Aero Dynamic Wind Mill Reverse Charge Protection

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection
AERO DYNAMIC WIND MIL WITH REVERSE CHARGE PROTECTION

1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Power Supply Unit Aero dynamic wind blade arrangemen t
Contras t
16X2 LCD
Geared DC motor
AT89S52
AC ripple neutralizer
Unidirectio nal Current Controller
Voltage Sampler
ADC
Rechargea ble Battery
Inverter
ON/ OFF control switch
Fig: 1.1 Block Diagram

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AC 230V Load
2. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task is the embedded system and is even defined as combination of both software and hardware. A generalpurpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system. At the other extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation of a large complex processing plant, and its presence will be obvious. All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these computers are however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer. The very simplest embedded systems are capable of performing only a single function or set of functions to meet a single predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an application program that enables the embedded system to be used for a particular purpose in a specific application determines the functioning of the embedded system. The ability to have programs means that the same embedded system can be used for a variety of different purposes. In some cases a microprocessor may be designed in such a way that application software for a particular purpose can be added to the basic software in a second process, after which it is not possible to make further changes. The applications software on such processors is sometimes referred to as firmware.
The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip), which may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation of a machine or, by operating a valve, may control the flow of fuel to an engine. As the embedded system is the combination of both software and hardware
Embedded System
Software
Hardware
ALP C VB Etc.,
Processor Peripherals memory
Figure: 2 Block diagram of Embedded System Software deals with the languages like ALP, C, and VB etc., and Hardware deals with Processors, Peripherals, and Memory.
Memory: It is used to store data or address. Peripherals: These are the external devices connected Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task Applications of embedded systems
Manufacturing and process control
Construction industry Transport Buildings and premises Domestic service Communications Office systems and mobile equipment
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Banking, finance and commercial Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems
Processors are classified into four types like:

Micro Processor (p) Micro controller (c) Digital Signal Processor (DSP) Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)
Micro Processor (p):

A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute. Bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction. Clock speed : Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute. In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz. In addition to bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are classified as being either RISC (reduced instruction set computer) or CISC (complex instruction set computer). A microprocessor has three basic elements, as shown above. The ALU performs all arithmetic computations, such as addition, subtraction and logic operations (AND, OR, etc). It is controlled by the Control Unit and receives its data from the Register Array. The Register Array is a set of registers used for storing data. These registers can be accessed by the ALU very quickly. Some registers have specific functions - we will deal with these later. The Control Unit controls the entire process. It provides the timing and a control signal for getting data into and out of the
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registers and the ALU and it synchronizes the execution of instructions (we will deal with instruction execution at a later date).
Micro Controller (c):

A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.
ALU CU
Timer, Counter, y serial communication ROM, ADC, DAC, Timers, USART, Oscillators
Memor
Figure: 2 Block Diagram Etc., of Micro Controller (c)
Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

Digital Signal Processors is one which performs scientific and mathematical operation. Digital Signal Processor chips - specialized microprocessors with architectures designed specifically for the types of operations required in digital signal processing. Like a general-purpose microprocessor, a DSP is a programmable device, with its own native instruction code. DSP chips are capable of carrying out millions of floating point operations per second, and like their betterknown general-purpose cousins, faster and more powerful versions are continually being introduced. DSPs can also be embedded within complex "system-on-chip" devices, often containing both analog and digital circuitry.
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Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):

ASIC is a combination of digital and analog circuits packed into an IC to achieve the desired control/computation function
ASIC typically contains

CPU cores for computation and control Peripherals to control timing critical functions Memories to store data and program Analog circuits to provide clocks and interface to the real world which is analog in nature I/Os to connect to external components like LEDs, memories, monitors etc.
Computer Instruction Set

There are two different types of computer instruction set there are: 1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) and 2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set computer)
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

A RISC (reduced instruction set computer) is a microprocessor that is designed to perform a smaller number of types of computer instruction so that it can operate at a higher speed (perform more million instructions per second, or millions of instructions per second). Since each instruction type that a computer must perform requires additional transistors and circuitry, a larger list or set of computer instructions tends to make the microprocessor more complicated and slower in operation. Besides performance improvement, some advantages of RISC and related design improvements are: A new microprocessor can be developed and tested more quickly if one of its aims is to be less complicated. Operating system and application programmers who use the microprocessor's instructions will find it easier to develop code with a smaller instruction set. The simplicity of RISC allows more freedom to choose how to use the space on a microprocessor.
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Higher-level language compilers produce more efficient code than formerly because they have always tended to use the smaller set of instructions to be found in a RISC computer.
RISC characteristics:
Simple instruction set:
In a RISC machine, the instruction set contains simple, basic instructions, from which more complex instructions can be composed.
Same length instructions.

Each instruction is the same length, so that it may be fetched in a single operation.
1 machine-cycle instructions.
Most instructions complete in one machine cycle, which allows the processor to handle several instructions at the same time. This pipelining is a key technique used to speed up RISC machines.
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

CISC, which stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer, is a philosophy for designing chips that are easy to program and which make efficient use of memory. Each instruction in a CISC instruction set might perform a series of operations inside the processor. This reduces the number of instructions required to implement a given program, and allows the programmer to learn a small but flexible set of instructions.
The advantages of CISC

At the time of their initial development, CISC machines used available technologies to optimize computer performance. Microprogramming is as easy as assembly language to implement, and much less expensive than hardwiring a control unit. The ease of micro-coding new instructions allowed designers to make CISC machines upwardly compatible: a new computer could run the same programs as earlier computers because the new computer would contain a superset of the instructions of the earlier computers.
As each instruction became more capable, fewer instructions could be used to implement a given task. This made more efficient use of the relatively slow main memory. Because micro program instruction sets can be written to match the constructs of high-level languages, the compiler does not have to be as complicated.
The disadvantages of CISC:

Still, designers soon realized that the CISC philosophy had its own problems, including: Earlier generations of a processor family generally were contained as a subset in every new version --- so instruction set & chip hardware become more complex with each generation of computers. So that as many instructions as possible could be stored in memory with the least possible wasted space, individual instructions could be of almost any length---this means that different instructions will take different amounts of clock time to execute, slowing down the overall performance of the machine. Many specialized instructions aren't used frequently enough to justify their existence --approximately 20% of the available instructions are used in a typical program. CISC instructions typically set the condition codes as a side effect of the instruction. Not only does setting the condition codes take time, but programmers have to remember to examine the condition code bits before a subsequent instruction changes them.
Memory Architecture
There two different types memory architectures there are: Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture
Harvard Architecture
Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and data. There are two or more internal data buses, which allow simultaneous access to both instructions and data. The CPU fetches program instructions on the program memory bus. The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage and signal pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the Harvard Mark I relay-based computer, which stored instructions on punched tape (24 bits wide) and data in electro-mechanical counters. These early machines had limited data storage, entirely contained within the central processing unit, and provided no access to the instruction storage as data. Programs needed to be loaded by an operator, the processor could not boot itself.
Figure: 2 Harvard Architecture
Modern uses of the Harvard architecture

The principal advantage of the pure Harvard architecture - simultaneous access to more than one memory system - has been reduced by modified Harvard processors using modern CPU cache systems. Relatively pure Harvard architecture machines are used mostly in applications where tradeoffs, such as the cost and power savings from omitting caches, outweigh the programming penalties from having distinct code and data address spaces. Digital signal processors (DSPs) generally execute small, highly-optimized audio or video processing algorithms. They avoid caches because their behavior must be extremely reproducible. The difficulties of coping with multiple address spaces are of secondary concern to speed of execution. As a result, some DSPs have multiple data memories in distinct address spaces to
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facilitate SIMD and VLIW processing. Texas Instruments TMS320 C55x processors, as one example, have multiple parallel data busses (two write, three read) and one instruction bus. Microcontrollers are characterized by having small amounts of program (flash memory) and data (SRAM) memory, with no cache, and take advantage of the Harvard architecture to speed processing by concurrent instruction and data access. The separate storage means the program and data memories can have different bit depths, for example using 16-bit wide instructions and 8-bit wide data. They also mean that instruction pre-fetch can be performed in parallel with other activities. Examples include, the AVR by Atmel Corp, the PIC by Microchip Technology, Inc. and the ARM Cortex-M3 processor (not all ARM chips have Harvard architecture).
Von-Neumann Architecture
A computer has a single, common memory space in which both program instructions and data are stored. There is a single internal data bus that fetches both instructions and data. They cannot be performed at the same time The Von Neumann architecture is a design model for a stored-program digital computer that uses a central processing unit (CPU) and a single separate storage structure ("memory") to hold both instructions and data. It is named after the mathematician and early computer scientist John von Neumann. Such computers implement a universal Turing machine and have a sequential architecture. A stored-program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed instructions, as well as its data, in read-write, random-access memory (RAM). Stored-program computers were advancement over the program-controlled computers of the 1940s, such as the Colossus and the ENIAC, which were programmed by setting switches and inserting patch leads to route data and to control signals between various functional units. In the vast majority of modern computers, the same memory is used for both data and program instructions. The mechanisms for transferring the data and instructions between the CPU and memory are, however, considerably more complex than the original von Neumann architecture. The terms "von Neumann architecture" and "stored-program computer" are generally used interchangeably, and that usage is followed in this article.
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Figure: 2 Schematic of the Von-Neumann Architecture.
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Basic Difference between Harvard and Von-Neumann Architecture

The primary difference between Harvard architecture and the Von Neumann architecture is in the Von Neumann architecture data and programs are stored in the same memory and managed by the same information handling system. Whereas the Harvard architecture stores data and programs in separate memory devices and they are handled by different subsystems. In a computer using the Von-Neumann architecture without cache; the central processing unit (CPU) can either be reading and instruction or writing/reading data to/from the memory. Both of these operations cannot occur simultaneously as the data and instructions use the same system bus. In a computer using the Harvard architecture the CPU can both read an instruction and access data memory at the same time without cache. This means that a computer with Harvard architecture can potentially be faster for a given circuit complexity because data access and instruction fetches do not contend for use of a single memory pathway. Today, the vast majority of computers are designed and built using the Von Neumann architecture template primarily because of the dynamic capabilities and efficiencies gained in designing, implementing, operating one memory system as opposed to two. Von Neumann architecture may be somewhat slower than the contrasting Harvard Architecture for certain specific tasks, but it is much more flexible and allows for many concepts unavailable to Harvard architecture such as self programming, word processing and so on. Harvard architectures are typically only used in either specialized systems or for very specific uses. It is used in specialized digital signal processing (DSP), typically for video and audio processing products. It is also used in many small microcontrollers used in electronics applications such as Advanced RISK Machine (ARM) based products for many vendors.
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3. BLOCK DESCRIPTION
3.1 POWER SUPPLY:
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e., 230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage.
230V AC 50Hz
D.C Output
Step down transformer
Bridge Rectifier
FILTER
Regulator
Fig 3.1: Power supply
Transformer:
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Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a required level.
Fig 3.1: Transformer
Rectifier:
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.
Fig 3.1: Rectifier The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
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For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
Fig: 3.1 Bridge rectifier
Filter:
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is
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maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
Fig: 3.1 Capacitor Filter
Voltage regulator:
As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers 05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels. The L78xx series of three-terminal positive regulators is available in TO-220, TO-220FP, TO-3, D2PAK and DPAK packages and several fixed output voltages, making it useful in a wide range of applications. These regulators can provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point regulation. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1 A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents.
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Fig: 3.1 voltage regulator
3.2 AERO DYNAMIC WIND BLADE

Wind turbine blades are shaped to generate the maximum power from the wind at the minimum cost. Primarily the design is driven by the aerodynamic requirements, but economics mean that the blade shape is a compromise to keep the cost of construction reasonable. In particular, the blade tends to be thicker than the aerodynamic optimum close to the root, where the stresses due to bending are greatest. The blade design process starts with a best guess compromise between aerodynamic and structural efficiency. The choice of materials and manufacturing process will also have an influence on how thin (hence aerodynamically ideal) the blade can be built. For instance, prepreg carbon fibre is stiffer and stronger than infused glass fibre. The chosen aerodynamic shape gives rise to loads, which are fed into the structural design. Problems identified at this stage can then be used to modify the shape if necessary and recalculate the aerodynamic performance.
Fig: 3.2 Aero Wind Blade
The Wind:
It might seem obvious, but an understanding of the wind is fundamental to wind turbine design. The power available from the wind varies as the cube of the wind speed, so twice the wind speed means eight times the power. This is why sites have to be selected carefully: below about 5m/s (0mph) wind speed there is not sufficient power in the wind to be useful. Conversely, strong gusts provide extremely high levels of power, but it is not economically viable to build machines to be able to make the most of the power peaks as their capacity would be wasted most of
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the time. So the ideal is a site with steady winds and a machine that is able to make the most of the lighter winds whilst surviving the strongest gusts. As well as varying day-to-day, the wind varies every second due to turbulence caused by land features, thermals and weather. It also blows more strongly higher above the ground than closer to it, due to surface friction. All these effects lead to varying loads on the blades of a turbine as they rotate, and mean that the aerodynamic and structural design needs to cope with conditions that are rarely optimal. By extracting power, the turbine itself has an effect on the wind: downwind of the turbine the air moves more slowly than upwind. The wind starts to slow down even before it reaches the blades, reducing the wind speed through the disc (the imaginary circle formed by the blade tips, also called the swept area) and hence reducing the available power. Some of the wind that was heading for the disc diverts around the slower-moving air and misses the blades entirely. So there is an optimum amount of power to extract from a given disc diameter: try to take too much and the wind will slow down too much, reducing the available power. In fact the ideal is to reduce the wind speed by about two thirds downwind of the turbine, though even then the wind just before the turbine will have lost about a third of its speed. This allows a theoretical maximum of 59% of the winds power to be captured (this is called Betzs limit). In practice only 40-50% is achieved by current designs.
Number of blades:
The limitation on the available power in the wind means that the more blades there are the less power each can extract. A consequence of this is that each blade must also be narrower to maintain aerodynamic efficiency. The total blade area as a fraction of the total swept disc area is called the solidity, and aerodynamically there is an optimum solidity for a given tip speed; the higher the number of blades, the narrower each one must be. In practice the optimum solidity is low (only a few percent) which means that even with only three blades, each one must be very narrow. To slip through the air easily the blades must be thin relative to their width, so the limited solidity also limits the thickness of the blades. Furthermore, it becomes difficult to build the blades strong enough if they are too thin or the cost per blade increases significantly as more expensive materials are required. For this reason, most large machines do not have more than three blades. The other
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factor influencing the number of blades is aesthetics: it is generally accepted that three-bladed turbines are less visually disturbing than one- or two-bladed designs.
How blades capture wind power:

Just like an aeroplane wing, wind turbine blades work by generating lift due to their shape. The more curved side generates low air pressures while high pressure air pushes on the other side of the aerofoil. The net result is a lift force perpendicular to the direction of flow of the air. The lift force increases as the blade is turned to present itself at a greater angle to the wind. This is called the angle of attack. At very large angles of attack the blade stalls and the lift decreases again. So there is an optimum angle of attack to generate the maximum l if .Lift & drag vectors. There is, unfortunately, also a retarding force on the blade: the drag. This is the force parallel to the wind flow, and also increases with angle of attack. If the aerofoil shape is good, the lift force is much bigger than the drag, but at very high angles of attack, especially when the blade stalls, the drag increases dramatically. So at an angle slightly less than the maximum lift angle, the blade reaches its maximum lift/drag ratio. The best operating point will be between these two angles. Since the drag is in the downwind direction, it may seem that it wouldnt matter for a wind turbine as the drag would be parallel to the turbine axis, so wouldnt slow the rotor down. It would just create thrust, the force that acts parallel to the turbine axis hence has no tendency to speed up or slow down the rotor. When the rotor is stationary (e.g. just before start-up), this is indeed the case. However the blades own movement through the air means that, as far as the blade is concerned, the wind is blowing from a different angle. This is called apparent wind. The apparent wind is stronger than the true wind but its angle is less it rotates the angles of the lift and drag to reduce the effect of lift force pulling the blade round and increase the effect of drag slowing it down. It also means that the lift force contributes to the thrust on the rotor. The result of this is that, to maintain a good angle of attack, the blade must be turned further from the true wind angle.
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Fig: 3.2 Angle of attack of wind
Fig: 3.2 angle of wind blow
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Fig: 3.2 contact of wind on wind mill
Apparent wind angles

The closer to the tip of the blade you get, the faster the blade is moving through the air and so the greater the apparent wind angle is. Thus the blade needs to be turned further at the tips than at the root, in other words it must be built with a twist along its length. Typically the twist is around 0-20 from root to tip. The requirement to twist the blade has implications on the ease of manufacture.
Blade section shape

Apart from the twist, wind turbine blades have similar requirements to aeroplane wings, so their cross-sections are usually based on a similar family of shapes. In general the best lift/drag characteristics are obtained by an aerofoil that is fairly thin: its thickness might be only 0-5% of its chord length (the length across the blade, in the direction of the wind flow).
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Blade twist:
If there were no structural requirements, this is how a wind turbine blade would be proportioned, but of course the blade needs to support the lift, drag and gravitational forces acting on it. These structural requirements generally mean the aerofoil needs to be thicker than the aerodynamic optimum, especially at locations towards the root (where the blade attaches to the hub) where the bending forces are greatest. Fortunately that is also where the apparent wind is moving more slowly and the blade has the least leverage over the hub, so some aerodynamic inefficiency at that point is less serious than it would be closer to the tip. Having said this, the section cant get too thick for its chord length or the air flow will separate from the back of the blade similar to what happens when it stalls and the drag will increase dramatically.
Fig: 3.2 Blade Twist on Wind Mill To increase thickness near the root without creating a very short, fat, aerofoil section, some designs use a flat back section. This is either a standard section thickened up to a square trailing (back) edge, or a longer aerofoil shape that has been truncated. This reduces the drag compared to a rounder section, but can generate more noise so its suitability depends on the wind farm site. There is a trade-off to be made between aerodynamic efficiency and structural efficiency even if a thin blade can be made strong and stiff enough by using lots of reinforcement inside, it might still be better to make the blade a bit thicker (hence less aerodynamically efficient) if it saves so much cost of material that the overall cost of electricity is reduced. The wind is free after all; its
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only the machine that we have to pay for. So there is inevitably some iteration in the design process to find the optimum thickness for the blade.
Blade platform shape:

The platform shape is chosen to give the blade an approximately constant slowing effect on the wind over the whole rotor disc (i.e. the tip slows the wind to the same degree as the centre or root of the blade). This ensures that none of the air leaves the turbine too slowly (causing turbulence), yet none is allowed to pass through too fast (which would represent wasted energy). Remembering Betzs limit discussed above, this results in the maximum power extraction. Because the tip of the blade is moving faster than the root, it passes through more volume of air, hence must generate a greater lift force to slow that air down enough. Fortunately, lift increases with the square of speed so its greater speed more than allows for that. In reality the blade can be narrower close to the tip than near the root and still generate enough lift. The optimum tapering of the blade platforms as it goes outboard can be calculated; roughly speaking the chord should be inverse to the radius. So if the chord was 2m at 10m radius, it should be 10m at 1m radius. This relationship breaks down close to the root and tip, where the optimum shape changes to account for tip losses. In reality a fairly linear taper is sufficiently close to the optimum for most designs, structurally superior and easier to build than the optimum shape.
Fig: 3.2 Plane Shape of Blade
Rotational speed:
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The speed at which the turbine rotates is a fundamental choice in the design, and is defined in terms of the speed of the blade tips relative to the free wind speed (i.e. Before the wind is slowed down by the turbine). This is called the tip speed ratio. High tip speed ratio means the aerodynamic force on the blades (due to lift and drag) is almost parallel to the rotor axis, so relies on a good lift/drag ratio. The lift/drag ratio can be affected severely by dirt or roughness on the blades. Low tip speed ratio would seem like a better choice but unfortunately results in lower aerodynamic efficiency, due to two effects. Because the lift force on the blades generates torque, it has an equal but opposite effect on the wind, tending to push it around tangentially in the other direction. The result is that the air downwind of the turbine has swirl, i.e. it spins in the opposite direction to the blades. That swirl represents lost power so reduces the available power that can be extracted from the wind. Lower rotational speed requires higher torque for the same power output, so lower tip speed results in higher wake swirl losses.
Fig: 3.2 Rotational Speed The other reduction in efficiency at low tip speed ratio comes from tip losses, where highpressure air from the upwind side of the blade escapes around the blade tip to the low pressure side, thereby wasting energy. Since power = force x speed, at slower rotational speed the blades need to generate more lift force to achieve the same power. To generate more lift for a given length the
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blade has to be wider, which means that, geometrically speaking, a greater proportion of the blades length can be considered to be close to the tip. Thus more of the air contributes to tip losses and the efficiency decreases. Various techniques can be used to limit tip losses such as winglets (commonly seen on airliners) but few are employed in practice owing to their additional cost. The higher lift force on a wider blade also translates to higher loads on the other components such as the hub and bearings, so low tip speed ratio will increase the cost of these items. On the other hand the wide blade is better able to carry the lift force (as discussed previously), so the blade itself may be cheaper. All this means that turbine designers typically compromise on tip speed ratios in the region of -0, so at design wind speed (usually 2-5 meters per second) the blade tip can be moving at around 20 m/s (approximately 20 miles per hour). There are practical limits on the absolute tip speed too: at these speeds, bird impacts and rain erosion start to become a problem for the longevity of the blades and noise increases dramatically with tip speed.
Power and pitch control

For an economical design, the maximum performance of the generator and gearbox need to be limited to an appropriate level for the turbines operating environment. The ideal situation is for the turbine to be able to extract as much power as possible from the wind up to the rated power of the generator, then limit the power extraction at that level as the wind increases further. Turbine Power Curve WE Handbook- 2- Aerodynamics and Loads 9 If the blades angle is kept constant, the turbine is unable to respond to changes in wind speed. Not only does this make it impossible to maintain an optimum angle of attack to generate the maximum power at varying wind speeds, the only way to depower the machine in high wind speeds is by relying on the blades to stall (known as passive stall control). This doesnt give the perfectly flat power curve above the rated wind speed shown in the graph above, so to limit the maximum power, a passive stall-controlled turbine will usually be operating somewhat below its maximum potential. If instead the blades are attached via a bearing that allows the angle of attack to be varied (active pitch control), the blades can be angled to maintain optimum efficiency right up to the design wind speed (at which the generator is producing itsratedoutput). Above that wind speed they can be feathered, i.e. rotated in pitch to decrease their angle of attack and hence their lift, so controlling the power. In survival conditions, the turbine can be stopped altogether and the blades feathered to produce no turning force at all.
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An alternative to decreasing the angle of attack above the design wind speed is deliberately to increase it to the point where the blade stalls (active stall control). This decreases lift and increases drag, so has the desired slowing effect on blade rotation. It is also less sensitive to gusts of wind than feathering: by decreasing the apparent wind angle, gusts increase the angle of attack so tend to make the blade stall more. Therefore controlling blade speed by stall rather than feathering can be beneficial in gusty conditions. Both methods are used by different designs.
3.3 DC MOTOR:
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A currentcarrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
Fig: 3.3 DC Motor Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).
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Fig:3.3 Simple 2-pole dc electric motor Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that Beamers will see), the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets 1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets. The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotatin
Fig: 3.3 rotation of rotor in dc motor In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how
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with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets); it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor). So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript required): You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring:
Fig: 3.3 Placing of Commutator in DC Motor The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite common, and has a number of advantages. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also conducts heat away from the rotor
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windings, allowing the motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other construction types. But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also results in high winding inductances which limit brush and commutator life. In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a 'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of comparable size, extending brush and commutator life/
Fig: 3.3 courtesy of Micromole The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors; meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are somewhat prone to overheating. As a result, this design is generally used just in small, low-power motors. Beamers will most often see coreless DC motors in the form of pager motors.
3.4 RIPPLE NUTRALIZER:

The most common meaning of ripple in electrical science, is the small unwanted residual periodic variation of the direct current (dc) output of a power supply which has been
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derived from an alternating current (ac) source. This ripple is due to incomplete suppression of the alternating waveform within the power supply. As well as this time-varying phenomenon, there is a frequency domain ripple that arises in some classes of filter and other signal processing networks. In this case the periodic variation is a variation in the insertion loss of the network against increasing frequency. The variation may not be strictly linearly periodic. In this meaning also, ripple is usually to be considered an unwanted effect, its existence being a compromise between the amount of ripple and other design parameters.
TIME DOMINE RIPPLE:

Full-wave rectifier circuit with a reservoir capacitor on the output for the purpose of smoothing ripple Ripple factor () may be defined as the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of the ripple voltage to the absolute value of the dc component of the output voltage, usually expressed as a percentage. However, ripple voltage is also commonly expressed as the peak-to-peak value. This is largely because peak-to-peak is both easier to measure on an oscilloscope and is simpler to calculate theoretically. Filter circuits intended for the reduction of ripple are usually called smoothing circuits.
Fig: 3.4 Time domine ripple The simplest scenario in ac to dc conversion is a rectifier without any smoothing circuitry at all. The ripple voltage is very large in this situation; the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is equal to the peak ac voltage. A more common arrangement is to allow the rectifier to work into a large smoothing capacitor which acts as a reservoir. After a peak in output voltage the capacitor (C) supplies the current to the load (R) and continues to do so until the capacitor voltage has fallen to the value of the now rising next half-cycle of rectified voltage. At that point the rectifiers turn on
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again and deliver current to the reservoir until peak voltage is again reached. If the time constant, CR, is large in comparison to the period of the ac waveform, then a reasonable accurate approximation can be made by assuming that the capacitor voltage falls linearly. A further useful assumption can be made if the ripple is small compared to the dc voltage. In this case the phase angle through which the rectifiers conduct will be small and it can be assumed that the capacitor is discharging all the way from one peak to the next with little loss of accuracy
Fig: 3.4 Ripple wave form Ripple voltage from a full-wave rectifier, before and after the application of a smoothing capacitor With the above assumptions the peak-to-peak ripple voltage can be calculated as: For a full-wave rectifier:
For a half-wave rectification:
Where

App. is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage I is the current in the circuit f is the frequency of the ac power
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C is the capacitance
For the rms value of the ripple voltage, the calculation is more involved as the shape of the ripple waveform has a bearing on the result. Assuming a saw tooth waveform is a similar assumption to the ones above and yields the result:
Where

is the ripple factor R is the resistance of the load
Another approach to reducing ripple is to use a series choke. A choke has a filtering action and consequently produces a smoother waveform with less high-order harmonics. Against this, the dc output is close to the average input voltage as opposed to the higher voltage with the reservoir capacitor which is close to the peak input voltage. With suitable approximations, the ripple factor is given by:
Where

is the angular frequency 2f L is the inductance of the choke
More complex arrangements are possible; the filter can be an LC ladder rather than a simple choke or the filter and the reservoir capacitor can both be used to gain the benefits of both. The most commonly seen of these is a low-pass -filter consisting of a reservoir capacitor followed by a series choke followed by a further shunt capacitor. However, use of chokes is deprecated in contemporary designs for economic reasons. A more common solution where good ripple rejection is required is to use a reservoir capacitor to reduce the ripple to something manageable and then pass through a voltage regulator circuit. The regulator circuit, as well as regulating the output, will
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incidentally filter out nearly all of the ripple as long as the minimum level of the ripple waveform does not go below the voltage being regulated to. The majority of power supplies are now switched mode. The filtering requirements for such power supplies are much easier to meet due to the frequency of the ripple waveform being very high. In traditional power supply designs the ripple frequency is either equal to (half-wave), or twice (full-wave) the ac line frequency. With switched mode power supplies the ripple frequency is not related to the line frequency, but is instead related to the frequency of the chopper circuit. The ripple frequency and its harmonics are within the audio band and will therefore be audible on equipment such as radio receivers, equipment for playing recordings and professional studio equipment. The ripple frequency is within television video bandwidth. Analogue TV receivers will exhibit a pattern of moving wavy lines if too much ripple is present. The presence of ripple can reduce the resolution of electronic test and measurement instruments. On an oscilloscope it will manifest itself as a visible pattern on screen. Within digital circuits, it reduces the threshold, as does any form of supply rail noise, at which logic circuits give incorrect outputs and data is corrupted. High amplitude ripple currents reduce the life of electrolytic capacitors.
Fig:3.4 Ripple on a fifth order prototype Chebyshev filter Ripple in the context of the frequency domain is referring to the periodic variation in insertion loss with frequency of a filter or some other two-port network. Not all filters exhibit ripple, some have monotonically increasing insertion loss with frequency such as the Butterworth
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filter. Common classes of filter which exhibit ripple are the Chebyshev filter, inverse Chebyshev filter and the Elliptical filter. The ripple is not usually strictly linearly periodic as can be seen from the example plot. Other examples of networks exhibiting ripple are impedance matching networks that have been designed using Chebyshev polynomials. The ripple of these networks, unlike regular filters, will never reach 0dB at minimum loss if designed for optimum transmission across the pass band as a whole. The amount of ripple can be traded for other parameters in the filter design. For instance, the rate of roll-off from the pass band to the stop band can be increased at the expense of increasing the ripple without increasing the order of the filter (that is, the number of components has stayed the same). On the other hand, the ripple can be reduced by increasing the order of the filter while at the same time maintaining the same rate of roll-off.
3.5 RECHARGEBLE BATTERIES

A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from a button cell to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different polymer). combinations of chemicals are commonly used, including: lead-acid, nickel cadmium(NiCad), nickel metal hydride (Nigh), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion
Fig: 3.5 Rechargeable Batteries

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Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than disposable batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as disposable types. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost, but can be recharged very cheaply and used many times. Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, and uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and increase lifetime. Normally, new rechargeable batteries have to be charged before use; newer low self-discharge batteries hold their charge for many months, and are supplied charged to about 70% of their rated capacity. Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they store electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable uses, such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging batteries during periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid during periods of high electrical demand, load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost of generators over more hours of operation. The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S. demand for rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for non -rechargeable.
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead-acid cells.
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Fig: 3.5 charging of a secondary cell battery.
Fig: 3.5 Battery charger
Fig: 3.5 A solar-powered charger for rechargeable batteries The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains electricity. Chargers take from a few minutes (rapid chargers) to several hours to charge a battery. Most batteries are capable of being charged far faster than simple battery chargers are capable of; there are chargers that can charge consumer sizes of NiMH batteries in 15 minutes. Fast charges must have multiple ways of detecting full charge (voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before onset of harmful overcharging. Rechargeable multi-cell batteries are susceptible to cell damage due to reverse charging if they are fully discharged. Fully integrated battery chargers that optimize the charging current are available. Attempting to recharge non-rechargeable batteries with unsuitable equipment may cause battery explosion Flow batteries, used for specialised applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid. Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC; this is volts per cell, and refers to the individual secondary cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.
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Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc-carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage gradually drops with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA batteries rate their cells at 1.2 V, and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries up to an end-point of 0.9 to 1.2V
Reverse charging:
Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge it further, rather than charge it, is called reverse charging; this damages cells. Reverse charging can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most common being:

When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way round. When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.
When one cell completely discharges ahead of the rest, the live cells will apply a reverse current to the discharged cell ("cell reversal"). This can happen even to a "weak" cell that is not fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the weak cell's internal resistance can experience a reverse voltage that is greater than the cell's remaining internal forward voltage. This results in the reversal of the weak cell's polarity while the current is flowing through the cells. [3]
[4]
this can significantly shorten the life of the affected cell and therefore of the battery. The higher
the discharge rate of the battery needs to be, the better matched the cells should be, both in kind of cell and state of charge. In some extreme cases, the reversed cell can begin to emit smoke or catch fire. In critical applications using Ni-Cad batteries, such as in aircraft, each cell is individually discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal, then charging the cells in series.
3.6 INVERTER
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
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Fig: 3.6 Inverter There are two main types of inverter. The output of a modified sine wave inverter is similar to a square wave output except that the output goes to zero volts for a time before switching positive or negative. It is simple and low cost (~$0.10USD/Watt) and is compatible with most electronic devices, except for sensitive or specialized equipment, for example certain laser printers. A pure sine wave inverter produces a nearly perfect sine wave output (<3% total harmonic distortion) that is essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power. Thus it is compatible with all AC electronic devices. This is the type used in grid-tie inverters. Its design is more complex, and costs 5 or 10 times more per unit power (~$0.50 to $1.00USD/Watt). [1] The electrical inverter is a highpower electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC. The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.
DC power source utilization:

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an automobile. The unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or enough to power two sixty watt light bulbs.
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Fig:3.6 Inverter snap An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage. Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout. Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the electric grid. They are grid tie designs by default.
Uninterruptible power supplies:

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.
Induction heating:
Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.
HVDC power transmission:

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back to AC.
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Variable-frequency drive :
A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variablefrequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.
Electric vehicle drives:

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motors in some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Pries and Frisker Karma. Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle applications.[2] In vehicles withregenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.
Air conditioning :
An air conditioner bearing the inverter tag uses a variable-frequency drive to control the speed of the motor and thus the compressor.
The general case:

A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.
Basic designs:
In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.
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The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns. As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs.
Output waveforms:
The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using the Fourier analysis data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the fundamental voltage:
The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine wave voltage supply in order to work properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave voltage.
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Advanced designs:
There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in inverter designs. Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or less important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used.
Fig: 3.6 H-bridge inverter circuit The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many ways. Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the design includes a transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side of the transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow the fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the passage of the harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed frequency, a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be tuned to a frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency. Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or antiparallel diodes are often connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load current when the switch is turned off. The antiparallel diodes are somewhat similar to the freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits.
signal Waveform transitions per period
harmonics harmonics
System
eliminated amplified Description
THD
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2-level 2 square wave ~45%[1]
3-level 4 3, 9, 27, "modified square wave" > 23.8%[1]
5-level 8 "modified square wave" > 6.5%[1]
2-level 10 3, 5, 9, 27 7, 11, very slow PWM
3-level 12 3, 5, 9, 27 7, 11, very slow PWM
Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti-symmetrical about the 180 degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc. Waveforms that have steps of certain widths and heights can attenuate certain lower harmonics at the expense of amplifying higher harmonics. For example, by inserting a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are divisible by three (3rd and 9th, etc.) can be
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eliminated. That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required width of the steps is one third of the period for each of the positive and negative steps and one sixth of the period for each of the zero-voltage steps. Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse-width modulation (PWM). Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often used as a method of regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage control is not required, a fixed pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected harmonics. Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest harmonics because filtering is much more practical at high frequencies, where the filter components can be much smaller and less expensive. Multiple pulse-width or carrier based PWM control schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses. The frequency represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is called the switching frequency or carrier frequency. These control schemes are often used in variablefrequency motor control inverters because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency adjustment while also improving the quality of the waveform. Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel inverters provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several voltage levels. For example, it is possible to produce a more sinusoidal wave by having split-rail direct current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs with a central ground. By connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between the positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter output. This is an example of a three level inverter: the two voltages and ground.
Three phase inverters:
Fig: 3.6 3-phase inverter

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Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high power applications such asHVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three load terminals. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are applied to six-step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that the 3rd harmonic and its multiples are cancelled.
Fig:3.6 3-phase inverter waveform 3-phase inverter switching circuit showing 6-step switching sequence and waveform of voltage between terminals A and C To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two six-step three-phase inverters can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series for a higher voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-step waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained with three inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of achieving increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is improved as well. Controlled rectifier inverters Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for most inverter applications, it was the 1957 introduction of the thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits.
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Fig: 3.6 12-pulse line-commutated inverter circuit The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR circuit designs. SCRs do not turn off or commutate automatically when the gate control signal is shut off. They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum holding current, which varies with each kind of SCR, through some external process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected to a DC power source usually require a means of forced commutation that forces the current to zero when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced commutation. With the addition of forced commutation circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of inverter circuits described above. In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC power source, it is possible to use AC-to-DC controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of motor control systems. Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source rather than a voltage source. The inverter SCRs are switched in a six-step sequence to direct the current to a three-phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the input current regulation assists the commutation. With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated at a leading power factor.
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As they have become available in higher voltage and current ratings, semiconductors such as transistors or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of control signals have become the preferred switching components for use in inverter circuits.
Rectifier and inverter pulse numbers:

Rectifier circuits are often classified by the number of current pulses that flow to the DC side of the rectifier per cycle of AC input voltage. A single-phase half-wave rectifier is a onepulse circuit and asingle-phase full-wave rectifier is a two-pulse circuit. A three-phase half-wave rectifier is a three-pulse circuit and a three-phase full-wave rectifier is a six-pulse circuit. With three-phase rectifiers, two or more rectifiers are sometimes connected in series or parallel to obtain higher voltage or current ratings. The rectifier inputs are supplied from special transformers that provide phase shifted outputs. This has the effect of phase multiplication. Six phases are obtained from two transformers, twelve phases from three transformers and so on. The associated rectifier circuits are 12-pulse rectifiers, 18-pulse rectifiers and so on. When controlled rectifier circuits are operated in the inversion mode, they would be classified by pulse number also. Rectifier circuits that have a higher pulse number have reduced harmonic content in the AC input current and reduced ripple in the DC output voltage. In the inversion mode, circuits that have a higher pulse number have lower harmonic content in the AC output voltage waveform. 3.7 SWITCHES: In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and nonconducting.
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Fig: 3.7 Switches A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be pad-locked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.
3.8 LCD :( 16 * 2 ALPHANUMERIC)

Liquid crystal display is very important device in embedded system. It offers high flexibility to user as he can display the required data on it. A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs).LCs does not emit light directly. LCDs therefore need a light source and are classified as "passive" displays. This is the interfacing example for the Parallel Port LCD). Schematic
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Fig: 3.8 LCD
3.9 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC):

Analog-to-digital converters are among the most widely used devices for data acquisition. Digital systems use binary values, but in the physical world everything is continuous i.e., analog values. Temperature, pressure (wind or liquid), humidity and velocity are the physical analog quantities. These physical quantities are to be converted into digital values for further processing. One such device to convert these physical quantities into electrical signals is sensor. Sensors for temperature, pressure, humidity, light and many other natural quantities produce an output that is voltage or current. Thus, an analog-to-digital converter is needed to convert these electrical signals into digital values so that the microcontroller can read and process them. An ADC has an n-bit resolution where n can be 8,10,12,16 or even 24 bits. The higher resolution ADC provides a smaller step size, where step size is the smallest change that can be detected by an ADC. In addition to resolution, conversion time is another major factor in judging an ADC. Conversion time is defined as the time it takes the ADC to convert the analog input to a digital number.
ADC0808:
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The ADC0808, ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as the conversion technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a 256R voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The 8-channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-single-ended analog signals. The device eliminates the need for external zero and full-scale adjustments. Easy interfacing to microprocessors is provided by the latched and decoded multiplexer address inputs and latched TTL TRI-STATE outputs. The design of the ADC0808, ADC0809 has been optimized by incorporating the most desirable aspects of several A/D conversion techniques. The ADC0808, ADC0809 offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature dependence, excellent long-term accuracy and
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repeatability, and consumes minimal power. These features make this device ideally suited to applications from process and machine control to consumer and automotive applications. For 16channel multiplexer with common output (sample/hold port).
Features:
Easy interface to all microprocessors Operates ratiometrically or with 5 VDC or analog span adjusted voltage reference No zero or full-scale adjust required 8-channel multiplexer with address logic 0V to VCC input range Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949 ADC0809 equivalent to MM74C949-1
Key Specifications:
Resolution 8 Bits Total Unadjusted Error LSB and 1 LSB Single Supply 5 VDC Low Power 15 mW Conversion Time 100 s
4. AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER
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Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems products. Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all on a single chip. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in which cost and space are critical. The Intel 8052 is Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (C) which was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of enhanced devices with 8052compatible processor cores that are manufactured by more than 20 independent manufacturers including Atmel, Infineon Technologies and Maxim Integrated Products. 8052 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of data at a time. Data larger than 8 bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be processed by the CPU. 8052 is available in different memory types such as UV-EPROM, Flash and NV-RAM. The present project is implemented on Keil Uvision. In order to program the device, proload tool has been used to burn the program onto the microcontroller. The features, pin description of the microcontroller and the software tools used are discussed in the following sections.
FEATURES OF AT89S52:
4K Bytes of Re-programmable Flash Memory. RAM is 128 bytes. 2.7V to 6V Operating Range. Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz. Two-level Program Memory Lock. 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM.
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32 Programmable I/O Lines. Two 16-bit Timer/Counters. Six Interrupt Sources. Programmable Serial UART Channel.
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes.
Description:
The AT89S52 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.
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PIN DIAGRAM:
Fig: 4 Pin diagram
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ARCHITECTURE DIAGRAM:
Fig: 4 Architecture
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4.1 PIN DESCRIPTION Vcc:

Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is +5V.
GND:
Pin 20 is the ground.
XTAL1 and XTAL2:

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 11. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven, as shown in the below figure. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.
Fig: 4.1 Oscillator Connections C1, C2 = 30 pF 10 pF for Crystals = 40 pF 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators
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Fig 4.1: External Clock Drive Configuration
RESET:
Pin9 is the reset pin. It is an input and is active high. Upon applying a high pulse to this pin, the microcontroller will reset and terminate all the activities. This is often referred to as a power-on reset.
EA (External access):
Pin 31 is EA. It is an active low signal. It is an input pin and must be connected to either Vcc or GND but it cannot be left unconnected. The 8052 family members all come with on-chip ROM to store programs. In such cases, the EA pin is connected to Vcc. If the code is stored on an external ROM, the EA pin must be connected to GND to indicate that the code is stored externally.
PSEN (Program store enable):

This is an output pin.
ALE (Address latch enable):

This is an output pin and is active high.
Ports 0, 1, 2 and 3:
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The four ports P0, P1, P2 and P3 each use 8 pins, making them 8-bit ports. All the ports upon RESET are configured as input, since P0-P3 have value FFH on them.
Port 0(P0):
Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be used for both address and data. ALE indicates if P0 has address or data. When ALE=0, it provides data D0-D7, but when ALE=1, it has address A0-A7. Therefore, ALE is used for demultiplexing address and data with the help of an internal latch. When there is no external memory connection, the pins of P0 must be connected to a 10Kohm pull-up resistor. This is due to the fact that P0 is an open drain. With external pull-up resistors connected to P0, it can be used as a simple I/O, just like P1 and P2. But the ports P1, P2 and P3 do not need any pull-up resistors since they already have pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset, ports P1, P2 and P3 are configured as input ports.
Port 1 and Port 2:

With no external memory connection, both P1 and P2 are used as simple I/O. With external memory connections, port 2 must be used along with P0 to provide the 16-bit address for the external memory. Port 2 is designated as A8-A15 indicating its dual function. While P0 provides the lower 8 bits via A0-A7, it is the job of P2 to provide bits A8-A15 of the address.
Port 3:
Port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins, pins 10 through 17. It can be used as input or output. P3 does not need any pull-up resistors, the same as port 1 and port 2. Port 3 has an additional function of providing some extremely important signals such as interrupts.
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Table: 3.1 Port 3 Alternate Functions
Machine cycle for the 8052:

The CPU takes a certain number of clock cycles to execute an instruction. In the 8052 family, these clock cycles are referred to as machine cycles. The length of the machine cycle depends on the frequency of the crystal oscillator. The crystal oscillator, along with on-chip circuitry, provides the clock source for the 8052 CPU. The frequency can vary from 4 MHz to 30 MHz, depending upon the chip rating and manufacturer. But the exact frequency of 11.0592 MHz crystal oscillator is used to make the 8052 based system compatible with the serial port of the IBM PC. In the original version of 8052, one machine cycle lasts 12 oscillator periods. Therefore, to calculate the machine cycle for the 8052, the calculation is made as 1/12 of the crystal frequency and its inverse is taken. The assembly language program is written and this program has to be dumped into the microcontroller for the hardware kit to function according to the software. The program dumped in the microcontroller is stored in the Flash memory in the microcontroller. Before that, this Flash memory has to be programmed and is discussed in the next section.
ALE/PROG:
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Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN (Program Store Enable):

It is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S8252 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is acti-vated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.
EA/VPP (External Access Enable):

EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming when 12-volt programming is selected.
Ports 0, 1, 2 and 3:
The four ports P0, P1, P2 and P3 each use 8 pins, making them 8-bit ports. All the ports upon RESET are configured as input, since P0-P3 have value FFH on them.
Port 0(P0):
Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be used for both address and data. ALE indicates if P0 has address or data. When ALE=0, it provides data D0-D7, but when ALE=1, it has address A0-A7. Therefore, ALE is used for demultiplexing address and data with the help of an internal latch When there is no external memory connection, the pins of P0 must be connected to a 10K-ohm pullup resistor. This is due to the fact that P0 is an open drain. With external pull-up resistors connected to P0, it can be used as a simple I/O, just like P1 and P2. But the ports P1, P2 and P3 do not need
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any pull-up resistors since they already have pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset, ports P1, P2 and P3 are configured as input ports.
Port 1:
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of the internal pull-ups. Some Port 1 pins provide additional functions. P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively. Furthermore, P1.4, P1.5, P1.6, and P1.7 can be configured as the SPI slave port select, data input/output and shift clock input/output pins. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
Table:3.1 Port1 Alternate functions
Programmable Clock Out:

A 50% duty cycle clock can be programmed to come out on P1.0. This pin, besides being a regular I/0 pin, has two alternate functions. It can be programmed to input the external clock for Timer/Counter 2 or to output a 50% duty cycle clock ranging from 61 Hz to 4 MHz (for a 16-MHz operating frequency).
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Port 2:
With no external memory connection, P2 are used as simple I/O. With external memory connections, port 2 must be used along with P0 to provide the 16-bit address for the external memory. Port 2 is designated as A8-A15 indicating its dual function. While P0 provides the lower 8 bits via A0-A7, it is the job of P2 to provide bits A8-A15 of the address. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.
Port 3:
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S8252, as shown in the following table.
Table 3.1:Port 3 Alternate functions

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Data Memory EEPROM and RAM:

The AT89S8252 implements 2K bytes of on-chip EEPROM for data storage and 256 bytes of RAM. The upper 128 bytes of RAM occupy a parallel space to the Special Function Registers i.e., the upper 128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from SFR space. When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions that use direct addressing access SFR space. For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location 0A0H (which is P2). MOV 0A0H, #data Instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For example, the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H). MOV @R0, #data It should be noted that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128 bytes of data RAM are available as stack space. The on-chip EEPROM data memory is selected by setting the EEMEN bit in the WMCON register at SFR address location 96H. The EEPROM address range is from 000H to 7FFH. The MOVX instructions are used to access the EEPROM. To access off-chip data memory with the MOVX instructions, the EEMEN bit needs to be set to 0. MCON REGISTER E PS2 7 PS1 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 PS0 EMWE EMEN E DPS R DY/BSY DTEN W
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The EEMEN and EEMWE bits are used to select the 2K bytes on-chip EEPROM, and to enable byte-write. The DPS bit selects one of two DPTR registers available.
Symbol PS2 PS1 PS0 EEMWE
Function Prescaler Bits. When all three bits are set to 0, the timer has a nominal period of 16 ms. When all three bits are set to 1; the nominal period is 2048 ms. These bits are used for watchdog timer.
EEPROM Data Memory Write Enable Bit. Set this bit to 1 before initiating byte write to on-chip EEPROM with the MOVX instruction. User software should set this bit to 0 after EEPROM write is completed.
EEMEN
Internal EEPROM Access Enable. When EEMEN = 1, the MOVX instruction with DPTR will access on-chip EEPROM instead of external data memory. When EEMEN = 0, MOVX with DPTR accesses external data memory.
DPS
Data Pointer Register Select. DPS = 0 selects the first bank of Data Pointer Register, DP0, and DPS = 1 selects the second bank, DP1
RDY/BSY
RDY/BSY = 1 means that the EEPROM is ready to be programmed. While programming operations are being executed, the RDY/BSY bit equals 0 and is automatically reset to 1 when programming is completed.
WDTEN
Used for Watchdog timer Table: 3.1 MCON Register functions
EEPROM:
In the design of all microprocessors-based systems, semiconductor memories are used as primary storage for code and data. Semiconductor memories are connected directly to the CPU and they are the memory that the CPU first asks for information (code and data). For this reason, semiconductor memories are sometimes referred to as primary memory.
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5. SOFT WARE TOOLS

KEIL SOFTWARE:
Keil compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and compiled. After compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to be dumped into the microcontroller for further processing. Keil compiler also supports C language code.
Steps To Write An Assembly / C Language Program In Keil And How To Compile It:
1. Install the Keil Software in the PC in any of the drives. 2. After installation, an icon will be created with the name Keil uVision3. Just drag this icon onto the desktop so that it becomes easy whenever you try to write programs in keil. 3. Double click on this icon to start the keil compiler. 4. A page opens with different options in it showing the project workspace at the leftmost corner side, output window in the bottom and an ash coloured space for the program to be written. 5. Now to start using the keil, click on the option project.
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6. A small window opens showing the options like new project, import project, open project etc. Click on New project. 7. A small window with the title bar Create new project opens. The window asks the user to give the project name with which it should be created and the destination location. The project can be created in any of the drives available. You can create a new folder and then a new file or can create directly a new file. 8. After the file is saved in the given destination location, a window opens where a list of vendors will be displayed and you have to select the device for the target you have created. 9. The most widely used vendor is Atmel. So click on Atmel and now the family of microcontrollers manufactured by Atmel opens. You can select any one of the microcontrollers according to the requirement. 10. When you click on any one of the microcontrollers, the features of that particular microcontroller will be displayed on the right side of the page. The most appropriate microcontroller with which most of the projects can be implemented is the AT89S52. Click on this microcontroller and have a look at its features. Now click on OK to select this microcontroller. 11. A small window opens asking whether to copy the startup code into the file you have created just now. Just click on No to proceed further. 12. Now you can see the TARGET and SOURCE GROUP created in the project workspace. 13. Now click on File and in that New. A new page opens and you can start writing program in it. 14. After the program is completed, save it with any name but with the .asm or .c extension. Save the program in the file you have created earlier. 15. You can notice that after you save the program, the predefined keywords will be highlighted in bold letters. 16. Now add this file to the target by giving a right click on the source group. A list of options open and in that select Add files to the source group. Check for this file where you have saved and add it. 17. Right click on the target and select the first option Options for target. A window opens with different options like device, target, output etc. First click on target.
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18. Since the set frequency of the microcontroller is 11.0592 MHz to interface with the PC, just enter this frequency value in the Xtal (MHz) text area and put a tick on the Use on-chip ROM. This is because the program what we write here in the keil will later be dumped into the microcontroller and will be stored in the inbuilt ROM in the microcontroller. 19. Now click the option Output and give any name to the hex file to be created in the Name of executable text area and put a tick to the Create HEX file option present in the same window. The hex file can be created in any of the drives. You can change the folder by clicking on Select folder for Objects. 20. Now to check whether the program you have written is errorless or not, click on the icon exactly below the Open file icon which is nothing but Build Target icon. You can even use the shortcut key F7 to compile the program written. 21. To check for the output, there are several windows like serial window, memory window, project window etc. Depending on the program you have written, select the appropriate window to see the output by entering into debug mode. 22. The icon with the letter d indicates the debug mode. 23. Click on this icon and now click on the option View and select the appropriate window to check for the output. 24. After this is done, click the icon debug again to come out of the debug mode. 25. The hex file created as shown earlier will be dumped into the microcontroller with the help of another software called Proload.
PROLOAD:
Proload is a software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is converted into hex code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller placed in the programmer kit and this is done by the Proload. Programmer kit contains a microcontroller on it other than the one which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has a program in it written in such a way that it accepts the hex file from the keil compiler and dumps this hex file into the microcontroller which is to be programmed. As this programmer kit requires power supply to be operated, this power supply is given from the power supply circuit designed above. It should be noted that this programmer kit contains a power supply section in the board itself but in order to switch on that power supply, a
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source is required. Thus this is accomplished from the power supply board with an output of 12volts or from an adapter connected to 230 V AC. 1. Install the Proload Software in the PC. 2. Now connect the Programmer kit to the PC (CPU) through serial cable. 3. Power up the programmer kit from the ac supply through adapter. 4. Now place the microcontroller in the GIF socket provided in the programmer kit. 5. Click on the Proload icon in the PC. A window appears providing the information like Hardware model, com port, device type, Flash size etc. Click on browse option to select the hex file to be dumped into the microcontroller and then click on Auto program to program the microcontroller with that particular hex file. 6. The status of the microcontroller can be seen in the small status window in the bottom of the page.After this process is completed, remove the microcontroller from the programmer kit and place it in your system board. Now the system board behaves according to the program written in the microcontroller.
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6. ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES: 1. The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently. 2. Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause green house gases or other pollutants. 3. Although wind turbines can be very tall each takes up only a small plot of land. This means that the land below can still be used. This is especially the case in agricultural areas as farming can still continue. 4. Many people find wind farms an interesting feature of the landscape. 5. Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines to produce their own supply. 6. Wind turbines have a role to play in both the developed and third world. 7. Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and businesses can use them. Single households to small towns and villages can make good use of range of wind turbines available today. APPLICATIONS
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Farm Windmill Golf Course Aeration Cattle Farm Windmill Pond Aeration Residential Water Aeration Fish Ponds and Hatcheries West Nile Virus Prevention
7. RESULT
INPUT:
OUTPUT:
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8. CONCLUSION
Windmills have been used for centuries for various purposes. Today, they are primarily used to generate power and they do so quite efficiently when compared with other renewable resources such as solar. The energy is completely clean and has little effects of the environment. Depending on the overall size the rotor will directly affect the power output capabilities of the system. The larger the rotor is the higher the output power. The downside to a windmill is that they cannot always generate 100% power. The wind hitting the rotor is constantly changing and with it so does the power output of the windmill. Windmills can also be noisy because of the rotation from the rotors, because of this they are not good to be placed near homes. Another downside, is since wind is not always constant these systems need to be backed up with other renewable sources in case of the absence of wind. However, windmills are still a very vital and important part of the move towards complete renewable energy and we may start to see a substantial increase in their use around the world.
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10. FUTURE SCOPE
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11. BIBILOGRAPHY
1. http://www.windmillpower.com/product-info.html 2. The Boy Who Harnessed the Windby William Kamkwamba and Bryan Mealer 3. http://www.royalwindandsolar.com/ 4. wikipedia 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. EMBEDDED SYSTEM BY RAJ KAMAL Magazines Electronics for you Electrikindia WWW.google.com
10. WWW.Electronic projects.com
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12. APPENDIX
12.1 ABBREVATIONS
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12.2 CODING
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12.3 PROJECT KIT
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Aero Dynamic Wind Mill Reverse Charge Protection

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Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

AERO DYNAMIC WIND MIL WITH REVERSE CHARGE PROTECTION

Unidirectio nal Current Controller

Rechargea ble Battery

ON/ OFF control switch

Fig: 1.1 Block Diagram

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Processor Peripherals memory

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Processors are classified into four types like:

Micro Processor (p):

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Micro Controller (c):

Figure: 2 Block Diagram Etc., of Micro Controller (c)

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):

ASIC typically contains

Computer Instruction Set

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Same length instructions.

Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

The advantages of CISC

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

The disadvantages of CISC:

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Figure: 2 Harvard Architecture

Modern uses of the Harvard architecture

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Figure: 2 Schematic of the Von-Neumann Architecture.

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Basic Difference between Harvard and Von-Neumann Architecture

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Step down transformer

Fig 3.1: Power supply

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Fig 3.1: Transformer

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Fig: 3.1 Bridge rectifier

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Fig: 3.1 Capacitor Filter

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Fig: 3.1 voltage regulator

3.2 AERO DYNAMIC WIND BLADE

Fig: 3.2 Aero Wind Blade

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

How blades capture wind power:

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Fig: 3.2 Angle of attack of wind

Fig: 3.2 angle of wind blow

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Fig: 3.2 contact of wind on wind mill

Apparent wind angles

Blade section shape

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Aero Dynamic Wind Mill with Reverse Charge Protection

Blade platform shape: