industrial/commercial ovens, at 915 megahertz (MHz)328 millimetres (12.9 in).[10] Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating. Many molecules (such as those of water) are electric dipoles, meaning that they have a partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other, and therefore rotate as they try to align themselves with the alternating electric field of the microwaves. Rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion, thus dispersing energy. This energy, when dispersed as molecular vibration in solids and liquids (i.e., as both potential energy and kinetic energy of atoms), is heat. Sometimes, microwave heating is explained as a resonance of water molecules, but this is incorrect;[11] such resonances occur only at above 1 terahertz (THz).[12] Microwave heating is more efficient on liquid water than on frozen water, where the movement of molecules is more restricted. Dielectric heating of liquid water is also temperature-dependent: At 0 C, dielectric loss is greatest at a field frequency of about 10 GHz, and for higher water temperatures at higher field frequencies.[13]

Compared to liquid water, microwave heating is less efficient on fats and sugars (which have a smaller molecular dipole moment).[14] Sugars and triglycerides (fats and oils) absorb microwaves due to the dipole moments of their hydroxyl groups or ester groups. However, due to the lower specific heat capacity of fats and oils and their higher vaporization temperature, they often attain much higher temperatures inside microwave ovens.[13] This can induce temperatures in oil or very fatty foods like bacon far above the boiling point of water, and high enough to induce some browning reactions, much in the manner of conventional broiling (UK: grilling) or deep fat frying. Foods high in water content and with little oil rarely exceed the boiling temperature of water. Microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaways in some materials with low thermal conductivity which also have dielectric constants that increase with temperature. An example is glass, which can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting. Additionally, microwaves can melt certain types of rocks, producing small quantities of synthetic lava[citation needed]. Some ceramics can also be melted, and may even become clear upon cooling. Thermal runaway is more typical of electrically conductive liquids such as salty water.

Computer

A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem. Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU) and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of operations based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.

The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945 in the United Kingdom and United States. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).[1] In this era mechanical analog computers were used for military applications. Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

Types of Computers based on Configuration

There are four different types of computers when we classify them based on their performance and capacity. The four types are

Super Computers Mainframe Computers Mini Computers Micro Computers

Super Computers
When we talk about types of computers, the first type that comes to our mind would be Super computers. They are the best in terms of processing capacity and also the most expensive ones. These computers can process billions of instructions per second. Normally, they will be used for applications which require intensive numerical computations such as stock analysis, weather forecasting etc. Other uses of supercomputers are scientific simulations, (animated)

graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known super computer manufacturer is Cray Research. Some of the "traditional" companies which produce super computers are Cray, IBM and Hewlett-Packard. As of July 2009, the IBM Roadrunner, located at Los Alamos National Laboratory, is the fastest super computer in the world. If you want to know more advanced details about super computers, refer to SuperComputers

Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers can also process data at very high speeds vi.e., hundreds of million instructions per second and they are also quite expensive. Normally, they are used in banking, airlines and railways etc for their applications.

Mini Computers
Mini computers are lower to mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage capacity. They are also less expensive than mainframe computers. Some of the features of mainframes will not be available in mini computers. Hence, their performance also will be less than that of mainframes.

Micro Computers
The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the much cheaper micro computers. They are further classified into

Features of Computers
By Raleigh Kung, eHow Contributor

Print this article

The different features of a computer determine its performance and value.

Most modern computers come with a slew of technical features and specifications. Features differ from one computer to another and are commonly highlighted by sellers and retailers to promote the computer to customers. Knowing how each feature affects a computer's performance and value will help you make an informed decision.
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1. Processing Power
o

The processing power of a computer is one of its main selling points; it determines the computer's speed and efficiency in handling software. Factors that determine the processing power include the motherboard, processing memory and graphics processing unit. The motherboard is responsible for running all the tasks on the computer. Processing memory space determines how many programs the computer can run at a time. The graphics processing unit is responsible for running all images, video and multimedia on a computer and is a crucial feature for demanding tasks such as video editing and graphics design.

Storage
o

Computer storage includes the hard drive and removable drives. The hard drive is the computer's main file repository. The speed of a hard drive's rotation also determines how fast the computer can access files and is noted by

revolutions per minute, or RPM. Removable drives are secondary forms of storage, including compact discs and memory sticks. Sponsored Links

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Display
o

The display is generally separate with desktops and integrated with laptops. Differences in display include size and resolution; higher-end devices usually have a bigger screen size and greater contrast ratio for high definition displays.

Operating System
o

The operating system is a distinct computer interface. Different operating systems can offer completely different sets of software and program compatibility. For example, the native Internet browser for Windows is Internet Explorer; Safari is the standard for Mac-based computers. Despite having the same basic functionality, each program differs in user interface and task efficiency.

Network Connectivity
o

Most computers have built-in network connectivity, although some require external devices. Computers can connect through a wireless network, through a hard-wired network cable or both.

Power
o

Laptop computers are largely dependent on the battery for power. The battery differs in the number of cell packs; a greater number of cell packs usually means that the laptop can last on the battery alone for a longer period of time. For desktop computers, the power source typically has to be connected to an outlet at all times.

Television

American family watching TV, 1958

Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be monochrome (black-and-white) or colored, with or without accompanying sound. "Television" may also refer specifically to a television set, television programming, or television transmission. The etymology of the word has a mixed Latin and Greek origin, meaning "far sight": Greek tele (), far, and Latin visio, sight (from video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person). Commercially available since the late 1920s, the television set has become commonplace in homes, businesses and institutions, particularly as a vehicle for advertising, a source of entertainment, and news. Since the 1950s, television has been the main medium for molding public opinion.[1] Since the 1970s the availability of video cassettes, laserdiscs, DVDs and now Blu-ray Discs, have resulted in the television set frequently being used for viewing recorded as well as broadcast material. In recent years, Internet television has seen the rise of television available via the Internet, e.g. iPlayer and Hulu. Although other forms such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) are in use, the most common usage of the medium is for broadcast television, which was modeled on the existing radio broadcasting systems developed in the 1920s, and uses high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the television signal to individual TV receivers. The broadcast television system is typically disseminated via radio transmissions on designated channels in the 54890 MHz frequency band.[2] Signals are now often transmitted with stereo or surround sound in many countries. Until the 2000s broadcast TV programs were generally transmitted as an analog television signal, but during the decade several countries went almost exclusively digital. A standard television set comprises multiple internal electronic circuits, including those for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is properly called a video monitor, rather than a television. A television system may use different technical standards such as digital television (DTV) and high-definition television (HDTV). Television systems are also used for surveillance, industrial process control, and guiding of weapons, in places where direct observation is difficult or dangerous. Some studies have found a link between infancy exposure to television and ADHD.[3]

HISTORY

In 1927, Philo Farnsworth made the world's first working television system with electronic scanning of both the pickup and display devices,[17] which he first demonstrated to the press on 1 September 1928.[17][18] WRGB claims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, NY, under the call letters W2XB.[19] It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS, and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll, rotating on a turntable, was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years, as new technology was being tested by the engineers. In 1936 the Olympic Games in Berlin were carried by cable to television stations in Berlin and Leipzig where the public could view the games live.[20]

In 1935 the German firm of Fernseh A.G. and the United States firm Farnsworth Television owned by Philo Farnsworth signed an agreement to exchange their television patents and technology to speed development of television transmitters and stations in their respective countries.[21] On 2 November 1936 the BBC began transmitting the world's first public regular highdefinition service from the Victorian Alexandra Palace in north London.[22] It therefore claims to be the birthplace of television broadcasting as we know it today. In 1936, Klmn Tihanyi described the principle of plasma display, the first flat panel display system.[23][24]

Television set

A modern television set

A television set (also called a television, TV set, TV, or "Telly" (UK) ) is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television. Television sets became a popular consumer product after the Second World War, using vacuum tubes and cathode ray tube displays. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets, and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first generation of home computers. Modern television sets incorporate liquid-crystal flat-screen displays, solid-state circuits, microprocessor controls and can interface with a variety of video signal sources, allowing the user to view broadcast and subscription cable TV signals or Satellite television, recorded material on DVD disks or VHS tape, or less common devices such as home security systems, and even over-the-air broadcasts received through an indoor or outdoor antenna.

History
Main article: History of television

British Murphy black and white 405-line Television receiver 1951.

Braun HF 1, Germany, 1959 Mechanical televisions were commercially sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom,[1] United States, and Soviet Union.[2] The earliest commercially made televisions sold by Baird in the UK in 1928 were radios with the addition of a television device consisting of a neon tube behind a mechanically spinning disk (patented by German engineer Paul Nipkow in 1884, see Nipkow disk) with a spiral of apertures that produced a red postage-stamp size image, enlarged to twice that size by a magnifying glass. The Baird "Televisor" was also available without the radio. The Televisor sold in 19301933 is considered the first massproduced television, selling about a thousand units.[3] The first commercially made electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934,[4][5] followed by other makers in France (1936),[6] Britain (1936),[7] and America (1938).[8][9] The cheapest of the preWorld War II factory-made American sets, a 1938 image-only model with a 3-inch (8 cm) screen, cost US$125, the equivalent of US$1,863 in 2007. The cheapest model with a 12-inch (30 cm) screen was $445 ($6,633).[10] An estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7,0008,000 electronic sets were made in the U.S.[11] before the War Production Board halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945.

Television usage in the United States skyrocketed after World War II with the lifting of the manufacturing freeze, war-related technological advances, the gradual expansion of the television networks westward, the drop in television prices caused by mass production, increased leisure time, and additional disposable income. While only 0.5% of U.S. households had a television in 1946, 55.7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962.[12] In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947, 1.4 million in 1952, and 15.1 million by 1968.[citation needed]

Washing machine

A typical modern front-loading washing machine

A washing machine (laundry machine, washing machine, clothes washer, or washer) is a machine to wash laundry, such as clothing and sheets. The term is mostly applied only to machines that use water as opposed to dry cleaning (which uses alternative cleaning fluids, and is performed by specialist businesses) or ultrasonic cleaners. Washing entails immersing, dipping, rubbing, or scrubbing in water usually accompanied by detergent, or bleach. The simplest machines may simply agitate clothes in water while switched on; automatic machines may fill, empty, wash, spin, and heat in a cycle.

History

The process by hand

Irreler Bauerntradition shows an early Miele washing machine at the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum

Electric wringer/mangle washing machine (1930)

Laundering by hand involves soaking, beating, scrubbing, and rinsing dirty textiles. Before indoor plumbing, the housewife also had to carry all the water used for washing, boiling, and rinsing the laundry; according to an 1886 calculation, women fetched water eight to ten times every day from a pump, well, or spring.[1] Water for the laundry would be hand carried, heated on a fire for washing, then poured into the tub. That made the warm soapy water precious; it would be reused, first to wash the least soiled clothing, then to wash progressively dirtier laundry. Removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was originally a separate process. First soap would be rinsed out with clear water. After rinsing, the soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. The entire process often occupied an entire day of hard work, plus drying and ironing.
Washing by machine

Clothes washer technology developed as a way to reduce the manual labor spent, providing an open basin or sealed container with paddles or fingers to automatically agitate the

clothing. The earliest machines were hand-operated and constructed from wood, while later machines made of metal permitted a fire to burn below the washtub, keeping the water warm throughout the day's washing. The earliest special-purpose washing device was the scrub board, invented in 1797.[2] By the mid-1850s, steam-driven commercial laundry machinery was on sale in the UK and US.[3] Technological advances in machinery for commercial and institutional washers proceeded faster than domestic washer design for several decades, especially in the UK. In the US there was more emphasis on developing machines for washing at home, though machines for commercial laundry services were widely used in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[4] The rotary washing machine was patented by Hamilton Smith in 1858.[2] As electricity was not commonly available until at least 1930, some early washing machines were operated by a low-speed single-cylinder hit and miss gasoline engine.
Modern washers

A see-through Bosch machine at the IFA 2010 in Berlin shows off its internal components

In the early 1990s, upmarket machines incorporated microcontrollers for the timing process. These proved reliable and cost-effective, so many cheaper machines now incorporate microcontrollers rather than electromechanical timers. Miele, from West Germany, was a top of the line front-load washer, and was introduced in Kananaskis, Alberta by Glenn Isbister, starting a revolution in laundry in Canada.[when?] In 1994, Staber Industries released the System 2000 washing machine, which is the only toploading, horizontal-axis washer to be manufactured in the United States. The hexagonal tub spins like a front-loading machine, only using about third of the water as conventional toploaders. This factor has led to an Energy Star rating for its high efficiency.

In 1998, New Zealand based company Fisher & Paykel introduced its SmartDrive washing machine line in the US. This washing machine uses a computer-controlled system to determine certain factors such as load size and automatically adjusts the wash cycle to match. It also used a mixed system of washing, first with the "Eco-Active" wash, using a low level of recirculated water being sprayed on the load followed by a more traditional style wash. Other variations include the Intuitive Eco, which can sense the water level and type of fabric in the wash load, and the agitatorless AquaSmart line. The SmartDrive also included direct drive brushless DC electric motor, which simplified the bowl and agitator drive by doing away with the need for a gearbox system. In 2001, Whirlpool Corporation introduced the Calypso, the first vertical-axis high efficiency washing machine to be top-loading. A washplate in the bottom of the tub nutated (a special wobbling motion) to bounce, shake, and toss the laundry around. Simultaneously, water containing detergent was sprayed on to the laundry. The machine proved to be good at cleaning, but gained a bad reputation due to frequent breakdowns and destruction of laundry. The washer was recalled with a class-action lawsuit[citation needed]] and pulled off the market. In 2003, Maytag introduced their top-loading Neptune washer. Instead of an agitator, the machine had two washplates, perpendicular to each other and at a 45 degree angle from the bottom of the tub. The machine would fill with only a small amount of water and the two washplates would tumble the load within it, mimicking the action of a front-loading washer in a vertical axis design.[further explanation needed] In the early first decade of the 21st century,[when?] the British inventor James Dyson launched the ContraRotator, a type of washing machine with two cylinders rotating in opposite directions. It was claimed that this design reduces the wash time and produces cleaner results. However, this machine is no longer in production as it was too expensive to manufacture.[20] In 2007, Sanyo introduced the first drum type washing machine with "Air Wash" function.[21] This washing machine uses only 50 liters of water in the recycle mode. In 2008, the University of Leeds created a concept washing machine that uses only a cup (less than 300ml) of water and 44 pounds (20 kg) of re-usable plastic chips to carry out a full wash.[22] The machine leaves clothes virtually dry, and uses less than 2 per cent of the water and energy otherwise used by a conventional machine. As such, it could save billions of liters of water each year. The concept is being developed as the Xeros Washing Machine. Features available in most modern consumer washing machines:

Predefined programs for different laundry types Variable temperatures, including cold wash Rotation speed settings Delayed execution: a timer to delay the start of the laundry cycle

Additionally some of the modern machines feature:

Child lock Time remaining indication

Steam

Future functionalities will include energy consumption prognosis before starting the program, and electricity tariff induced delayed start of the machines.[23] Integration into home local (wireless) networks will allow to monitor energy demand via different clients like computers or smart phones.

Various Types of Washing Machines in India

In this modern era, you can find washing machines in all families in their day to day life. Washing machine also provides you that "ease and convenience" for overcoming the burden of washing clothes that keep accumulating every day!

You can find several automatic and semi-automatic products offered in Indian market. You would need to choose the right one that would suit the size of your family and the type of machine and price that you have on your mind. Indian market deals with those few types of washing machines such as Top Loading, Top loading with high efficiency, Front loading type etc. For those who already own washing machines, you can make use of washing machine service centers. However, there are pros and cons for each.

Types of Washing Machines 1. Regular Top Loading Washing Machines Regular top loading washing machines are traditional types of washing machines. If you fill the tubs with water an agitator spins the clothes from the top to the bottom and back again. This wave permits the cleanser and water to reach every piece of the clothes and takes away the dirt. Top loading washing machine is the best choice if you dont want to give much strain to your body while washing. You have separate tubs or vessels for the washing and the drying in some of its types. High Efficiency Top- loading washing machine is advanced type of Regular top- loaders. It is further divided into 2 types:

Semi-Automatic Washing Machine

An innovative and seamless choice for Indian women is semi-automatic Washing machines. You have separate tubs or vessels for both washing and drying. You can get these washing machines in a very low cost around Rs. 6000 for 6 kg wash loads. You can even get a single washer tub for washing without drier for around Rs.4500. There are many Brands available nowadays .Some Semi- automatic brands of washing machine are Whirlpool, Onida, Godrej, Kelvinator and Samsung etc.

Fully Automatic Washing Machine

You can find single tub in a fully automatic washing machine that works as washer, rinser as well as the drier. You just have to connect the water flow adding detergent. Later soak your clothes and now a fully automatic washing machine will do the rest automatically. It has a top wash Method. The washing method in these machines include Prewash (Soak), hot water wash, heavy wash, normal wash and quick wash. It has automatic wash control feature too. You can get a fully automatic washing machine for around Rs. 12000 with some of these features. Some brands of fully automatic top-loading washing machines are IFB, Godrej, Whirlpool, Samsung and Videocon etc.

2. Front Loading Washing Machines These are fully automatic machines and the clothes are loaded from the front side. It consumes less electric energy, water and detergent and will give you good washing results. It has fast spinner which extracts wetness from wet masses, so that you can reduce your drying time. Its large capacity which allows you to wash many bulky fabrics at a time, without giving up the effective cleaning. It has certain features such as

Child lock Hot water wash Wash load (amount of clothes that the washing machine can handle) sensor etc.

Washing machine is available in plastic or steel tubs. The starting price range for front wash loaders are around Rs.14000. IFB is the first company to produce front loading type of washing machine in India. There are many companies that produce washing machine such as LG, Whirlpool, and Samsung etc.

You can buy a washing machine for as low as Rs 3,390 and as high as Rs 80,000. The wide range of semi-automatic and fully automatic - top as well as front-loading machines are available. You can even see some washing machine buying guides to get an idea of washing machine dealers in and around your city.