Theory and methods Th6orie et mdthode"s

Johan Galtung
I

Structure, culture, ond intellectuol style: gollic An essoy comporing soxonic, teutonic, ond nipponic opprooches

l. On intelleclualstylesin general Deor reuder - what you have in front of you is very much an essa.),, It is basecl on impressionsand intuitions, written down on paper and in my memory during many years of travels and stays in various intellectualclimatesaround the world, I myself come fronr a peripherycountry in what is still to a large extentthe centreof the world, ancl I am no doubt marked by that. Having had the opportunity to work both in the fields of the methodology of sciences (Caltung 1967 , 197'7 , 1979)and in substantivesocial science,particularly peaceresearch(1975-80), developmentand future srudies (1980), I have been struck repeatedlyby how little awareness the members of one intellectual community seem to have of the peculiarities of their community. They are often good ai
Thi s paper w i l s prepared for the 6oal s , P roc es s es and Indi c ators of D ev el opmc nt P roj ect, s i l bproj ec ton Tool s ol ' A nal y s i s . l t i s an outc onreof l ec tures ,s emi narsand di scussi ons i n many pl ac es- at U ni v ers i ti S arnsMal ay s i a i n P enang, N { al av s i a;i n Japan; a t the E as t-W es tC enter i n H onol ul u, H aw ai i , U S A ; i n C ermany ; al the Insti tut uni v ers i tai re d' 6tudes du d4v el oppement,Genev a; at the U ni v ers i ti es of Tromso , Os l o and Gothenburg; arrd at the Mai s on des S c i enc es de I' H onme tn P ari s. I anr grateful to the di s c us s ants i n al l pl ac es ,but the res pons i bi l i tyfr-rr tl re c l pl orati ons made i s al l mi ne. l n thi s parti c ul ar c as ethat ri tual i s ti c s entenc c may hc more m eani ngful than i t us ual l y i s . Sociat Scim*: Information (SACFl, I"ondon and Beverly Hills), 20, 6 (l 9U l ), pp. 817-856

c)

8I 8

T'hettrvand metht ttl,t

Gultung

Galtung

Thdorie et mdthodts

819

- thi s essaymay prove o th c l " s ,b u t n o t thcntsel ves c h a ra c te ri z i n g l have tri ed to th a t rul e. On earl i ertl ccasi ons no t to b e a n e x c e p ti o n styl es the i ntel l ectual t o re fl e c to n th i s tra i t i n e ffo rts to cl i aracteri ze e x l i i tri te d b y m a n y s o c i a l s c i enti stsi rt l ..ati n A mcri ca ( 1979, c h a p .5 )r a n d i n C e rm a n y (1 979, chap.8); the prescrl tessayi s b a s r.:d o n b o th e ffo rts b u t e x p a ndsl he rangeof expl orati on.In al l that my remarks are l i mi ted to the c a s e si t s h o u l d b e e n rp h a s i z e d field of social science.Some may also be valid for other sciences but that would be heyond any grasp I rtright possiblyhave of their substance. any one i ntel l ectualstyl e, l et me B e fo re try i n g to c h a ra c te rize W hat i s i t " i tr general . f i rs t s a y s o me th i n ga b o u t " i n tel l ectualstyl e i nto w e i n te l l e c tu a l s try to d o ? N o douht, w e processi mpressi ons - th e l a tte r v e rb al , oral or l vri tl en. For thal l eason e x p re s s i o n s freedom of impressionis as important to us as freedom o{ expression: as we generallydo not believethat we can draw everything artd we haveto be able we have to have impressions, from ourselves to expressthem as a part of our own pleasureand self-realization, i n parti cul arand the a n d f o e n te r i n to th e n e tw o rk sof i ntel l ectual s prodrrcts, for p u b l i c i n g e n e ra l , searchi ng l a u n c h i n go u r i ntel l ectual the cri ti c i s m a s w e s a y - a n d l i k e al l others w e prel ' eri n gerteral v a ri e ty .2 p o s i ti v eto th e n e g a ti v e S o w e are condi (i onedby tl re i mpressions in the current we receiveand by our range of expression; w hal w e are l ryi ng to d o m i n a n t p h i l o s o p l i l 'o f " tru th " (presumabl y acor lessequatedwith the intersubjectively unravel), truth is n"lore colleagues.r ceptablewithin a network of acceptable tsut that is not all there is to it. Today it is probably generally is cottdiinto erpressions of impressions agreedthat the processing problem general it is of level tlre tioned by something.At the most w i l l how condi ti on and that h o w th e h u ma n mi n d i s c o n sti tuted w ork K anta the of and menti on w h a t c o m e so u t i t i s s u ffi c i entto Wittgenstein(1921, 1922).At the individual, pcrsonallevel there is the notion of subjective elements, some of, them to be handled in te rs u b j e c ti v e l y l i k e tl re famous observcrs' equati on for astronomers,some of them in a more qualitative lnanner as when we like to have information about a person's background in order we would like to qualify it to better evaluatewhat he saysbecause i t.s w hy he says a b o u t b y s o mea s s u m p ti o n s What I am interestedin, however, is the level in betweenthe inor it is the r:ivilizational dividual and the univcrsal.Broadly speaking, ln level. words macro-cultural in sub-uivilizational other

anof . her essay t his hasbeenexplor ed( Calt ung, 198l) by cont r , ast ing ( in what is r ef er r edt o as t he cxpansiollllr r ci o ccident al civilizat iein co nt r act ionphasesr espect ively) wit h f {indu, Buddhist , Sinic aud Nipponic civilizat ions in t he O r ient . I n t hat connect iont t ic poiir r is m adr :t hat wher east he clccident al, phascaJr pr oa*h expansionist [o ep ist enr ology seem st o be in t er nls of an at om ist ic conceplinnof re alit y com bined wit h a deduct iveappr oach t o undcr st it nding, in the O r ient t heset wo appr oaches m ix and blend wir h a nt or e holist ic ap pr oach t o r ealit y and a m or e dialect icappr oach t o under st anding. Thus, t he point is m aclet hat in t he O ccident ,in ext . r em is, t he way of obt aining valid knowledgeis by subdividingr e*lit y int o a nu nlbcr of sm all par t s, obt aining insight sabout a low nur nir erof ther r rat a t int e, and t hen linking t heseinsight sr ogcr ir ert o I 'or nr oft en highly inr pr essive, decluct iveByr anr ids.This is t hen cor r trastedwith efl'orts to conceiveof reality as a totality' i,r,,ith built-in co nt r adict ions, evolvingover t im e. 'I'lrepresentessayis ar) attempt to be much more sp*cifiil, slaying at t he leveloi r nacr o- cult ur es, but below t he levelo1'cir , iI izir t ions, in su b- civilizat ions. M or e par t icular ly,t hr eeoccident al ar r cl one or iental sub-civilizationfornr the subject matter of the inqrrirv; srrxomic, teulonic, gallic and nipponic approache.s, as stated in the subtitle. Why't hesest r anget er m s?6 For t he sim pler easont hat lhe! ar e not rneant{o be ident if ied wit h Br it ain, Cer m any, Fr ancc or Japar r thesebeing act or s in t he int er nalionalsyst em ,count r ies,and com po sedof var iouscuhur al st r ainr i. I do, however ,seet lr r :slylest o he characterizedby these ternt$ as rather dominant in {ll* cr:runtries ment ioned,alt hough possiblym or e so in t he past , e! en lsn yf iar s ago, than today because of the high levelof world intr;r'dep*nclenL:e an d int er act ion, ancl subjugat iont o a gener al wor lt l ilt ellect ual st ylc- * t o be descr ibed lat er . I ncidenr ally, it is hoped t lr ar t his t ype of explor at ioncan be ext ended also t o lndic, Sinic and , 4iabic appr oaehes and t o ot her s. O ne r easonf or doing t his is t hat it m ight be int er est in,lo g havea world map of intellectualstyles.On that world map, ilr ordel' now to be nrore specific, Oxbridge in England and key U$ uirivnrsitries on bot h t he east er nand west er nseaboar ds would r onst ililt e ( he centreof the saxonicintellectualstyle; someof the smaller,clarsicill univer sit ies in G er m any ( possiblyM iinst er , M ar bur g, Heidc'lher g, Tr ibingen)m ight be seenas t hc cent r eof t he t eut onic int cllect r r al st ylc; t lier eis no doubt as t o wher e/ f t r cent r eof t he gallic int ellectual style is located; and the nipponic in{.ellectual style would have

820

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Theorie et nu)thodes 821

(Tokyo and Kyoto universities) axis as its centre. the Tirdai-Ky-odai Obviously all of this is ideal typical analysisin the Weberian sense, not to be taken literally as an empirical descriptiott. But as a firsi be useful. approximation il may nevertheless One would then imagine a map with these ilentresas beacons in vast terri tori es,vi z-.,peri pheri es. d i re c ti n gi n te l l e rtu a la c ti \/i ti e s The peripherieswould, broadly speaking,incluclenot only the rest acti vi ti es i n the of th e c o u n tri e sm e n ti o n e d ,b u t al so the i ntel l ectr.ral colonial and neo-colonialerlpires. Thus, it is nrrtablehow the intellectual style changes f'ronr the saxonic to the gallic and back again if one goes by cal along the Gutf of Guinea in Africa: it is in changing from driving on the left to drivnrore than an exercise ing on the right to cross from a former British tr'l a former French dependency.Obviously, liberation from inteller:tualstyle has not one possible evenbeen included in a programme of decoloniz;rlion; reason why liberation from other aspectsof colunialism rnay rrot have been tocl efficient either.E However, the gallic infJuence stretches far beyond la cornmunautfranguise: it coverstire whole Latin range of countries.As they say in South America, Paris es la capital de la rqza latina. This w o u l d , i n c i d e n ta l l y ,to a l a rg e extenti ncl ude R omani a. B ut othcrwise it is my contention that flastern Europe, including the Soviet Union, can be regardedas under the sway of ltre leutonic intellccof generalcultural influencethrough cerr" tual style, partl.ybecause feutoni c thi nker: o f l ' h e i n fl uenceof a ke.,r t u ri e s , p a rfl y b e c a u s e K a rl Ma rx " F i n a l l y J a p a n i s i ts ow n centre;as i n the caseof otl rer aspects of JapaDese crrlture,it has no periphery'bevond itself. I shall let that do by way oI introduction. It is a centre-periphr:rv world so far equipped with onll' four centres uf very differcnt an i nteresti rtg k i n d s . Mo s t o f th e w o rl d i s a p eri phery.B ut i t rai r' es question about a possiblesubdivisionof that periphery: - under the influence of A centrcs: intellectually nrarginalized tr:r. ritory, free to develop in any rva-v-i - under the influence of I cenlre: a cultural pr:riphery of that c*nl e ri p h e ryb ent on i denti fi cati on; t r e , a n i n te l l e c tu a p - under the influence of 2 centres: potentially benefiting from lhe cross-beaming influence, picking up the strong polnts of both; under influence the of 3 centres or ntore: possiblv too o\'firw. w h e l m i n g ,to o c o n fu s i n g ,to e l aborate anythi ng rre This calls for a more detailecfanalysis that wi{il be carried uul after the discussion of the four intellectualstylt"rs,

how shouldone char act er ize t liem ?I r or Having nar n*iJ t he st yles, reasonsof parsinrony it secms rea.sonable to try to cha|acterize a dinrensions although one may thus intrneluce them along the san-re ce r f air rbias f r om t he ver y beginning.I n t he idea of subdividing " int ellect ual act ivit y" int o f our par t s t her e is also an r llem entof we) ^t er at n om izalion - no doubt it r ellect son t he at t lhot . Bf f or t s will be m acle, however ,lat er in t he essay t o t r y t o look at t hesem at i er s nr or e holist ir : ally. do? I t hink it is f air t o r t r t ert n t heir What is it t hat int ellect uals task as desc'riptiveand explanatorlt; that is, describing what reality it . e I n t he t ypicalniet hodolcigy t ext i s like and t r ying t o under st and book languageit would be referred to as data collection, clatapr<land data analysison the one hand, and theory formation on cessing As we know, eit herof t hesem ay condit ion lhe nf her . the ot her . r 0 is ttre Ilut intellectualactivity, of course,goesbeyond this. 'tr1'lerc o{ clinrension of paradigm analysis,of leiokinginto the fnttrrclalions what one does, of explclr ing t he lim it at ionsof one's or ", nint ellectual enterprise.One may say that this is, in a certain wity, exactly what t his essayis about . And her e is one ver y sir npleli( t le point : it is all tclo easyfor each one of us to seethe subjectivelinritntirinsof wc c:ltt contWe can seethem because any one particular colleague. pare with other colleagues. Correspondingly,I think it ls very difficult f or us 1o cor net o gr ips wit h our lim it at ionsas hunt an beings in a universalsensefor the simple rasonthat we havc nothing else to com par ewit f r , and as f ar as we know t her e is nobodt , elsecont paling us with themselves(as Koestler has remarkecl, there may pcr hapsbe sonr cbody bir l t hey m ay havesucha dir r rviov ol us t hat t heir f indingst o us'* r t t uchlike a tlr ey don't car e t o com r nunicat e linbiologistusuallynot bot her ingabout how he can com nt unicat e But at the levelof dings about bacteriato the bacteriathentselves!). ws c: an t hey can bc com do t his: t her ear e cont r ast s, macr o- cult ur es municated and unclerstood,and translations are somewlierebelween the perfectly perl'ectand the perfectly imperiect. Then, another exampleof what the presentessayis about: all intelleclualsare fascinatedby other intellectualsand in fact devote much of their time to doing researchon what others do. This type of commentary on other intellectualscan usefully be divided into just developed:describingand explaining the three sub-categories why their activity is the way it of understanding Ihern (in the sense i,t:), and exploring the paradigmsfor such understanding.

822 Theorv and methods

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Oaltung

'thdorie et methade.y 823

TABLII I A guide lo intelleclual slyles

Of course,intellectuals ofteu clu ulore than this. "they may be interested in communicating witlt others than their colleagues,in which casethey engagein pedagogyand popularization. They may be interestedin action basedon their intellectualactivity, in which has an elernent of action research.A condition for casethe research the latter is probably that their conceptualizationof reality goes beyond empirical reality to potential reality, including not only what is, but also what might be. In that case, theory formation would not only reproduce empirical reality lrnt also state the circumstances under which potential reality nright beconteempirical reality. A pragmatic dimensionoften entersat this point; potential reality is seen as worse or bctter th;'lrrernpirical reality, in other words as something to be avoided or to be pursued; and this is w h e rea c ti o n e n te rs ,rrO n em i ght say that al l of thi s adds a cri ti cal and pragmatic aspectto intellectualactivity. However, it is my experiencethat this aspectis presentor absentamong intellectuals of distinguishing all four styles;in other words it is not a characteristic one from the other. This leavesus with four dimensionsalong which to characterize, as a working hypothesis,four intellectualstyles.As I have assumed that all four dimensionswill have to be presentto someextentin all cultures for the activity to be intellectual, an intellectual style becomes a question of profile, of which dimension is strong, and which dimension is weak. trl'we stick to that simple weak/strong split we get, of course, sixteendifferent stylesout of which one is "ideal" in the senseof having all four dimensionswell developed; and one is hardly an intellectualstyle at all since it is weak on ail doesnot take i n combi natori cs dimensions. Bu t th i s s i m p l ee x erci se us very far. It is the distinct quality, the tenor given to the dimenw i th i n a n i n te l l e c tu as l ty l ethat counts.A nd that i s the subj ect s i o n .s of the next section.

Saxonic Paradi gma nal y s i s Descriptions: Propos i ti onp roduc ti on Explanations: T heory fornrati on Comnentary on other intelle<-t uals: * paradi gms - propos i ti ons - theori es

Teutonic
strc)ng

Gal l i c strong

N i pponi c weak

weak

vely

w eak

w eak

s frung

stronS weaK
v ery s trong v ery s trong w c ak

srrOilg

s trong

v ef\ rilr{ rll!l

2. Saxonic, teutonic, gallir and nipponic styles: An effort at characterization ln Table I the reader will find summarized in a highly synoptic form what I am trying to say. However, all of this has to be spelt out and that will now be done in a more circular manner. Irr other words, this section will not be divided into four suLr-sections, one for each intellectualstyle. Rather, I shall try lo procr*d by contrast,

b y elucidat inga poinl about one st yle wit h a point per t ainir r g to another style. In duin6 so it is my hope that, at the end nf f ht section, imagesof how thesestylesare conceivedof will ernerfl,e. In the table therc are actually only two profiles, one shili'eilby th e saxonicand nipJr onic st yles,and one by t he t eut onicanc{gallic styles.Moreover, all fnur stylesappeal to have one strong 1:nilrfin comnlon: they are atrlrather good at commenting on othrr intellectu als. I n st at ing t his sim ple point is m ade: t he int ellect unl cnm "l m unit y is t o sor neext snta closedcom nr unit y,f eeding on it selfin all societies. Many intelh:cluals receive a$ their major impressinns what other intellectualsdo and say. That is the reality to which they react, empirical reatrltyas well as potential reality, anql in the negativesenseas their commentary will often be critical. l}rt having said this one should also note that (hereare lots of dil'l-erenr;es, and this may be as good a point a$ any to enter the' suhject. In short, how is intellectualcommentary * this rather incestnous and delightful activity -- carried out in the four styles? Br oadly speaking, it is our cont ent ion t hat t he saxonic st yle fosters and encourag*t debate and di.*c:ourse. The gelleral spirit is

?,24 T'heur_y and methffil,:,

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Gultung

Theorie et mdthodes 825

( h a t i n te l l e c tu a l s shoul clbe c o n s ti tu t{ :a {ra;fl , that l .ogetherness preserved,that there is a gcntlemen'sagreen:rent to the effect lhat " w e s h o u l d s ti c k to g e th e ra n c lconti nueour cl ebal e i n spi teof our di ffe re n c e s " ,th a t p l u ra l i s n ri s a n overri di ngval ue, hi gherthan the v a l u e sa tta c h e dto th e i n d i v i d u al l y or col l ecti vel y hel d systerns of peopl e of di fl erent be ti e f. Se n ri n a rsw i l l l e n d to bri ng togetherr f e a th e r,th e p e rs o n " i n th c c h ai r" w i l l hani l l c l he cl ebate i n a pars i m o n i o u sn ra n n e r,a n c ll h e fi rst di scussant l vi l l opcn hi s/her speech w i th th c u s u a lc o mme n tto th e e ffect that: " l greatl yenj oyedl i sten, d rni ri nghi s masteryof the factsof the in g to M r X ' s p re s e n ta ti o na c a s ea s w e l l a s h i s w a y o f m a rshal l i ng the facts together,but. . . " . Th e " b u t" c l a u s ema y th c n b ecomequi te cxtcn.si ve, w i th l ots of c u tti n g e d g e sa n d b i ti n g p o i n ts , but more l i kel y than not therew i l l poi nt at tl i e end. be a c o n rp l i me n ta ry c , o n g ra tul atory Here one should perhapsmention the differencebetweenthe UK an d th e U S v e rs i o n so f th e s a xoni cstyl e. In rny experi ence, i n the UK, the "but" clausewill tend to be severaltirneslonger than the complirrentary introductory clause, whereas the opposite rnight be th e c a s ei n th e U S , p a rti c u l a rl yas one movcs w est.The U S professorat a graduateserninilrwould do his very hesllto find even in t h e mo s t d i s m a l p e rfo rrn a n c e th at l i ttl e nuggetw hi ch, w hen pol i shed, might produce a credible shine. He will tend to brush aside all t h e o th e r th i n g s ,g o s tra i g h tfr:r i t and bri ng i t forth: " I real l ythi nk y o u h a d a p o i n t th e re !" F l i s U K col l eague w oul d be somew hatl ess ge n e ro u s H . e w o u l d n o t b ru s h asi deal l hopes,but he w oul d make i t very clear that the person presentingsomething is a d*fendant, in t h e d o c k , a n d th a t th e b u rd e n of proof restson hi m, not ot) rhe di s c u s s a n l .s T. h e U S p e r$ o nw i tl feel that he has the task of bri ngi ng ab o u t s o n l e th i n gp o s i ti v e ;i n l l r i tai n the opposi ten)ay be the case. But again, the differencesaside, the general idea ir; that very different convictions should be brought together in a debate,be conperhapsproducesomething fronted with eachother, and r,rltimately which is more than the surn of the parts. Thc r:ther person should be b u i l t u p , n o t p u t d o w n . Not so in teutonic and gallic intellectualdiscurisions. First, the dispersionor diversity of opinion in one singlcdebateis likely tcl be smaller, the audienceto be more homogeneous, and thus there will be lessdiscrepancyto handle. Second,there will llc no cornpliment a ry i n l ro d u c ti o n e v e na m o n g f ri ends,and certi l l rrl y not i f there i s the slightestdiscrepancy of opinion. Third, nuhoc{r,, will go out of hi s o r h e r w a y to try to fi n c l th a t l i ttl e nuggct,tl rat l i trl e el ernent of

go h ope on which t u i; uild - on t he con( r ar y, t he discussant will s s t r aight f or t he weakestpoint . r 2Thal weakestpoint will be f ished o ut of t he pond of r vor ds,br ought inlo t he clear esfsunlight f 'or display, so as to leaveno doubt, and lor dissection,u,hich is d*ne with considerableagility and talent. Probably most ol' the debate will be devoted to such aspects, and tliere will be few if any sooll.ring comment$towards the end to put the deferrdanttogether as a human being; no attempt will be made to mop up the blood and put woirndedegostogether.As opposedto the sa:rrunic exercise wouk"lbe in humour and back-slapping on such an occasion,g:rzcs sonrewhat cold, facessomewhatstiff , and a slight elernr*nt of'scc,rn The paperanclderisionnright enrergefrom the cornersof the ey'cs. g iving def endant wonld exper ience t he sit uat ion as a vict inr " Hut s ince he knows t his in advance,in or der not t o be vict ir nizedhe might prefer to play it safe,,be cagey, stick to the line frorn the beginning, of l'er sonrc-pieremptory phrases designed to deflect h ost ile at t ent ion by ut t er ing t he cor r ect m agic wor ds, by paying o bedience t o aut hor it ies and st r at agem s of t hat kind. T'henet r esult might cer t ainly not be int ellect ually t r ivial but wouicl have an eler vit hin t he saxonicset t ing ment of subser vience" The count er par t s might go m or e quickly t o t he point , t he US player spcr hapsnr or e a udaciously t hau t he ot her s.But t hen it should also be m enfioned that there is a price l'or audacity: anything goes, everything is v aluable, one does not r eally have t o t hink t hr ough one's ideas s incet her ewill be a syr npat het ic ear at t he ot her end, eagert o help *- among other reasonsbecauseof a senseof collettive re;qipons ibilit y as m em ber sof an "int ellect ualpr of ession". I n t he nipponic set t ingall of t his is dif f er ent . f r ir st , t he Japanese not ver y skilf ul at debat ing,t hey ar e not r eally t r ained in t hat ar {3 direction. Second,rvhateverhappensthe first rule v,ttuld he not to harm pre-established social relatiolr,s. l'hese are of {wo tvpes.rr Ttrere is the generalrespectfor airthority, for the ffri,ls(r:r wherever hc is - the respectl'or verticality.And then thereis the sense nf coll ect ivi. smof , or ganic solidar it y; wc ar e all one, essenlially of t he same kind, and whatever happens it should be possible for us to end up in t he eveningon t he t at am i- m at ,dr inking Sappor oh*el or Sunt or y whisky, t elling st or ies ahout sim ilar m eet ings in of her places.As to the latter point the Japanese are like their saxorric r:olleagues, but without the samedelight and talent for shilrp inteilectu al discour se. intellectualdebate?T'hisis a So, what happensduring a Japancse

826

'I-heory und methcsd,s

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Thictrie et mdthq(les

827

question not easily answereclancl particularly nol by a guijin (frtreigner or stranger) becausewhen a gai"iin is present the atm t> s p h e re d e fi n i te l yc h a n g e sThe . basi cpoi nl i s thar the i ntel l ectual c o rn n e n ta ryta k e sa n o th e rfo rm. It i s not so ntrrcha questi on of exp l o ri n g p a ra d i g m s , q u e s ti o n i ng data bases and scruti ni zi ng the adeq u a c y o f th e i n fe re n c e s ma d e i n the theory formati on. It i s rnuch mo re a q u e s ti o no f c l a s s i fi c a t i on: w hi ch schooldo you bel ong to? where did you get rt from? who said it first? One mighr even say t h a t i t i s th e e n c y c l o p a e d i a /di cti onary approach to i ntel l ectual c o mme n ta ry , th e p h i l o l o g i c a lw ay of comi ng to gri ps w i th such m a tte rs :th e s o c i a la n d p e rs o n albi ography.A l so i rnportantw oul d b e a n e x p l o ra ti o no I th e p e ri m eterol ' the person' $i ntel l ectual att a c h m e n ts : year you w h a t w o u l d b e y o u r vi ei r,on thi s or that' l L.ast s a i d th i s , n o w y o u s a y fh a t, l i o w do the tw o hang together? l s w hat you said on subject matter X in any way relatedto what IvIr B said o n Y? It is a mapping o.l'intellectual territory, an exploration of border lines,and the generalheadingover this exercise would be one word: s c h o o l , o r i n J a p a n e s ew , i th a parti cul ar connotati on,i emoto. l t goes without sayingthat anv particulerr school rright arousestrong e mo ti o n s , b u t th o s e e m o ti o n s are general l ycorceal ecl duri ng the labelling exercise.The question is whether the person acceptsthe label, and once that has been established there is no need for any I ' u rth e r c o m m e n t. In fa c t, ;tny l urther comment mi ght destroy so c i a lre l a ti o n s .It i s v e ry rri u chl i ke the ubi qui tor" rs Japanese ri tual gentl ernen, o f s o c i a li n tro d u c ti o n :tw o J a panese both dressed very w e l l i n c o n s e rv a ti v e w e s te rnc l o thes(bl ack sui ts,w hi te shi rts,dark t i e s , d a rk s o c k s , b l a c k s h o e s)approach each ofhcr, bow , utter w o rd s o f g re e ti n gu n ti l b o th h ave achi eved appropri ateangl esbetw e e n th e b a c k s a n d th e l e g s, w hereupon thei r hands grasp the v i s i ti n g -c a rd s pul l thenr oui and shared i n th e i r b re a s t- pockets, a w a re n e s s o f re l a ti v es ta tu s i s obtai ned after the exchange and a quick glanceat the cardshave taken place. The debateis a socisl act rather than an intellectualone, The classificationinto schoolspreempts the debateand makes for lessdisruption ol social relations. Nothing I have said should be taken to mean that there are no differences of opinion within the four intellectual cultures. The question is how these differencesare handled. In the saxonic app ro a c h th e y c o m eo u t i n th e o p e n, therei s a debi rte; i n the U S styl e, however, differenceswouki lend to he glossedovcr ulore than in the UK, and more altempt r,vnuld b* rnadeto bring ilb{.}ut a sense of

at t hij cncl.'I her e will be jubilat ion if any kind <il ''t : onconsensus that vergence"occurs. A personwilling to emit signalsto the el"fEct some he has changerd opinion in the courseof the debatewill receive laur els f or t his. Fle cer t ainly wor r ld not in t eut onic and gallic cult ur es: t her e ar e dif f er encesof opinion, m at ur e peopl* llave of equalst anding.I t is sint lil';"l ar e in no sense t heir sand opir t ions you colar e wr ong" - or som et hingcloset o it . Saxt 'r t r ic am r ight , ( ) u'n opit heir of m ight have a som ewhatsim ilar opinion leagues nion, but t her e would be t his dif f er ence:t he debat e is seenas a dist ancein t hc specsour ceof delight , cven acr ossa consider able gauls not wit lr : r nt ; lgonist s debat e, but al. so love t r um . Teut onsand point in a debatethen view engage to of too far from their orvn ft waste an act of condescension, or would be consideredhopeless pr im ilir es, ,or ( O ne wit h sem ihum ans, r r ot debat e docs of t ir r r e. to also applitls debates u'hat said about And has been barbarians.) journals, magazines, and reviews:possiblythis is the reasolllvhy in the US l/re professionalreview (usually calledAmerican X Review; for X insert any social sciencediscipline)is a very thick all'air embracing the whole profession,whereasin other intellectnaluultures it is a more modesl.thing. The price the US pays for br:rcoming ot her cult ur *s ilr e nlor e is per hapsa cer t ainblandness; ecum enical ptecisely excc:p{ national character less distinct have a and sectarian t hat of sect ar ianisf lt . seTaking all of t his ns a point of depar t ur elet m e m ove t o t r h# in t he of r ealit yhanclh: d cond r ow of Table l: how is t he descr ipt ion f our st yles?'f he basic cont ent ion is, of cour se, t hat t hc si, t xr : nic style is very ritrong in this particular regard. The British pr:nchant ra is pr over bial,as is t he US love of st it t ir it ics.To f or docunr ent at ion have t hor oughly scr ut inizedall sour ces,t o have put all t he dat a together,concealingnothing, is a key criterion of scholarsltilt.fhis is by no means easy, it is a craft. But as a craft it has a par{.itlular faiths and beliefsenter into it to a lesserextcilt fhan characteristic: into other intellectualpursuits. One can be for or agains[a thuory; one may like or dislike a fact, but one cannot be for or agailrs{it in the same way. Perhaps one might go one step further arlc{lilnply say: data unile, theories divide. There are clear, relativclY q:x{rlicit what constitutesa valid fact and whut does canonsfor establishing not; the correspondingcanonsin connectionwith theoriesarr rnore vague.Few things would so improve the gentlemen'sdehate,hailed as in the saxonicexcrcise, as a superiot form of human intercottrse dato. And l'ew things would help as much to produce strortg divi-

8:tl

Theor.yand methods

Caltung

Galtung

Th{orie et rndthode,s 829

sions -- people with firm commitrnents - as lhetsriesin the teutonic and gallic intellectualapproaches, One might now complete the picture of the silxonic intellectual style by emphasizing its weak points: not very iitrilng on theory for_ mation, and not that strong on paradigm awareness. This is not to say that Britain, in particular, has not produced (as opposedto imported) philosophers of science of the highest quality. But somehow it is not so obvious that they relate directly to the scien_ tific enterprise.In a sensethey belong more to another craft aparr from it, on the side. British historians ancl Briti.siranthropologists are known and respected for their tremendou.s skill anit energy in producing an astounding variety of detail, of data of all kinds _ some of which is extremely hard to get at. They are certainly not known for sweepingtheories, for grand perspectives, for having projected the type of ligtrt that makes vast areaslook bright but at the expenseof all the nuances,the shadowsin the crevices and the canyons of doubt and so on. One could even surrnise that an averagesaxon researcher would fall prey to vertigo if a theoretical pyramid rose five ccntimeters above the grouncl. . . . fhe lrighesthe would venture would be to Merton's proverbial .,theoriesof the middle-range":r5a set of srnallpyramids gathcrecl in the landscape with no super-pyramidoverarchingthem exceptthe basic tenetsof s a x o n i ci n te l l e c tu ac l u l tu re i n its i deographi c (U K ) anclnomotheti c ( U S) v a ri e ti e s .r6 How can all this be justi!'ied'? There can be no referenceto par_ t i c u l a r s o u rc e s ,i t i s a l l p a rt of the generalcul ture. I' he hi stori an s i mp l y k n o w s th a t h e i s a g a i nst ' ,sw eepi nggeneral i zati ons" ,so does the anthropologist.Probing into the matler will not bring out very interestinganswers.Because of this kincl clf' unawareness the teutonic or gallic intellectual might not eve. realize that he is somewhatshort on documentationtcl back up what he is saying.To him intellectualactivity has at its very centretheory-fbrmation. The function of data would be to illustrate rather than to dcnronstrate. A discrepancy betweentheory and data w<luldbe hanclled at the expenseol the data: they may either be seenas atvpical or wholly er_ roneous,or more significantlyas not really pertinentto the theory. And here the distinction between ernpirical ancl porential reality comes in: to the teutonic and gallic intellectual, potential reality may be not so much the reality to be even ruorc avoideclor even more pursued than the enrpiricalone but rather a rnore reul reality, realitv free fronr the noise and impurities of empini':nl realiry.

Theor iesr r l'er t o t hat r ealit y,nr at hem at icr econom rl ics be; ler haps ir.rg a casein point. To this it can be objectedthat few peopleare in f act so st r ong in m at hem at ical econom ics as UK and US economists - a fact readily admitted. But the answermigh{.also be that in this respect,they are not really saxonic.They are in flrct addressingthemselves to a potential reality which has sorne, usually not very explicit relatiortship to realityas known by peoplcin general t he dat a t o f it t his r ealit y. r T - and ar e select ing Thcr:ry-tbrmation is the stringing-together-of-words, with occasional anchoring in a clata base. Few rvould dispute tlrn{ teutonic and gallic:intellectuals can be mastersat this. But having renr;rrked on this common trait one must clearly point to the trenrendcius differences existing betweenthem as to how they proceed. It can probably be nraintainedthat teutonic theory-forrnarionis above all purely deductive. It is guided by the basic irlea of Cedankennotwendigkeit: if one has acceptedthe premisesand certain rules of inference,then the conclusion follows" The goal is to arrive fr<lm a small number of prernises at a high numbcr o1'conclusionscoveringas vast an areaof inquiry as possible.Ba.sic to all this is the logical relation of implication: p+q, which pernrltsall kinds of relationsbetweenp and q, exceptthe idea that p (preiliset) could be false and at the same tirne q (conclusion)could be true" When one says"if p, t hen q" and in addit ion one says"p is lr ue, t hat is what my reseaich has shown me {whether empirical or nonempirical)" then, by modus ponens the conclusioncanot lail lo be t heor y- f or m at ionis basedon t his, at leastin "q is t r ue". Deduct ive principle. 'Ihe teutons are masters at building suclr trlyramids^ Mathematicsis basedon this, so mathematizationmay L\rnd to bias I8 t he int ellect ual t owar dst he t eut onicst yle. Why this excursion into elementarylogic? Simply to shorv one fhing: theory formation is basedon strong and stricf dichotonries, and is highly unam biguous. Dat a m ay conf ir m a hypot hesis only up to a cerlain point, but if it is 100percentone may even suspectthat the hypothesisis a tautology. In other words, there is rr:om for a certain ambiguity. Not so with the implication relation nnd hence with theory formation: onceone has accepted the plemisers one cannot but accept the conclusions. In other words, one becoruesa prisonerof premises and of the deductiveframework in which they are enrbedded. If one wants a conceptualization ofthe univcrs* or a part of it as fundanientally orderly, whether one thinks that that c.rrder enrerges from reality itself or is sornethingthat onc imposes

830

Theory and methotls

Galtung

Galtung

Th6orie et mdthndes

8l I

upon reality (or both) there is rru objection to this approach. But if one at a deeperlevel one is attracted by ambiguitieseither because prisoner because of one's own thotlghls or does not want to be a theoryone feels the universe itself is ambiguous, then dedmctive n nuisance, and logic may become formation basedon Aristotelian jar:ket. puts strait It reality in a even a dangerousone. to this problem, '[fre first is the There are at leastthree responses gallic within style, the secondthe inlallectual approach taken the intellectual wilhin nippunis rryle. And the the approach taken you pul, can enjoy trltlly the delight very is as follows: simply third, of the deductive exercisewithout in any senseassilntingthat the "truth" of propositions in the pyrarnidal network is also an empirical truth. It may simply be a postulatedtruth, and the rest is a game. The name of that game is formal logic; the nlost important As is well known branch of the tree of formal logic is mathenratics. there are superb rnathematicians within all fmur intellectual cultures. The argument to be developednow is that the gallic (and later on the nipponic) approach to theory lbrrnation is verv clifferent from the teutonic. More particularly, I think the gallic approach is cerdeductivebut not necessarily tainly a stringing-together-of-words, ly. The words connole something,they carry convictir:n.As a matter of fact they may carry even nore conviction tltan a teutonic p y ra m i d o f ti g h tl y i n te rl o c k i n guni ts. B ut i t may be that thi s pow er than to a crlrtainartistic of conviction is due lessto logical $t.rHcture parprose very often possesses, quality that gallic social-science is ticularly when spokenand written hy its true master$.Persuasion Behind the carried, perhaps, lessby implicatiorr than by tlldganc:tt. lganceis not only the mastery of good style as opposed to the dryness of Cernlan social-scienceprose, often hordering on alliteradrabness,but also the use of bons mots, double enteltdres, tions and various types of semanticand even typographicaltricks. The reversalof sentences is one of these: if an article startswith the assumptionthat the egg is the way in which a hen producesanother that the hen it must end with the assumption (not conseqilence!) hen is the way in which an egg producesanother egg. Similarly, the poverty of philosophy will become the philosophy of poverty tuwards the end of an essay.Typographicallythis cnn becomeeven respondence more clear by seeingto it that there is some kind of r;:on between the first and last word on the printed patl*" I'he aesthetic aspect- balance,symmetry - matt.ers.re

What I am trliflg to say is that there may be sonre underlying figure of thought that is directing rnuch of the theory-forming exercise. It has been indicated above many times that for the teutorlic intellectualstyle this is thepyramid, perhapsthe steeperthe betler, evenwith a basic 'ncontradiction" on top. Thus, the contradictions for betweenlabour and capital for Marx, betweenId and Super-ego Freud and betweenAryans and Jews for Hitler were such key prinaxioms from which an enormous number of ciples, perspectives, conclusions were more or less rigorously deduced. 'fhe basic postulate for all three was that the contradiction had to be overcome for the systemto "mature", hy labour controlling capital in a mature socialistsociety,by Super-egoand Id producing an Ego in balancedcommand of either, and by the Aryans overcoming the Jews, by expellingand exterminatingthem. From one basic principle very many conclusions were drawn, some of them highly d r am at ic. at a corNot so in the gallic intellectualstyle. If I should g,ucss respondingurrderlyingfigure of thought it would be n hammock: The body two pylons and betweenthem the hammock suspend*cl" is suspended comes to rest when the stringing-together-of-words between two opposed poles, with a tension, but a balanced tension. Opposedis not the sanreas opposite,maybe "courrterpoised'o would be a betterexpression. There is a totality to things, a balance rat her t han a sent r e,and a sum m it , as t he pyr am id m et aphnr f or the teutonic style indicates. But the totality cannol be shown through rigorous deduction,It has to be hinted at, one has to dance around it and view it from many angles until in the end it rests belweenthe two poles.20 suspended Both the teutonic and the gallic exercises in theory formation require a verbal ability masteredr:nly by the few. I would even venture the hypothesisthat it is more difficult to build rigorously a solid teutonic pyramid or balance artistically a well-suspencled gallic hammock than to mobilize all the craftsmanshipnecessary to document a proposition within the saxonic style. And this tallies well with what was said above about the styles of intellectual discourse.The teutonic and gallic types of intellectualintercnurse are highly Darwinian struggles where only the fittest survive, hardened, and able to dictate the terms for the next struggle.T"he are more saxonic, US nrore than UK, and the nipponic exercises tolerant, more democratic, lesselitist, Certainly this relatesto fhe circumstancethat both the USA and Japan are countries of mass

832

Theory and methorJs

Caltun,g

Goltung

Thd<trieel mithodes

833

edur:lltioneven a[ thc.lertiary lcr',*litncl for that reasonhave lo ad_ mit nrore people to the arena of inlell*,.^tual (or conversediscoursr: ly, bercause they adrnit more peopletlrey can becornecounlrieswittt rn;rss r:ducationeven flt the tertiary level).rr In b o th th e te u to l ti ca n d g a ll i c cascs i t i s a que.sti on not onl y of nof piltting one's foot wfoltg, but als(}of seekingto $tep into new t erri tu ry . T h e s e n s e o f w h a t i s correctw i thi n each i ntel l ectual .styl e ha s t' b e v e ry s h a rp i n d e e d . l n the l eutoni c case one ai n.rsfor rigorrr, if necessary l't the expense of elegance; in the gallic casetlre go a l i s e l e g a n c e p , c rl ra p sa t the expense of ri gour i rr fhe l eutoni c se n s e . T h e s ta n d ta k e n h e re i s , of course,that nei theri s ri ght nor w ro n g ; th e y a re s i m p l y tw tr d i l ' ferentapproaches to the i ntcl l ectual en te rp ri s eAn . d o f th e trv o th e gal l i c i s probabl yrhe more 6l i ti st:rl re true mailre has to nlasler what saxonic, teutonic ancl nippr:nic intelfec{uals master and in uddition be an artist: thus a structure for f h e i n te l l e c tu a lc o m rn u n i ty i s c reatedw hi ch i s i somorphi c to rhe $t ru c tu reo f th e F re n c hc i v i l s e rvi ce!12 Where, then, doesthe nipponic approachto theory formation fit in to th i s ? A t fi rs t g l n n c eo n e mi ght say that perhapsthere i s not much theory formation in the nipponic intellectual style, or not nr u c h m o re th a n i s fo u n d i n saxoni c thi nki ng. Theori es take a stand, they not only t;ayrhat certain rhings are like this rather than [ h a t, th e y c h a i n to g e th e r a l o t o f thi ngsi n a framew orkof the val i d, and whatever remains outside lhe franiework is easily seenas in_ v n l i d (n o te th e d o u b l e me a n i n gof thi s w ord). The l ack ol anrhi gui t y , th e c l a ri ty o f th e te u to n i c a l l y shapecl theoryi s i nconrpati hi e w i th basic Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist approaches.These e;rsternapproachesall militate againstthe atonrisrnand the deductivc. rigidity of the western exercises in general ancj the reuronlc one ln particular. Take for instancethe Hindu insistence on the insepurability of basic elements(you cannot realize -. incluclingcomprchenci one element without realizing or comprehencling the others);2r the B u d d h i s t i n s i s te n c e o n th e c i rc u l ari tyof reasoni ng (a sentence and rts converse together conrprise a nruch bctter approach to truth t ha n n n e o f th e s e n te n c e a s l o n e : " l cl ri vethe car" counterpoi sed wi l h " T h e c a r d ri v e sm e " g i v e sa truer pi ctureof the si tuati on * - a poirrtwith which one might readily agree);2a and the Daoii;t f'ocus on a very moving dialectic. One must also take into accr:rmnt the countless ambiguities in Japanese(cf., Galtung anc.llrlir;himura, 19 8 I ) w h i c h a re e mi n e n tl yc o mpati bl ew i th these el enrcnts of Fni ndu an c l * ri e n ta l th i n k i n g b u t n ru ch l ess compati bl e w i rh decl n* :ti ve

scholar feelsuneasywith theory follnation. However, if a Japanese an elegantwesterntheory he mav not be able to identify the sour*e and may try to attack the theory on its urvn of his uneasiness grounds, that the premisesand/or conclusionsare sinrply not stripirically tenable, for instance. Tlre occidental protagonist of the theory may be surprised becaucesuch arguments sinrply do llrl hold water and he will be unable to understandthe real source of' the objections. Many strands come together :rt this point. First, tlre ^Iapane.se rarely pronounce absolute, categorical statements in ctrailydiscourse; they prefer vaguenesseven about trivial nratters (they would rather not say: "the train is leaving at twelve o'clot:k") have a ring of immodesty, of being juttrgeclear statements because ments of reality. To say "this is my f"heory" and then go ahead l.o ;rtexpound it would be immodestyrvrit large, a highly un-Japanes*: titude. What one might do would be to proceedto intellectual(ilmmentary, saying "there i.ssuch a l.heory" and then describeit as somebodyelse's,perhapsplacing it on the intellectualmap withotll. necessarily adding any confessioncertificate.This will sound very unsatisl'actory to the occidentalrnind that wants to kn0w whether the per son is a pr ot agonistor an ant agonist ,and what t he st and taken is, so that he can confronl.fhe person,not an abstracttheory. But at a deeperlevel I t hink t he f ear of unam biguit yis m or e ir nportant. Just as the occidentalrnind seemsto have a fear of inconsi st ency,am biguit y, cont r adict ion, and st r ives t o obt ain im ages the oriental mind strives for th* upthat are contradiction free,25 posit e and not necessar ily lbr any linguist ic r eason, br r t silr r ply because the underlyirrgcosmologycontainsvery differenl visionsof This doesnot at all m eant hat t heoly how r eal r ealit y is const it ut ed" formation is impossible, but it calls for more holistic, clialectical These ar e inf or m ed by ancient wisdom o{ t he [ {ir r app r oaches. du/BuddhistlDaoist varieties(not so much Confucian or Shinto) t hat m ight sound qt r aint ,par and ar e hencecouchedin expr essions What to ears. also seemsclear is tttat $o far no ticulariy occidental a synthesiso1' "nroderil" has truly able to bring about one been forms of understanding.''lhe insights and scientific "traditional" searchis perhapsgoing on (seee.g. Mushakoji, 1979),but to tflo {:xtent that the resultsare still fentative,the discourseproduced cfurcs not sound like theory formation to the occidentallytrained ear or dubbed "wisdom ", but t hat is not eye br r l like ver biage.I t m ay Lr e necessarily a positive epithet.

{tnd tnethqd.s 8-14 7'heor.t,

t.i*ltung

tialtung,

I heorie e! nteth(wles i5.1,{

H e n c e , n ry c o n c l u s l o n i s tftat therni pponi c approach to l l l i s w i l l re s u l ti n : (a ) l i ttl e ()f no theoly at nl I bei ngdevel opccl , d i l e n ri n ;;r and o r o n l r' \' e ry c a u ti o u s l ye l a b o ratcd,w i th al l ki tl i l s of excuses (b ) s o rn e th i n g a theory bci ng l l ut fori l ' ard, but c l o s cr' tro apolopius; {E r{l .l nt}t s easi l yrcconci l edw i th l trc' ( e x p re s s e ciln ) n o n -o c c i c l e i l tal o c c i d e n tu l a s p e c tso t J a p a rt cs*i ntel l ecl uali tcti t' i ty; ancl (c) l i tt: ' Therel l re mi n d tu rn i n g n to re and more to matl rE tttati cs. J a p a rre s e i n Japan, but stl i ar the Japanese ma n y fi rs t-ra tem a th e l tta ti c i a ns c c l n tri b u ti o n to s o c i a l s c i e n ceti teory-l ' ormati on,i rrcl udi ng such atl tl future studi es'i s sttrdi es f i e l d s i ,tsp e a c es tu d i e s ,ri e v e l opnrent i n d e e dn * g l i g i b l e .2 o L e t u l th e n a p p ro ti u hth * probl ent of theory forntarti onfrottl of soci alstruclurfl a n o th e r a n g l e ,b a s e dfi to rc o l i someconcepti ons w i th. The basi c w c are concernecl i n th e fo u r ty p e s o f s o c i e ti es h y p o th e s i s i s v e ry s i rn p l e : th cre has to be srl me ki nd of corand the structure ot' betweenlleilerfilsocial sjtructures responclence c o m m u n i l y , a n c lt hereai so hasto be someki nd of corth e s c i e n ti fi c communi ty ancl th e s tru ctureof the sci enti fi c b e tw e e n re s p o n d e n c e th e s tru c tu re o f th e s c i e n ti l ' i cproduct, that i s the mi xture nl ' producti on/theoryi ormati on/comp a ra d i g ma n a l y s i s /p ro p o s i ti orl m e n ta ry u l ti ma te l y p ro d u c e d. {For a [urther expl orati on, scc coul d one have about G a l tu n g , 1 9 7 7 ,c h a p . l .) W h at assun.rpti ons t h e s tru c tu reo f th e s c i e n ti ifc c < l nrmuni ty? In Ccrmany the structure seems by and large to be very' pyrarnidal. There was a tremendousrespectfor the Professor, the but real, and his reliltionshipto the lesrier respectwas not pretertded a n d s tu d e n tsw as that of master to di sci pl e.' Il te f ry o f a s s i s ta n ts l vcl l o f th e s c i e n ti fi cc o ntmuni ty structure corresponds s te e p n e s s professor is w i th th e s te e p n e so sf th e th e o r y pyranri d:the l ri gherthe pri nci pl es ott l o c a te df h e d e e p e ro r mo re a b stractthe I' undamental w h i c h h e i s w o rk i n g ; th e l o w er l re i s l ocatedthe l ow er the l evel ol " sol di er"ot' s the ft-rot p ro p o s i ti o n su n ti l o n e c o m e sd ow n to students, l n ol thi s al l matters. w h o d i rty th e i r h a n d sw i th enrpi ri cal r e s e a rc h bel ri ncl as l aggi ng o n e n l a y p e rh a p ss e eth e u n i versi tycontl nuni ty' changesthat have after all takcn place in Ciermalry,particularly in Germany under socialdemocracy, from the feudal days lasting well a n d e v e n the tw enti ethcentury. i n to th e n i n e te e n th It i s ccrtai nl y6l i ti st Bu t i s F ra n c en o t th e s a m etype of country' ? cl i te i n Frenchsoci ei s an corrtmuni ty s c i e rrl i fi c th a t th e i n th e s e n s e i l bout master-di sci pl e one can tal k v e ry th a t tn u c h ty . Bu t I d o u b t for can Oermany' .l n w ay as one re l a ti o n si n fi ra n c e i n l l te s a ntt:

peolt ic nr ay be pr oud of ' being disciplcs,t hey m ay bc C e r r nar r y' fs ollower sol'M eisler s( i ilr xso. l cfc r r ed t o and r ct '*ricl t her nselves; r I h avealnr ostnevcr hear dt his in lir ; ince:t her e,it soundsr at lr cl as con, - 'ci, , 'cs or a m ASt crit t t ! ulu i f' cr , 'er ybody of hinr selfaisa r nast er , or nttscenrJi. One nrig.ht be working in sonrebody's depaltrtrt'rrtrt insu}t t u lht : Iai r or at or y, but lha{ is a t em por ar l' ancl necessar y Af t er t hat t lt e l'inal hun ian r r iindand r iignit y,soon t o he over com e. sl ,nt hesis of M ar u ilnd Fr eud will be wr it t en. . . . A scient if iccor r r nrunit y of nr ast cls, each wit h lr is own inim it able, highly ir r at honr e,uncnculnt t cr ct . l ci i v iclualist st ic yle,r uclrver y of t en r vcr r king by t he kind of inst it ut e t o r vhi<: h t he G er nr an pr of essr ir sar r alnr ost as i'r i"r st r at ed at nol. havir r gsulf isuccur nbing, ul t iur at el. v as t he ( lsr r nail nlast er s assist ance ci e nt scient if icor adm inisir alive by adnr inist r at ive dut ies,f illing it t i. rconare at being bogger lr t r own num ber ol't 'or nr s in or clert o conr plywit h bur eaucr ut itcx. r si d er able i ge ncies. Why is it t hat ( ier m an inst it r r t c: seem l t o be bigger t ir an t t r , ; Fre nch,t hat t he lat t r er t end 1o divide and subdivideunt il t hey conper sonswor king at hom e? Possiblybecnuse si st of one- and- a- half the out side st nr ct ur e calls f or ail even higher level of uom pct it iveness, possiblvbecause as a basicclr nr ; lct cr ist ir : individualism possiblybccause t r ait s such as ver t icalit y i s e l'enm or e pr or r r ) unced, ( and aut hor it ar ian and a cer t ain aut hor it ar ian suhnr issiveness dist r ibut edhet lveen t hc cl o nr inance of ot her s)ar e not syr nm et r ically I clo not know, but as a consequence it looks ; t sif t he tw o count r ies. cor r r scier r t if iciclca of t r ut h as t hat which is int er subject ively due rnt r nicable aud r c'ploducible needst o be m odif ied consider abiy to cult ur al diif e r enccs.t r st lr is a saxonicpr ejudice'l M or e concr et ely, in Cer m any ir r t er is obt ainedwit liin subject ivit y pyr anr idal r elat iona s chool of t hought , wit hin a m aslcr - disciple ship. What t his m eans is esser r t ially t hat t he disciplesar r ive af under st anding t he m ast erand in so cloingaccepthis t heor y wit lt out fundam ent ally challengingit . O r , if som ebody challenges it hc takes upon hinr sclt 't he whole bur r "ien of pr oof of ' est ablishing hi m self as a new r nast er ,above or alor r gside t he old one - * a hcr . culean t ask" int er subject ivit ybet weent wo pyr am ids is nr it asi, ; cr l for, t he t heor et ical const r uct ions ar e incom par able and t heir adh er ent s celebr at e t heir incom par abilit y by issuing solir l cer ti ficat est o each ot her t o t he ef f ect t hat t he ot her one is t r ot only w rong, but f undr ir r r cnt ally wr ong. 2t int er suhir : uf ivit v I n Fr anceI dot . r h{ t hat t her e is m or e hor izq: nt al

tl35

'fheor.yuttt:tmethods

Gollunlg

{ " iul{ung

T-lttiorie et ntdlhotl't',;

837

to s u b s ti tu tefo r th e l a c k o f a vsrti calone. There i s acl mi rati on for the power of conviction, verbal display, clear light cnianating fronr tlre lunrinaries.Brrl {here will never [re full conlmuniuation, if for n o o th e r re a s o nth a n th a t e a c hmasterhashi s ow n l nnguage. A n effort. by sonrebodylse to try to cornmunicale lrar:k that he has receivedthe message will be firmlv rejectedas au inf'ringementon t h e p e rs o n a li n te g ri tyo f f h e master:" you have nol understood me c o rre c tl y ,I d i d n o f s a y . . . " . E fforts to demonstrate rcproduci bi l i ty w i l l b e p u t d o w n a s a tte mp tsat pl agi ari sm, as l ack oi ' ori gi nal i tyon b o th s i d e s . Bu t th i s d o e sn o t me a n fh a l therei s not some ki rrdol i ntersubj ectivity at a higher level. There may be a sharing of the gallic intelleclual style as such, of the conviction that this is the way to build a theory and that lesserhunrau beings will never be abie to do it, as p ro v e nb y th e fa c t th a t th e y d o n' t do i t. Therecoui d be noddi ngapproval, often well concealed,for the fact that Monsieur so-and-so has arrived at the appropriatestyle, evenif one thinks what he tries to c o mmu n i c a tei s p u re n o n s ense. A German professorout to see whether he can give a "certificate" to one ol'his tiisciplesfor some h i g h e r ti tl e , w i l l n i e ti c u l o u sl yscruti ni zethe pyranri d secti on the disciple has presented as his thesisfor possiblelrojesin the rea.soning. The French professor nright prefer an oral clialogueto see whether the candidat has come to the levelof, being able to fenclfor trinrself. It could very well be a diulogue de sourds as it does not s e rv e th e p u rp o s c lo l ' c o rn mu ni cati on as much fl s l he purpose of ' l ' hc. t e s ti n gth e p a tte rno l ' v e rb a lb ehavi ouri n gencral , i deaof an i n* t e l l e c tu a ls e m i n a ra s a s e lti n g for mutual ai d ' ,1' l l hel p you today, maybe yr:u'll help trle to[lo[ro1y" - is a sclling between e q u a l si n a c o mmu n i ty "' fh i s re fl ectsthe basi cs;.rxoniassumpri c on, " w e a re a l l 6 l i te s i n th c B ri ri sh soci ety,certi {' i ed craftsmen w i th some differences in skill bilt not so much tlrmt we cannot relate re l a ti v e l yh o ri z o n ta l l yto e a u llother." B ut i t i s i nconrpati bl e w i th the vertical Cerman relationship whcre the mil$tef h;J.s to pretend t h a t h e h a s n o th i n g to l e a rn . And i t i s al so i ncompari bl e w i th the fragmented French relation llhere so many peoJrie scemto preiend that they are irrelevanttc)ench other, howevermuch they share,or precisefybecouse they share,the sameintellectualstyle. In that sett i n g p e o p l e a t th e to p m a y even become total l v i naccessi bl e to challenge and debate for fear of /ise maje.ste" B u t w h a { ;l b o u t .} a p a n ,i s t} r af not a fundanrentnl l v verti cal ,col le c :ti v i s ti c s u u i e ty ?Is n o t th e Japanesesoci al atnnr the human

wit h a leader ,ver y com pat igro up, built ar or ut dor ganicsoliciar it y, image giverr for the German setting? ble rvith the master-disciple be It cer t ainlyis, and one would im aginet hat in . lapant her e r voulcl st ylenot so dif f er ent lior n ma ny sm all pyr am idsnf an int ellect ual the t eut onic one. Wit hir r t hose pyr am ids t heor y f or m at ion cor ; ld social r elat ionswit hin would becom est r ongerand sO cial ern er ge, But it is t his lat t er point relat ionswit hout m ight be unnecessar y. pr oblem at ic: wor ld u'ar t he all- . lapar l since t he second tha t is ltave becomeso itnportant Y X and science for science associations pr obabl, v m any of t he sr nalier clclwn ser vedt o level tha t t hey have produce all Japanese a certain iernoto and have thus ccrme to perhatrls only be general collectivism could Japanese flatness.28 A in hor izonvcr t icalit y, and lht r obt ainedby sacr if icingsom e of t he perhaps, has, intellectual activity tality that has errsued,.lapanese been forced into proposition production rather than theory formation - for the many reasonsmentionedabove. 'fable I, Some words abaw paradigm analysis. As presented in strengthin paradigm analysisgoestol{fltherwith strength in theory for r nat ion. t t hink t her e is som et hingt o t his: one is r eiit let lt o t he other, l.heyderive frorn the samebasicabilities,verbal nnalysis,and can be relativelydetachedfrom too stlong confrontatiutrswit.hentpirical reality. Paradigm analysisand theorizingare as nn.rnipresent ari lhey are mostly;lf:sent from in the teutonic and gallic exercises, sa xonic ( par t icular ly US) 2eand nipponic int ellect uaiact ivit ) '. I n this, t her e is also no doubt anot her key t o t he explanalionof t lt e *r e neart he st yleof t oday ( iI m y obser vat iont ni ;r ponicint ellect ual par real sit uat ion) :. lapan is locat edin t he per ipher yof s; t xot t icti cular ly US int ellect ualcult ur e, cer t ainly not least ir t t he social This would seemopposedt cl t he t r adit ionaliit t ur csInf t he sciences. in Confucian studies (rnore trasedon imprr*srivctheory .lapanese formation or "stringing-together-of-ll'ords"), and irl (ielrnran j ur ispr udence,also highly deduct ivein it s const r uct iilt x. Ancl t hat brings us to a point in need of much more elaboration: if "[apanis gradually liberating itself from US tutelage and cluminailce in military and political affairs, as she llas already donc in economic affairs, will the intellectual style follow suit? Will sonrethingless similar to the saxonicstyle emerge? I mention this becauseit may yietd a more civilizat.ional,less political interpretationto what happenedin Cermany at the end of of Marxist thinking, There was a tremendousrflsilrgence the 1960s. an d a cor r espondingat t ack on "pu; t t l. ivisr n","f unct ionalisr n",

838

T'heory and melhw,":ls

Caltung

Goltung
.TABLf,

Theorie el mithodes 2 Iour styles,four figuresof lhought

839

arrclalso on empiricism in the social sciences in general(exceptthe type of empirical studies that were expectedto give unambiguous support to the theses of the type of Marxist thinking that enrerged).r0 Could this also have been a teutonic wave of protest against the saxonic penetrfttionbrought about particularly by US social science?Waves of' F-ulbright scholars in both directions, c o u n tl e s s e x c h a n g e s , U S empi ri cal soci al -sci encetechni ques penetrating far into the Cerman heartland -- was it not inevitable that this should lead to some type of resistance? Could it be, Jrerhaps, that a part of the Marxist resurgence was German nationalism?And if that is tlre casewoulcl it not merit support not only or necessarily becauseof its political connotations but also because its implication was a higher levelof diversity in intellectual styles?For those who seethe saxonicstyle as 1heworld style, as the intellectualculture underlyingan emerginglvr:rld civilization with a world government and so on, this q,ould he a step backward. For others who view the world differently it might be seenin a different v e i n ; e .g . a s a mo v e n re n lo f i n dependence. [.,etme try to summarizewhat I have said by putting down in the shcrfest possibleform the typical question put in the four intellectual styleswhen sonrebodyis faced with a proposition: -* saxonic style: hov' do -you operationalize il? (US version) h o w do you dautmtnt i t? (U K versi on) wie kcinnen Sie clas ryrilckJ'ilhren .* ableiten? (how can you trace this track * deduceit fro m basi cpri nci pl es?) peul-on dire cela en bon ./'rangais? (i s i t possi bl e to sa),thi s i n French?) donatano monka dsuka? (w h o i s your ma.ster?)

Non-diulectrcal

Dialectical

Pntposilionoriented

Theor.!'oilent(d

teutonic style:

g a l l i c s ty l e : nipponic stvle:

An o th e r w a y o { ' s u m m a ri z ing tni gtrtbe Lr1, w ay nf" l -abl e2:

The figuresshould certainly not be taken too seriously.Ilut they do contrast the very small saxonic pyrarnids, built on solid empirical ground, the gigantic teutonic pyramidal constructionscovering so and t ensionin t he gallic f or m of pr e$cnf at ion mu ch, t he dialect ical becom e in what m ight dat a t oget her vague at chaining at t em pt s the rvheel: the Buddhist based on the nipponic style an emerging in t he or der in which t he st yles qu adr ant s of t he t able ar e pr esent ed rnay be useful irr reminding I The figurcs in Table above. appeared points but which are perhaps not mentioned above, of somc one developedas much as they deserve.rl 'I'hus, saxonic and nipponic intellqclual styles would be factoriented which would mean that the educationsystemshould place a great deal of eniphasison collection of facts. Correspondingly, witys Cerman schoolswould be more orientedtowards men'rorizing of t hinking and Fr ench schools t owar ds m ast er y of t he Fr ench language,how to speakand write it ilot only correctly but elegantly, learning from the great mastersof gallic style. Second,the teutonic style is the only one that has a clear centre or sumnrit. About the gallic style one can say what is sometintes on llfl sait pas oir est le commencesaid about l:rench pre$entation: the vulgar, sinrplistictype r.rf ment et oi est la fin. I am not thinkirlg"

E,4.0 Theorv and rnethods

Galtung

Galtung

't'hiorie el rnelh(rdes 841

o l ' p re $ c n ta ti o nth a t i s o l ' te n r eferrnrd l o as " l ogi cal " and " C arte s i a n " : " th e h u rn a nb r:tl yh a s ( a) arnrs,(b) l egs;the arms are cl i vi ci e d i n to (l ) th e ri g h t a n rr, (2 ) the l efr arnr." t' har ki nd of tal k i r w h a t I w ,o u l dra th e r r* fe r to a s admi ni strati ve,' ' bul eaucrati c k. tal p e rh a p sl h e ta l k o f tl r* i n te l l i gel ttsi a, buf not the styl eof i ntel l ect u a l s .' l Bu t th a t b ri rrg su p i l l r i m p o rtant poi nI i n tl ' ' ,:{cutuni crryl e: rhc tre m e n d o u si n te l l e c tu a l i s k ta ken. There i s so rnuch at stake! Itr' s o me th i rrg s h ri u k l b e s h u w n to be i nval i d - a propori i ti onbei ng f a l s i fi e d , a s e n te n c e h o w e v e r arri ved ar bei ng rrnaccel rl abl e for w h a te v c rre a s o n s - tl l r:re i s n o maj or catastroph\, i n l he other three styles.The saxonicintellectualwill only have, at fflost, one pyrarnicl destrol'cdand can staft constructingone ntore litrle pyranrid oul of th e d e b ri i ;.T h e n i p p o n i ci rrte l l ectual has, i f' anythi ngat al l , a hi ghl y' f' l e x i b l ew h e e l , w h i c h tu rn s th rcugh vari ous facts. The gal l i c l nte l l e c tu a w l i l l u s u a l l yb e a b l e to hi de the cl i ffi cul tr, behi ndone mor e l e g a n tl b rmu l a ti o n , s u f' i p* rl l apssl i ghtl ypomf c i e n tl yanrbi guous, p o u s , b u t n e v c rth e l e s s l l ,o rtfr y of certi fi cate" v()tre presental i on m a g i s tra l e " a t th e e n d . Il u t the pure reutoni ci nrE l l ecrual i s not i n t h a t s i tu a ti o n :h e m a y ri s k s e ei nghi s w hol e pyrarni rlfal l to pi eces. H e n c e , i t i s n o w o n d e r th a t h e approaches the w ork w i th a certai n in n e r n e rv o u s n e se sx p re s $ ea ds rnuscul ar tensi cl rr and w i th no vi si bl e re s e rv e o f h u mo u r i n h i s c o u ntenance. N o anccdcl l c, no anal cl gy, n o e u p h o n y ,n o d o u b l e e n te n cl re can hi de the di sast* rthar can hi t a t e u to n i c p y ra mi d ; w i th i t ma y fal l a l i l ' eti me< l f i ntel l ectrral i nvcstm e n t.r' t l n a d d i ti o rrto th i s c l i ffe re n c e betw eenthe teul oni c and the gal l i c intellectualcornesa final clifference not explicitly nrentionecl abovet it is nry contention that the teutonic intellect.ual sirnply believes what hq says, somethinghis gallic counterpart would nev'errea.lly do. The teutonic intellectualmight evencome 10 the point where he believes th a t h i s p y ra m i d i s a good model of enrpi ri calreal i ty and act accordingly: he nray believe that empirical consequerrces will follow as readily rvhenthe key truth of the syster"xr is changed,in 1he same way as the logical consequences followed frorn his rigorous logical deductions. I think the gallic intellecruitl would be ntore prone to considerhis model as a metaphor, sheclding some light on reality but not to be taken too seriously, and then on the sidr: engagein rather saxonicand very hard empirical rvork (the teutonic colleaguemay also do that, but always with thc idea of trying to p ro v e h i s p y ra rrri dri g h t). An d thus endsthe story: the teuroni ci n-

tr:llcctualniav brc()me an extremistto the left or to the right as the he gallic he t akes his own t heor y ser iously; r t a cascm ay be because i rrt ellect ual m ay pr ef er a good lunch, wit h beaut if ully eir nam ent ed to a splendidFrench rneal. conversationas an actcompaniment

.1. Diversity in inlellectualslyles: some conditions and consequencts some elementsin the points exMost. readerswill have recognizecl plored above, nocidedinwardly in agreerncnt with some of them, or been strongly opshakenby the superficialityand lack of evidence, posedto some points made. For that reasoneverybodyshuuld look w i th scept icism at what I am now t r ying t o do: t o r nake t he whole descriptionsmore tightly imagemore plausibleby spinning the 1'our - certainly not in any into a web of conditions and consequences f r am ewor k, but in som ekind of m ixt ur e of saxdeduct ive cl e ar - cut I t o t he phenom enon onic, t eut onic,gallicand nipponicappr oaches am trying to explore. To st ar t at som e point : I have m ent ioneda num ber ui"cult ur al ttre condit ioning,if not unam biguously, and st r uct ur alphenom ena intellectualstylesabove. Maybe they r:ould be looked at once more to seewhether still some insightscan be gleanedfrom Ihcm. in a Intellectualactivity is primarily verbal activity, it is r;ruuched conlanguages thei c is a natural language.Betweel and artificial tinr.rum- mathematics being perhaps at the extreme of the artificial end * with various levels ol' technical jargon lucating a in-between- both in tel nrs cf inscientific languagesonrewhere f or t he out siderand unam biguit yf or t he insider . compr ehensibilit y can be ln another connectionI have tried to explorehow languages carriersof a certain social cosmology(seeCaltung and Nishimura, 1981) ,and t her e seem s t o be lit t le doubt t hat t he G er m an language is as well fitted for the teutonic inlellectual style as th* Japanese languagefor the rripponicstyle.Thus, the German sentrnilecertainl y h as a beginning and an end, it is unilinear , unidir ect ional;a can be turned around very many ways and still sentence -lapanese retain some of its meaningsalthough ncw nuancesmay come out each tirne. Maybe English and French are somewherein-between, certainly closer to Cerman as they are closely related languages w i thin t he I ndo- Eur opeanlanguagef anily'. I m ent ion t his onl1, becauseit m ight br ing out a way of explor ing ot her int ellect ual

B,r[] Theory und methods

Galtuny,

Gallunq

Theorieet methldes

843

s l y l e s ,re l a ti n gi n c l i cs ty l eto Hi ndi , l trabi r-' styl to e A rabi c ancjsi ni c sty l e to C h i n e s e* * a t l e a s ta s a poi nt of rl eparture. Il u t th e n th e re i s a l s o a n o tl l cr w ay ol ' a1:proachi ng l hi s: the distinc{ion betrveerr dlite languageandpotrtulurlanguagt.ls there a c l a s sd i f' fe rc n c c in language th at al so ctl rresponds ro tl rs cl asscl i f{ -e re n cie n i n te l l e c tu as l ty l eo f p rcsental i ofr? h4aytrc' therc rs: i n rhaL u p p e r-c l a s s C e rm a n s p e a k a r uuch ni ore rl gorousand conl pl i catec C l e rn ra nre l -l e c te d i n th c i r i ntel l ectualstyl e, upper-cl ass French s p e a ka n ru c h n tc i re a rti $ ti ca n d el egantFrrrrchrsl ' l ected i n thei r i nte l l e c tu a l s ty l e , u ;rp e r-c l a s s Rri ti sh speak rnore cot.r' cctl y (but l :n g l i s h g ra mn ta l i s n o t rh a t conrpl i cated, rvhat i s cr:rnpl i cated is r n a i n l y th e s p e l l i n g ), b u t a tr ove al l a l anguage much ri cher i n v o c a b u l a rya n d n u a n c e s ,n ru ch nrore r:apabl e of captLrri ng detai l a n d , th a t u p p e r-c l a s s J a p a n ese speak arr even more anrbi guous, co n rp l i c a te d a n c l s o c i a l l yc ' o n . sci ous Japanese. A nd thar poi nts to something not suffici*ntly mentioned above -- the class c"haracter o.f the intellectualstlle. All rhe diversity pointed to in the prececling se c ti o nma y b e re a l a m o n g i n te l l ectual 6l i tesor thcl se desi gnated as r n te l l e c tu ae l l i te s ,y e t Ih e rc rrra ybe a si nri l ari tyamong pcopl es.B ut e v e n i f th i s i s th e c a s eo n e s h o ul cJ not rrncl eresti mate thu sw ay that f l i te s h a v e o v e r p e o p l e ,h o rv they trai n tl re peopl e i n aci rrri ri ng the sty l e th e y th e rn s e l v ea s rc m a s tersof, and hou, the peopl e tend to I ' o l l o w s u i t. T h e fo u r q u e s l i o nsaskedat the enclof' the prececl i ng sectionin an efforl to epiloniizc the dil'l'ercnces i.rr.e askeclnor only L ry u n i v e rs i ty tra i n e d i n te l l e ctual s, buI a]so try the,,rn;rn i n the s tre e { " i n th e fo u r c u l tu re s .1 5 D e e p e rth a n th i s i s th e c u l tu ral l ydel ' i rt* rl nori on ol " trurl t. Ir.i l aybe t h e k e y d i .s ti n c ti o n h c re i s w h e thcr trutl i l s secl l ;r.s personrr:{ l ri ng n ra n e n ta l th o u g hd i ffi c u l l t" oa p pr.r:xi nratr, to reveal ,l o unravel ; or il s s o me th i n gfl e e ti n g ,fl o a ti n g bccausc rc;l l i ry i tsel f i s l l ceti ng and {'loating. This is not a quesrion of ,suhstanzbegrifl vs. Funktionsbegriff; the latter concepl of truth u'ould deny evenl.unctional in v a ri a n c e s w , h e re a sth e l b rm e r concei rti s compati bl e\c' i ththent. Ob v i o u s l y , d e d u c ti v efra mc w orks,part;ci l l arl yw hen tl rc pyranti ci s are huge and 1'orthat reasondif'ficult to de-construct becalrse of tlte in te l l e c tu a il n v e s tm e n t i n th e m, are bei l (r sui tecl to the I' i r.st type of t ru th ; d i a l e c ti c a lfo rms o f u n d e rstandi rrg frettersui tedtn the l atter. T h e fo rme r p u ts rc a l i ty i n a s t rarijfacket; the l atter i s sr.rJrposed to ad j u s t a s re a l i ty c h a rrg c s h a p eand substance. Il ' tl re forrri r:ri s too rigid the danger alwa*,,,'r that the latter is 1oo flexihle. llrli:rsists At th i s p o i n t, h < .rw c \,fi t' ,e n ti ght ai sn Iurn [o cl ass;l rttl ysi s, o n to

ln whoseint er estis it t o havc a r igid mo r e st r uct ur alper spect ives. vs. f lexibleview of socialr ealit y( we ar e dealingwit h socialscicnces her e) 'l The m ost sim plist ic answer would be t hat t he dont inant socialt r ut h is oue t hat w ould pr el'crt r ut h t o be st alllcas t he pr esent pl eases t henr ; t he dom inat cd would pr ef er it t o be f lexible as only tha t would give hope f or t he lut ur e. lf one appliest his t hinking t cr hypot hesis t hat t heir concount r iesit would lead t o t he int er est ing cept ualizat ionof t r ut h would change wit h t heir posit ior ir r t he w or ld; as t hey r ange f r om t op- dog, st at usquo count r iest o t t lt der also dog countriesyearning for change,the intellectualstyle shottlcl The quest ionm ay be asked: wast eut onicint ellecunder gor : hanges. tual culture more dialeclic when Germany played a much lrlore modestr ole in t he wor ld? - or doesone have t o go so f ar back in What about nir nnce, m eaningless? ti m e t hat t he quest ionbecom es ( like t he ot t e we cult ur e m or e deduct ive w as t he Fr er r chint ellect ual attemptedto ridicule above) when France was more at lhe peftk of i ts g loir e? What about Japan? As t he r ising sun conlinuest o r ise will the Japaneseintellectualsdevelop more of a sense<ll' grand theor ies f r eezing a pleasant r ealit y and be less concer nedwit h fleeting images of a floating reality? As the British continne otr nt or e their way "down t he dr ain", will t heir wor ld views becot r ie wor t h I do not know t he answer s, but I 'ind t he quest ions di a lect ic? ask ing. sect ionof t hr ee var iables Much has been m ade in t he pr eceding ver t icalit y/ hor izont alit y,alolleccha r act er izingsocial st r uct Llr es: Thus, a scienand polar izat ion/ int egr at ion. ti visnr / indiv'idualism should ti fi c com m unit y t hat is ver t ical,individualistand polar izecl produce iin int ellect ualst ylc like t he t eut onic one; if it is t nor e horizontal [rut individualist and polarized it should con]e out st yle;if it is hor izont al,individualist nror elike t he gallic int cllect ual like the saxonicculture would bc but much lesspolarizedsornething act ivit yt hat would enr phasizing t he aspect s ol int ellect ual exp ect ed, facilitate regulated participatory discussion among equ*ls. And likc and non- polar izccl fi nally if t he st r uct ur eis ver t ical,collect ivist one should expect the nipponic style to emerge:duc the Japanese respectfor authority, but no undue empha$ison the contentictus through theorieswith sharp erJges. issues brought into the discourse and com m unit y is ver t ical,collect ivist If, however ,t he int ellect ual polarized then sornethingmore similar to the teutonic stylc i:ottld emerge:each school producing its deductivr: lryramid, witlr tlre kel' pyranlid srliool, even and pertrapii vestedin the rnasterof the to the

84'1 Theorj'andmethods

0aItung

(iult u ny,

I heorie el nrttthor{es 84-5

mo re e x p l i c i tl y s o th a l r i l r I.i ,r :rmany. On the other hand" i t i s al so d i ffi c u i t to b e a t te u to rri c c u l tu rc aI thi s: after al l i t i s an i l ' r)portanr a s p e c l{ )l ' te u to n i cc u l tr.rl c th a t school sof though{ are nanl ecl after t h e i r tc u to n i c fo u n d e rs ,s u c h a s Marxi srrr,Freudi ani sm (one mi g,ht a l s o h a v e ta l k e d a b o u t H i tl eri arni snt, but ttrat rvord has never c a u g h t o n a s l { i tl e r w u s l te v e rregardedas an i ntc,trl ectual !). This luaves u s w i th th rc e more possi bi l i ti es that mi ght gi ve some in s i g h tr;" T h u s , w h a t a b o u t th e tl vo versi onscorrrbi ni ng hori zcrnt a l i s m i ru rl c o l l e c ti v i s n irri th e sci enti fi ccurnnrutri ty, thc pol ari zcd a n d n ri rr-p o l a ri z e d v e rs i o n s ?I' hi s w oul ci l rave to fre some ki nd ol h i g h l y 'l ro ri z o n ta ls c i e n ti fi r-: c o mmLl ne rathcr than j usl a conl ntuni ty e n g a g c di n s c i e n ti fi cp l o d u c ti o n. In order to reni ai n hori zontal i t w o u l d h a v e to re fra i n fl ri rn d i vi si on of l abour b' r'havi ngsomepeop i e w o rk i n g h i g tre ru p a n d o th e rsw orki ng l ow er dow n i rr deduct j rr p y ra n ri c l s ;v e ry p y ra mi d a l th r :ory-fornrati on w oul cl probabl y b* L l u t,a s i t s e e m s s o o n e ro r l a te r tu l ead to preci sel y that type r:f cl i vi si o n o f l a b o u r. Mo re l i k e l y t hai n not i t w nul d l rroduce i rrsi ghts c o u c h e di n te rm s o f p rc l p o s i ti on prodr.rcti on ral her than thcory fornra ti o n , ti h i n g n ro re i n tl i e d i r ecti on of s;rxorri c and ni pponi c appro a c h e s . If th e s ec o rn n l u m i ti ew s ere pol ari z_ed they w oul d procl uce disparate images, but nr-rt nercessarily antagonistic ol-lcs - they c o u t' Cs i rn p l y b e m u tu a l l y i rre l evantto each < l ther., refl ecti ngdi l f e re n tc o g n i ti v ec u l tu re s ,I n te l i ecl ual zerlrnonasl l eri es nei gl bouri i ng r : n e a c l ro th e r h u r w i th a l o w l evel of i nteracti < l n? A n d th e n th e re i s th e v e rti cal , i ndi vi dual i stand non-pol ari zecl : t lre te u to n i cs ty l ew ri t l a rg ec o veri l " rg the rvhol crvorl d! trnteresti ngl y en o u g h th i s n i g h tma re i s i n fa ct w hat i s w ri tren i nto the hi cl den nt e th o d o l i :g y o f n to s t me rh o c lol ogy books: i ndi vi cl ualbri l l i ancci n f ierce r,'rrrrrpetition ultinrately re.sultirig in a unif'itttltheor-tt\,. unexpo s e d to a n y c o mp e ti ti o n a s it covers the w hoi e w orl cl , uni ver s a l i s m ! O n e mi g h t p u t i t th i s w ay: the tsLl toni cstyl e i s tol erabl e whenit is encased i n a p l u ra l i s t i csetti ng;l ake aw ay that setti ngancl it b e c o rn e s i n to l e ra b l e . An d th i s l e a d ss tra i g h ti o a type of anal ysi s fri ntecl ar but not expi o re d a b o v e : h o w d o th e s ed i fferent styl esrei ate to protrl emsol f re e d c i n r v s . re p re s s i o n ? P u t d ifferentl y, w hat ki nrJof i rrl el l ectual would repressive r6gimesbe afraid of? Wouicl they be rnore af'raicl of th e p ro p o s i ti o ng a th e re ro r of the theoreti ci an, the personw hcr c o l l e c tsd a ta w i th o u t tl re o ry o l the person w ho procl uces theory wi th o u t d a ta ? O n e h y p ti th e s i s nri ght be as l ' ol l orvs: they are afrai d of n e i th e r. T h e p e rs o rrw h o j u st col l ectsrl ata rvi thout i ni bui ns j t

w i th t oo r r r ucirnr r nliing becom eslike a st ar r r p collect or ,busily at And a per sonwho collect sr t t *aning w or k wit h his dat i, lt r ollcclion. w i th r lut r elat ing i1 1o concr et e f 'act sbecr : nics som et hingcclually i nni: cent .What a r epr essivc r cgim ewould be af r aid of woulaibr :t he pel son who docs bolh, collect sdat a and t r ies t o give r leanir r gt o t heor ies and t licr ; 1, ;tr est t heur y;pr oduces the nrin t lr c light o1'som e thc nr by nr eansol' som e cl; r t a. l l t her eis som et hing it leadst o t wo int ur '*lt ing t o t hat hypot hesis Fir st , t he int cllcciualcult ur esdef inedin t ht : r ; ilr r pr list ic conclusions. llt cv ar e descr ipt ionof Tablc I all show inr por t at t t inr balances: none of t hr ; : nt cr ei l hcr pr oposit ion- or ient ecl or t heor y- or ient ed; t ht . : v hi bit s a good balanccbct 'ul'een t he t wr : . Could t hat be becausc And coLr lcl r epr essive societ ies? t llnt , are all t he r esult sol"r elat ively s " i n tr r r n, Lr edue t o t he cir cuinst anccs t hat all oI t hese t anr i. r ir ilr tel lect ualst ylesar e t he pr oduct so{' count r ieswit h im pcr iul lnadi' ( a nr ilit ar y ti on s? - - wit h upper classes on lop of int ellect uals and, zorlanded ar ist ocr acy/ bur eaucr acy m aint aining r el; r t innsof t [s cl om inance bot h at lr om e ar r clabr oad? And. second, if t ll*ir count r ies,lesshar r r t r l*r cd sonlet hing t o t his, could it bc t hat snr aller lle by irnperial*traciitions and by intertralclasscontradictionsr:tulr.tr pot ent iallv at least iessr - epr essive ar r d hence develop inlellcct t r ul bct weenpr oposit ion pr odr l( ii\ ) xl sty leswit h a m or e even hillr unce anclt heor y f or nr at ion, nol lr ying t r i keep t t r e t wo apar t 'l l n sayingso, I nr n of cnur set hinlcingof t he Nor dic cor iiilr ies, par t iclllar lyNor way, Sweclen t iv and Finland. O ne m ay bc s{nr i- : k pr ev: r lence aucl hypcr t hct icaldeduct ive st yles in r csciu"r : 1r the cif sci ent if icinquir y in gener al,som e kind of balancebet weeninducr nor r : ti orr ancl deduct it r r . ir T Dat a inspir e t heor y, t heor y inspir u, '; whicl- in r lur n inspir cs cl at acollect ir in, m or e t lr eor y- t his sylir alling prc'rcess is presentedand unfoklecl I'on lhe reader who c*n the:n and test for himself. Whelher ;rr a ibllow it step by step and clLeck condit ion or a conseiquence, t his is ilt leasthighly conr pat iblcwt t lr in t hese I I c( int r asis the r elat ivc- ly lower levelo{ r cpr essicn societ ies. with the heavily docun'rentecl, critical analysesof US socicty p'i'r.r in t heor y, and ihc {n1r ducedby US socialscient ist s, r ver s y nleagr e pr oducedby t lle cr it icr s heavyt heor ies of G er m anand Fr enchsr . r t i* ty, m or e ol't ent han not r at her t hin in docum ent at ion. Ther e is, however ,a dif ler ent appr oachwit hin t he f r anr ewor ko1 w hat has been said her e il'one want s t o under st andt he r *l; r f . ir r r : r ,r r : or ll ylc am ong lhe Viking descendant ir bal ancein int eller : t lr ; st etllucled to in the l'rrll secthcrn Europe: the idr:aof tlre cross,beary

846 Theuryand methods

Galtung

{-ialtung

Theorie et mdthodes

847

t i o n . T h e s ec o u n tri e s h a v eb e enunder both saxoni cand teutoni ci nfluence, and this may huve led to both a respectfor saxonicdatu gathering and documentation and for teutonic speculation and theory formation, and has produced attempts to put the tw{} together into a viable methodology.Of the gallic style there is very little: no one could possiblyaccuseNordic social scientists of levels of elegance approximatirrgthe most brilliant of the French! On lhq contrary, Nordic authors write a legible journalistic prose and in this genre they nright easilyoutdo their lirench colleagues. But th*n the French do not expect to be read by people in general;Nordic social scientistsdo - or al. least entertain the liope. Nor are lhe Nordic social scientists so concernedwith intellectnalcontrnentary: what they read about sr.rch things will generallynot be ntentionedin ve rb a l d i s c o u rs eb u t k e p t i n t he background, i n the memory. as something against which to check one's own approach. What one tries to do is to make data and theory hang togetherin a respectably forged chain of words. Bu t w h y s h o u l d th i s n o t a lso be the caseol ' the N etherl ands? Here our contention would be that the Dutch are exposednot orrly to saxonicand teutonic illfluencesbut also to gallic, and that to be under the crossfire of three intellectualsrylesis simplv too much. By the time a polyglot Dutch sr:cialscientisthas come to grips with the literature of all three (rememberingthat the saxonicstandsboth f o r th e U K a n d th e U S v a ri a n ts!)w hateverori gi ual i ncl i nati orrhe might have had has probnbly been effectively killed. At that point o n e w o u l d p ro b a b l y h a v eto e i therseekrefugei n one of the cul tures alone, undergoing a processof self-colonizationor else become a bibliographer, a master of intellectual commentary.re [t woutd almost be a miracle if crcativesocial science florrrishedunder such c o n d i ti o n s . A n d th e s a m e , o f c o u rs e , w oul d be the gencral hypothesi sfor periphery intellectual cultures. Their major rroncern would be talented imitation, being up-to-date, having the latest news about what happensin the centre. From Brussels to Genevaand down tc.r Rome, Madrid and Lisbr:n and acrossthe Atlarrtic to many of the South American countries, social scientistswill sleep with their h e a d s p o i n ti n g to w a rd s P a r i s....Thei r annual or bi -annual pilgrimagewill be the vital way of rechargingthe batteries.Insights of real value can be expressed in no lessa tongue than French; a nod of acceptancefrnm the centre would be tlre key siglt of approval to bring home. The relation betweencc:ntreand periphery

cult ur e becom es like t he r elat ion belweena w i th in one int ellect ual t alk about : lhe f or m er ast r ollom er s bri lliant st ar and t he sink- holes only radiates, emil$; the latter only absorbs, receives.There are peoplewho are like that, those who ottll' sendout and never t'ecleive anything and those who only receiveand never send oLl{ an)/thing. The centre-peripherygradient is an institutionalization of that phenomenon. As in linguistic systems, changes in intclleutual cultureswill probably have to take place in the centre or very near the centre to beconrcreal. If they take place at the periphcry they will not be considered as "innovations" but be pnt clolvn as " mist akes", unlesst her e is except ionalpower and init iat ive and char ism abehind llr cm . However , f or t lr e per ipher yof t he per ipher yt he sit uat ionis not so dark. I feel I havc often observedmore creativity al periphery of periphery countriesin an intellectualculinre lhan at universities provincialuniver sit ies in t he cent r ecount r y it self , or at univer sit ies periphery country. The reason is uimple; the in the capital of the to last two categoriesare too busy imitating and being un'r-to^ciilte per iplr er y of t he f or anyt hing else; t he have t im e or consider at ion periphery may look in other directions and not feel under"any obligation to imitate an imitation. They may escapefront the stufof finessand stolid behaviour that are the perennialconsecnuences If such imitation inlo some truly innovative behavir:rur. excessive t ie up wit h each ot her in hor ii'ont al net i ntellect ual com nr unit ies works and a pluralistic spirit of mutual toleranceand coexistence to somethingvery creativecould probably come out of it. Needless say this would be resentedby the centre of the centr* out to get proselytes and wrongly thinking that the peripheryof the periphery will fall as soon as the periphery itself is conquered. In conclusionit should only be added that the last generationhas given a formidable tool of dominance tc) the centre ol' intellcctual stylesfocusing on proposition production: and this ri *r highly industrializ,ed mode of intellectual production.a0 I am thinking of massivedata collection by big and well-funded teams, and its proall but also expensive conrpttlers; cessing and analysisby impressive of this surrounded by "think tanks", libraries, expensivegatherings and meetings,and so on. There is little doubt that lhis rnodeof production is particularly compatible with the saxonicstyle; so far computers have not been able to reproduce what a good teutonic intellectualcan do by way of pyranrid construction,not to ntention what a good gallic intellectual can do in his exercise ou the

84tl 'l'heoryund mtthoris

Galturtl4

Gahutr,t,

I'hdorie et mithodes

849

b o rd e rl i n eb e tw c e na rt a rrd rc i r:ncc.' l ' hel atter tw o are nrore compa ti b l ew i th a n a rti s a n a I producti on,doi ng the n ro c l e o l i ntcl l ecfual r vn rk a t h t.rn re The i n o fl e ' so $ ,rrl i v i n g-roorn,sr-rrrounded by bcl oks. s a x o n i ci n te l l e c tu a s l ty l c rv i l i l e nd to crop up w here the computers pe n e tra te ;th e n re a n so l ' p ro d u cti on 1cla l arge extent condi ti oni ng t l re m o d e o f p ro d u c ti o i l . [:v e n i n the l reartl andol - ferrtoni a and w i l l fi n d th e i r pl aceand generate C a l l i a c o rn p u te rs rnyri ads of data in s e a rc ho f mo re i n te rp re ta ti oi lthan tl ' retheory cl asses of these c o u n tri e sw o u l d e v e r b e a b l e to l troducc. ,\s a corrsequerrce dataori e n te d s u b -c u l tu re si ' ,' i l l e m crge, probabl y as detached frcl m lh e o ry fo rm a ti o n a s th c tl i c o re ti ci ans are fronr proposi l i onprodLrcg i v i n g li o n , to th e en l i re i ntel l ectual systenl a somew hat s r:h i z -o p h re nc ic h a ra c te r.W h a t comes()u1of thi s i n the l ong ternt r e m a i n sto b e s e e n ;b u t i t n ra y be a saxoni c' froj arr horse.

saxonicst yle, r iclr in docuur ent at ion and ver y m eagr ein t heor lyr , rich in forrlal language and poor in clegance should [:rc the l anguage t he of t he secr et ar ial$ of t he UN ancl t he UN agencics: me m berst at es ar c equal,t h$r '*is a needif not f or consensus at leasl for a basison which gent luur r n can ar gue.The saxonicint cllecluiil style pr oduces such a basis. At t he sam e t im e it r einf or cesllr * di slinct ionbet weent he pr olessionals of t hc secr et ar iat and t hc t t u( si deconsult ant s on t he onq hand deliver ing t he r aw m at er ial lor {[ l* de bat e r ning bodies, including t he [ ie m r r r ; ll and t he gove A ssenr bly on t he ot her , com ir r gin on t op ol- t his m at er ial, pic[ , iiu1; w hat t hey want , put t ing it ir r t o t heir var ioust hought syst er ns r i'it ir pr uducedby t he shar p cont r adict ionl r : f ' the buih- in polar izat ions the wor ld syst em .Alt hough t hey m ay behavelike t eut onic and/ or gallic int ellect uals,t he poinr is t hai t he r r r ganizat ions ns t r r cli pat t er ns shor - r ld not have t hese behaviour al bLr iltint o t he secr et r iat ul - or at leastso it seem s.

4,, Conclusion: are we hcading for a world intellectualstvle? I d o n ' t th i n k s o . T h e rei s e n o u g hcul turalvari etyi n the w orl d, some of it carried by languagesof very different kinds, ancl there is en o u g h d i v e rs i ty i n s tru c tu ra l posi ti ons both anrong ancl w i thi n c o u n l ri e s to e n s u re d i ft' e re n ces i rr i ntel l ectual styl c i f there i s i n the precedi ng secti ons. A s cl asses an y th i n ga t a l l to th e re a s o n i n g g o u p a n c ld o w n , so too w i l l tl rei ri rrtel i ectual styl es an d c o u n tri e s u' i th l a g s a n d l e a d s , c o n d i ti c l nedby' ci l cumstanccs. S ome of thi s r v i l l b e d u e to th e i r s tru c l u ra lp osi ti on, someol i t to the changes in posi ti on, tnost ol i t to c u l tu reb ro u g h t a b o u t b y th e i r n ew ob.i ecti ve t h e c o n i b i n e de ffe c t o f th e trv o .' [' hus,rvhatare here cal l edthe saxon i c , te u to n i c a n d g a l l i c s ty l e sr vi l l nol be ti ed to parti cul argroups in ;:articular countriesbut can lrr seenas sornethingon the move, l n d s o ci alposi ti onas hi story moveson; one c h a n g i n gg e o g ra p h i c aa more reason for u.singthose ternis rather than national labels. T h e re a re , h o w e v e r, l w o p l renonl cnathat neverthel ess mi ght m a k e o n e th i n k i n te rn rso f a worl d i ntel l ectual styl e: tl rc l i nkage be tw e e ns a x o n i c i n te l l e c tu a ls t yl e arrd the i ndustri al mode of i nt e l l e c tu a lp ro d u c ti o n o n th e o n e hand, and the w ay i n w hi ch the s a x o n i c i n te l l e c tu a ls ty l e fi ts the exi gences of thc U ni ted N ati ons and nons y s te rl irn p a rti c u l a ra n d th e s ystemof i ntergovernmental governrnentalorgarrizations corporatic.rns and transrralional on the ot h e r (s e eR i ttb e rg e ra n rJC a l l u ng, 198I). It i s easyto secw hy the B ut all t hat is on t he sur f aceof t he wor ld. Under neat ht he slvles w i ll live on: t he t eut onswill cont inuet o be ir r it at edwhen t lr e 1l*t "r ls become too lyrical, f'or instancewhen they change one lvord for anot her wit h t he sam e nr eaningin or der t o obt ain sonr e slvlist ic variat ion or euphonic ef {'er ctand ; t he gauls will cont inue t . o be bor ed by t eut onic pedant r v. Bot h of t hem will be gr asping f r ; r per spect ives and l'or nr sof under st anding t hat will put sonr ef lr clr r i nt o t he unt idy saxoniclanclscape of st ubbor nf act s,and t hr saxuns w i ll cont inue t o get r est less when t he t eut onsand t he gauls speed off int o out er space,leavinga t hin t r ail of dat a behind. Sonr cnf thenr will learn fronr thc others what they do not mastflr them selves, but by and lar gc what is t he vir t ue of one will cont inue to be the vice of the other, Obviously there are strongerforcesttriln met hodologyt exi books wilh t heir claim s t o univer salvalidit y at w or k. And t hat is all t o t he good: it would bedr eadf ul if t he ent ir c hunr an int ellect ualer r t er lr r ise wer e t o be guided by t he r anie intcllect ualst yle.

lJ50 'l-heoryand ntr:tltods

Caltung

Galtung

fh6orie el mdtkodes 851

ir a r prcsenr P roj ect C oordi nator at r}}e l nsti rur Jo h a n Ga ltu n g { b o r n 1 9 .1 0 ) u n ive r sita ir e d ' e tu d e s d u d fvclo p penrenl i n Gencva. Il est know n as a peace r e se a r ch cr ,h e h a s a lso n r r d e n u n rercl us contri buti ons i n thc fi el ds of devel orrm e n t slu d ie s a n d fu tu r e stu r licsin addi ri on to hi s w ork ol l soci ol ogi caltheor'). a n d n e ( lto d s, Cu r r e n tll' 1 r t' is e n g agedi n a study of cosnrol ogi es. A uthor's uttd r e ss.' ln stitu t u n ive r sita ir cd ' { ' tu d esdu d6vel oppement, C ;eneve, S ui sse.

Notes

l. This paper appeared in Social St'ience InJormation 5 (3J,1966, pp. 7-33. A Spanish version was published in Revis/a Latino Ameri<'onu de Sociolt:giz l(l), 19 6 5 ,p p . 7 2 - 1 0 1 .Se ea lso th c cr itiq u e by J. C raci arena(1965) i n the samej ournal . 2 . In sh < lr t,in te ll!' ctu a ls < Jt> wctr k; w e process.B ut that nl eansthat the materi al a n d so cia lco n d itio n s u n d e r u ' h iclr th is w ork i s donr-beconrea rnaj or factor i n con' d itio n in g th e o u tp u t. On e e xa n r p lewo ul d be the di l l erence betw eenarti sanaland i np r o d u cti on, betw eenthe i ntel l ectualessenri al l y d u str ia l m o d e s o f in te lle cr u a l w orki ng a lo n e a n d in te lle ctu a ls wo r kin g to gerheri n "factori es" u'i th (usual l y)sharp di vi "l 'hi sthr:rnei s dcvel opedi n a s i o n o f la b o u r - th in k ta n ks, u n il' e r si ti e.s, acadami es. p a p e r p r e p a r e d fo r th e CPID p r o je ct ( C al tung, 1980).A l sci , secS . H . A l atas (1977) f or a su ccin cta n a lysiso f th e si{ u a tio nof i rrtel l ectual is n many cl evel opi ng coun(ri ei i . 3 " F o r a n e xp lo r a tio n o f th e r e la tion betw eensoci ;i lstructureand the cri teri a oi l r u th se e "So cia l str u ctu r c a n cl sci ence structure", chopter I, pp. l 3-40 i n Methodology ond ideology. 4 . It wo u ld h a ve b e e n u se fu l if Kant had expl ored more hi s ow n l i nri tati ons i n e xp lo r in g th e lin ita tio n s o f th c:h u m a n rni nd * nol "hi s" i n a personalsense,but " h is" a s a p a r t o f a n a tio n , a cla ss,a (radi ti on, a ci vi l i zati on r'f w hat not. B ul thal wa s n o t a n a g e o f co m p a r a tivestu d ics,pi tl i ng one ci vi l i zati orragai nstthe other i n a s ym m e tr ic wa y. 5 . T h is, o f co u r se is th e r e a so n why j ournal i snr, l i ke l esearch,i s supposedto i de n tify th e so u r ce s:th e r e a d e r is e n ti tl ed to eval uarethe crei l i bi l i ty. 6 . T o yn b e e u se ssu ch te r m s, b u l I am not tryi ng to l ti cl ebel ri nd hi nr. l 'he reason i s , a s sta te d , to a vo id to o str o n g id e n ti fi cati on w i th cotrrrtri cs. 7 . I' h u s, in th e e xp lo r a tio n o f co smol ogi es(Gal tung, l 98l )referencesaretotal l y missin gto Am e r in d ia n , Afr ica r r a n d Paci l i c ci vi l i zati ons,bccause of the author's i gn o r a n se ( a n d , p e r h a p s, d istr u st o f we s ternanfhropol ogi sts). 8 . On e r e a so nfo r th is, o f co u r sc, is that those w ho ha\'$ struggl edi n thei r earl y, f o r m a tive ye a r sto a cq u ir ca n in te lle ctualstyl e so as l o be acceptedas a member of a c o m m u n ity wo u ld n o t e a silyg ive ( h a t up * and certai nl ynot tend to seei t as an i nrp e d im e n t r a th e r th a n a s a n in .str u n lcnt of l i berati on. B ut i nrel l ectualstyl e i s l ocared a t a le ve l d e e p e r th a n la n g u a g e :it m ay survi ve the tral tsi ti ol t from w orki ng i n a European language to working in an ,African language, al least for sorne time. 9 . T h is is d e ve lo p e din m o r e d e ta il i n my "l n det'ense of cpi stemol ogi cal ecl ect icism " ( 1 9 8 0 a ) . 10. Thus, my trtiok, T'hqtor.t' and methods of sociol research, is subdivided that w a y.

l l . For an efl i rrt to bui l d a bri c l geb.' l w c c i l errrpri c i s t, c ri ti c al , c ons rruc l i v eand pra gnrati cas pec ts ol s c i orrti fi c ac ti v i tv , s ee "Irnrpi ri c i s nr, c ri ti ei s nr,rt' ns tr i l el i v i s nr: 1'h rc er and as pec tsof s c i enti ti c ac ti v rty ", c hapterr3, pp.4l -71: i n Me' thotl t:.tl ogy ideal<tgy. Il . Thus the r:pc ni ngphras ei n thr' gal l i c s ty l e di s c us s i on v er) w el l hc "j e ne nraJ / su i spas d' ac c orc l "; i n the teutoni cs ty l e "S i e haben ni c ht erw ai hnt.. . ". On thtl other hanc l ,i t s houl d be poi ntc d out that i n both s ty l esnrc rel yto be found w ortl ry ofbei ng l i s tc nedto and ev en c onrmentedupon i s al roftdys omethi ng,an honour s o hi gh that co ur{ es ybec omesl es s than nec es s ary . 13. Thes e t$' o l y pes nray be l i nk ed l o (l onfuc i ani s nr and mahay ana l l uddhi s nr respecitv el y . 14. B othof thenrareenrpi ri c al approac hes ,butrv hereas the:tJ K approac hw oul tl a w eai th of i ns i ght on s el ec ted, l i nri (ed arc asof i nqui rl , thr' l )S approac h as s enrbl e w oul d be more ex tc ns i v e,handl e more uni ts of anal y s i sw i th l es s(but c oml rarerbl e) i nfornrati on on as many of them as pos s i bl e.(' thi s di s ti nc ti on i s ex pl ored i n Theory anrl methods of s o< ' i alres earc h,c hapter L1.2,) E s s enti al l yi t i s the ol d di s ti nc ti on bet$een i deographi cand nomotheti c approac hes . I5. There are ac tual l y al mos t no fheori esof any thi ng bey ond the nri ddl e rangei n, for i ns tanc e,U S s oc i ol ogy- perhapsw i th the ex c epti onof P ars ons{ unl es s c ne s ees s this ty pe of w ork nl ore as tax onomi c ex erc i s es than as theory ). P c rs pc -c ti v cfront hi gher al ti tudes are us ual l y i nrported, frorn E urope (e.g. i n the w av e of bri l l i ant perhapsus ual l y w i th a teul oni c bent, but abl e to adapt to the Ioc al Je w i s h refugees , i ntel l ec tualc ul ture) and al s o frorn Lati n A nreri c a (dependenc i a theory ). [6. Thi s i s dev el opedfurther i n "S oc i al s truc tureand s c i enc e s truc ture," c hapter 1 iu Papers on nethodologt. 17. In other w ords , l he hy pothes i sw oul d be l hz l t mathernati c alec ri notri c si n a pre dorni nantl y s ' ax oni c c ul ture w i l l be rnore l i k e an i s l and, i s ol ated i ntel l ec tual l y approac h. l ro m c ommerc i alc ol l eges and bus i nes s s c hool sw i th a nrore data-ori ented ofnti ni s (ri es , eri rbedded Insti tuti onal l y i t nri ght al s o be i s ol atedi n pl anni ng s ec ti ons as i n the i n a pol i ti c al c ul turc w ' i tha more teutoni c bent - i .e. w i th Marx i s t l eani ngs , N ordi c c ountri es . 18. May tenc l * i t c r-rul d al s o be a ganre i n i 1s ow n ri ght, i s ol al ed from othel ' ac ti v i ty - al thougfr s uc h pert' ec l as pc c tsof hunran ac ti v i ty , i nc l udi ng i ntel l ec trral l v ay be thal c an onl y w oul d us ual l y nol be eas i l ynrai ntai nedco rnpartmental i z ati on oc c ur i n a c l as s ,ev en a c as tes oc i ety .Thus Ogura K i nnos uk e,i n hi s "A ri thrneti c i n a C l as s S oc i ety " (1974) s ay s : "C hurc hl y ari tl rrrreti cbas ed on B oethi us ' theory of nunrbersdi c l not i nc l ude methods of c al c ul ati c i n.U s i ng Indi an s y ml rol s ,i t had v i r(he oc c ul t s i gni fi c anc eol numbers . Itr tua l l y no rel ati on to dai l y l i fe, and s tres s ed us co ntras tto thi s thc al i thmeti c of the bourgeoi s i e c ons i s l ed mai nl y 0l c al c ul ati ons i ng Indi an s y rnbol s ,and s tres s ed c ommerc i al appl i c ati ons ." Thus nruc h w ork w as dev otedto the l heory of perfec t numbers , i ntegers equal to tl re s unr ofdi v i s ors (e,g. 6 = | + 2 + 3) bec aus c(hey "w i tnes s edto the w i s dom of the C reator of the uni v ers c " (p. 22). 19. Thi s i s a B ri ti s h (S ax oni c ?)reac ti on - ful l of adnri rati on * to one of the gallic masters, taken from a review of Michel Foucault's Surveiller et punir (Gallimard, Paris, 1975) in the Times Literary Supplement 26 September 1975: "T hi s book di s pl ay s onc e agai n al l the di s ti nc ti v eFouc aul t trai ts -- a remark abl e us e of i nrages ; an ac ul r s ens e of paradox and ambi gui ty ; a fondnes sfor i nv ers i onli l purs ui t of the mul ti pl i c i ty of hunran ex pc ri e nc e; s uc h c ompel l i rrgl uc i di tv relentl es s

852

Theory and nrelhctds

Caltung

(irrl/l.r rt11

'Thioie

et lne!ltlde!;

851

t r t r titiCa l n a r .ir !:\.\ tlta t tltt.tCa d Ct ..tt,,r,t r<''i :l n('r\l l i r,,,,rratl d \(l C IaS pC Ii .tl l l l t' 1rl w i th d r a wa l in to x \o ca b u la tr yh cr n r r lic 1o l l )c ur)i rriifatccl ,l (U cl l l cl qi 1fl rn1161g111r u n c lcn ia b le se lf,ir r clu lg cn ce ." An cl llr t rcvi cw cr gi vcs l tn cxantp[: of "ol tr. of pri s\ti l <l f l ht fuul .v" (p' 1090th e so ttlltt.sltt'rttrrtt'!he [ ' o u ca u lt' s r r ca tir tve r sio tr s, n r y-ita lics) . 2 0 . T h e str u ctr r litli:n t o l ( lla u cL : I ili-S tl :rLtssi s 1<tntc i i n exarttl l l ctrf tl ri s. T'he frOm ul ti ch 1()y) i s rrti t an etri ttrtt e q u a liOn ,a :b :: r :y ( a r e la tcs1 ( )h 3s X rrl l i l ti :s b a siC (1949) l anrous \,l v'ci l 's ( r h u s. i s l i ke A ndr[ it nor n r a d e s t r icr clcd u ctio n s a r e 0 l kin Sh ip r e la lit,its) .R ather. the l $,tt rcl ati ol ts,a:b and x:\, tl l L' n t a ( b e r n a tiza ti< ln i r ruspcndedbetw ecn l tri etw o, uo\/el ] t h e two p ylo n s r e le r r ccllo , a n d tltt lcitl;rl ni tl g i n t0 ii p a ttcln o { d r :n sc,a n d h ig h lr cl{ l8i i l l l , t c3\()ni ng. 21 . T h is is n lso we ll r e fle cte din th t v erv di l 'l ercnl bel tari our of l l S , LJK , l rrertch tl l c (i S s(udcl tl sare i n cl as-sr<trtttts: a l d Clcr n r a nstu d cn ls, n o t t( ) n lcn lio n .l aprrucsc, attd C i crttuttt S l udcnl snl uch French Il K , flo <l r, p a r ticip a t0 r l, tb r th c a skin g h i gh ly m or e co n ce n te d with wh e th e r lh ( Y l( al l r- hal rr sonrc{}ti ngrvorl h rtyi ng' Thi s i s w i t| the sl t>wand l hc l gu' in ( h e a ttittl< lco fr h e IJS p r 6 f gsspr, c9ncertred r e fle cte cl w orl d, tl re t l nsel f to th\' l )on-acadeni i c a n to n g stu d e n ts* p e r h a p scve n a d d r e ssi ttlhi uotl l d certai nl )/not do l hal ; w h o le co m n tu n itv. F lis ir r cn ch a n cl( ie ttttan col l cagttes uhi tnatel y nl crel y g c b e sl a n ) o n g th c rttrri cnts,thei r c()l l (l agtl cs, l h e y a r c a d cJr e ssinth and the p r o fe sso r sa rc al qo operati ng i n cl osed s-!-stenl s' t h e m se lve s.' fh e .la p a n e se u tltl,c sIor l tl w l evel sofgettcral pal ti C i pati 6nand e X lr e n leve r tica litt,o ftlr e s.vste n ts "l .here i s a hi gh l cvel ol parti ci pati oni u h i gh le vclso f a o n e - wit!, r ccip ie n tn r cn l .l l i t)' and i s i tsel l so strati l i ed i n castes t e flia r y e d u ca tio n , b u r th e n th a l lt' r liili-vecl ut'l tti tttt a n d witlr ir l, thal the tJS parti ci pti toryetfect (parti cul arl )' c l a sse s, a m o n g u n ivcr sitie s al l he Mai son to l hc di scttssi i tn a s o n e n lo ve s wcsl) is n o t p r o d u ccd . I anr i rrtl cbtecl i n parti ctrl al to C i i l hefi nc d e l' llo u ir n e fo r so r n co l thescobsgrvati 6ns, d es Scie n ce s B a lle a n d lr d n r u n ci["e ite s. 2 2 . F o r a n iin a lysiso t"n r tr cho 1 ' tltis,secl .,e l 'l ol Frangai shy A l ai rl P eyrel 'i tte- a b oo k wr itte n ve r y n tu ch in th e g a llic sty l c by anothcI l l l i tsl cr - parti cul arl y chaptcr as "l l s sonl tuuS di reC teurs" r vilh cr r clr strb-sccl i ons 3 1, ,,t,e clOistin n Cn r cr r l", (pp. 312-26). 2 3 . T h c cla ssica le xa n r p leb e illg r lr e i rr<l i i i si bi l i rl <t{ urtha, dharna. kantu ancl m o ksh a . 2 4 . I a n in d e b te dto Ha ka n Wib cr g l or the fol l ow i ng.i okc: "E i rtstei n at (he B ern r ailwa y sta tio n , r n q u ir in g a b o u t tr o in s t0 Zti ri ch w otrl d nol ask 'rk:esthj s trai n stop .clo e s ztir ich sto p a t lh i$ rrui n'." A gai rr i t i s the sal l restory: the teni n Z i.ir ich " b u t i nsi ght, and l l udcl hi stl i teraturei s ver) is wh a t p r odttces sfa le r n e n ts b e twe e n t$ ,o sion c)ne of these r i ch in th is, b a scd p r e cise lyo n th e pri nci pl c of courrrer"pt.i si ti on. cat'tt sul 'fi ci enti nsi ght dttcs nol al <rtre s e n te n ce s. e ve n th a t r lu t in Ein ste in ' slltoi !(i .J, rel i gi ttusal ' 2 5 . T h is is p u t ve r y wcll in F e r n a n do M. B esabe,S . .1 , 'l upttttese authors stal c ti l al the esscnti al ( M a r yktL o ll, NY, 1 9 1 2 ) ,p . ti7 : ". . ..l apanese t i l u d e .s l i cs i n tl rtr I'act that the {'orntct d iffe r e n ce b e twccll We ste r n n ta n a n cl the .l apattese a lwa ys r a ise sin h im se lf lh e q u e stio n ' thi s or l har'? (uru ka knr,'Lrl ), w i rereasthe fa ils r o u n d e r sta n dth e n tca n ingol sucha dual i sm and w i l l l l l w aysrcneal to J a p a n e se " tl ut thctrri cs are ther( i Il ordcr l (r \()rt h im sclf' th is a n d Ilia r to o ' ( d r c n t.) At' r ( 171rr) a n cl sift, th e va lid fi.o n r r h e in ia lid , thr: frue frorn thc fal se, i n otber w ords, ttr e sla b lisha lin e b e twe e nth is a n d th a t. (1977)'gi vcs a hi ghi y negati ve 2 6 . T lr e OECD r e p o r t \tttia l scie r cepol i t.t-.".l opun p i ctu r e o f lh e sta te Of th r r o cia l scie r '|ces i ri .l ;rpan,rvi th such unki ttd remarks as:

()j )/.' l .i l c -ti rrrcc ri rpl tr-v ri rc ri has l i rl l l rt' uni l c rs i l \ \-\ ,t!rJ tr. l c c ri ai i r i rtrpl i c ati orrs ol i rrbrc c di rrg w hi c h i s norr:r,Ll l uc i :e l hat l herc j \ a gl ei { l deati i ce c ons eqU c nL' l ,l i :d r:l c ttrent i rr ti i c tl ai ni trg of a s uc c c s s rrr r\l l l rc i r \ a i l rrc ts s i l ry by a s c ni trl prr' { r:r-,rrr. \.rnl c ri nl c , ac c c ptanc e ol tl ri : tradi l i ori r)l c ar1\ tl rat ()nc ol ' tc rrhes i tan::"roc k i rl _r or approac hc s i rr{ oIhc urri v c rs i l ,l s r' ' 1i ' nr, rl i rr,i l h c br,rrl " by bri ngi ng i n nc r l c i c as (p. II,{ ) 5 i ou,i ngtl re proi c s s oi c l Larrtl e. ...ni an\ s c hol arl y es s l n,s bc l rv c c np()l i ti c ari rl trrl l rgl ' ;1114 rrrl k * no di s ti rtc ti orr c rrl ]' a c ;tc { c l rri c ohj c c ti v i tv . [' rc qttr:ntl y ' s oc i al s c i c nc c rc s c arc h i s c orrr.i rti :tc d , i t i s undc l tak c n l o i nl r()duc e1rrtI l ri i l rs i i .l tc tl i r()uLl h a s l udl ' o1' l hc l i tc ral trr.cr,t fi rrc i $rrs oc i al s c i r:nc e tc rts l nd r!i al eri al s .(p i l 5) ...therr al c adc l i ti onalrc as ti nsl or l hc l c ti )i i l gy oi rtrc nrbc rs c r1:,r:ri airi :i r.' nc " tai :rrl l i c s l:o() r)r{ l n),s c gl )r to l ac k a v i s i on ol .i us lrv hl t thc s oc i al \!i c r)c esi l rc or' i nac l equi tt* i itrai rtr:tl . c i l rr beronrc . They al c , l l renrs el v c si,n t.oo ntarryi tts l anc es (P . l J -5) A rrd s < ,t,rr,i .i n(i J rra\l .rl l } f s ol ()r{ l ).Tl rc Ol i { l )c ' x anri rrc rs ,i rrrrrv v i c w ,hav r:i ai l c itr' cul tu ral s pc c i l ' i c i tyol J i rpanc s cs oc i al s c i enc c :ti rc J apanes curay br: i rrtrr* tc tl i n sol re tl ri rrgc l i l l trc ' rrt l r.onr * l rat i \ ()n l l l c c x arni nel s ' rni ri c l . I' hrrs ,thc l i rs t;i n(l tl l e Ic l c l to ti re pri rnac y ol ' l hr l { r7rol , tradi ti on ov er t} rc i rrdi V i dunl r:i ti r":, thi rc l rtruorc s qui rl i t coD l pc ti ti v cw es tern tradi (i orr n' i l l r uni v ers al i s tpretc ns i ons .A nd l hc s ec ()r)d rcl !'rs to l he i nrporl arrc c ar:t' ortl c d hav i ng enough ntal eri al l br aderi rral c i :i as s j l i r.i l 11r ti on ol thc w ork ol otl l c rs . l l l l l I ri nr n()l dc ny i rrgthat the c rarl i nc rs arc al ,;o ti gl I s arorti r pc rs ptc l i v e. l l or.r l l rc i r c thn()c r' n{ ri c on l eul urri c i ri tel l c c tuais l 1' l c((i al turrg.,1979), tnr:l i r: i tenrr urtl 27 " l n thc es s a)) gi rc'n i n "a fi l s t gui c l er() l eul ()ni i ii ntc l i ec tuals ty l c " 1p1:.l 9-{ .97).S :trti 1,l i ct,:nrri : c c ' rti f i c att' sc l as s i l 'ifttg ol l l c r.\)' rrc rl r\,aIl i c J c s , 5. N l ueh w ork goc s i ni o i .rrri rrl -1 b ook s , authors , groups , s ehool s , etc . A c erti fi c atej ol l c c i s s uc d. i .; rl rrc l l wi thdraw n. D c rri al s()f tl rei rv al i drti ,,as w s l l ;tsac c c l l tanc c are , s c c r) ;l s i r' frl (\anl ; l lre outgroup c :tl rnotbc a j Lrc l ge i n s uc l l nrattc l \. Tl rei r j udgerrerrlrr i l l nnl y rr:l ' l c q:t bas i c nri s tak es . {lrq:i r d() n()t tak r tl rc l i rrnr o{ di al ogue(or nrr.rl ti l oguc rihul } , ral l r,:r l l . [)i s c us s i orrs i, k e tes tsoi s trc ngths erv i ngs el l r:nrtfi rrl l tti l tt l lr* l i rrnr ol paral l c l nrr:rrol ri grrc is ral l rer l harr a c ()l ]]l l rons i i arc l rf()r s oi rc l hi ng new . V erv l i tl l c c } .hi i i l l l t, n()l l f) u i l l tak e pl .re Ieal ni rr-e, s y s l c r.n borc l ers . rrrenti orr c i )c rrrs s 12. Ihc gc nc raJs ty l e ol di ,' c r.rrrrs c 's c ri ous arrd hurnourl es s ;i { )l c \ trrt rl onis ol l ac k of l ai th i n w hat onc s ay ' r, fri s i tl er.c c l v ol ous and i nc l i c ati v e s oc i al s ei c rr,:,., th{ ' l l H i r, ?8 . V tj ry i undarrental i rr the c ari y fi rrnrati onol .l apanes e w us rhc i nrportal i ol r o1' (i c l rrran.l uri s prudenc e, w hi c l r tc nded to gi ' ,r u tl rrubl c i i rrpctu s i n tl rc di rec ti on ol ' thc tc utoni c s ty l e. parti c ul atl y as i t w as l aunl hui i i rr ti ri :c * ti . i ri r :;i gni i i c :utc t trc ol thc s truc (ure,al ' I6dai . B ut thc al l -J apanc s c s etti ngi s i nc rea,s i ni not t he l eas tdue to the homogeni z i ngi nf' l uenc e of the c entralgov en)nrerl lngrnr::i * s . 29 . Thus , N orth A nrc ri c an s oc i al s c i enti s ts s c enrparti c ul arl y prrrnc to ti l i nL l i l l l rvha l thc ""* c l o j s uni v ers als oc i ;l ls c i enc c , "ec onomi c s " as s uc h, not "t.l S ec orl < )i ri r* i ", by tl l c s truc (uralpos i ti on of the LJ Si n tl rc uorl d (and of U S erononi ' i l ri i rl cokrLrred the l .i s ), anc l by thc J roc ul i ur c ui l ural as s unrpl i c rrrs o{ ' t} rc [J S i rr generalarrd i Lsc l i tt:s i n pi rrti c ri l ar.

854

Theory and melhod,s

Galtung

(iultung

I heorie et mithodes

855

3 0 . ' l l;e d il' iicu lt- "" in g e ttir r g l\4 a r xisl l f{\ ptescnl N l al xi srrri n a w av that w oLrl d n r ake il su b je ct to su ch e n r p ir ica ltcstslhl t cuncl l rsi ons ofthe type "rror l 00V oval i d, o n ly X0 io " a r e n o t so d il' fe r e n tfr o n r r lr e di l l 'i errl ri es i n getti ng i i bcral s to w ork "exp l o ita tio n " in to th e ll lh i:r :r cr ica l1 ' r a n tew orkr. 31 . F o r a n ( ) th cr a p p r tr n r li in th is ii el d, rhi r r:rgani zati on of tl rtrught, sec Fl . I - eiscg a n gDe , n kfo r m e n ( 1 l) JI ) . He o p e rate s i ri th l i rr.rr fornts: { l re ci rrl e, the ci rcl eof c i r clcs, th c p yr a r r r id , a n cl tr ,L r clid cag ne omel r\, .. ver-"rnuch basrrl on thi nkers i n w e sle r na n tiq u ity. S. T a kd ir Alisja h b a na, i n l r$ Ial r.res as i nteTrotrn+.ft)rces i n pers o na lir y, so cie ty o n d cu ltn r c ( 1 9 6 6 ) , fornrul ntcs [-ei segang's appi onch as fol l ow s: s De u k./r tr n , wh ich i sderi rctl fronr real i l y,l earl .;trl avoi dabl l to " l n L .e ise g a n g 'vicw a w o r fd vie w, sin ce in a i:cn r r lwilh o n e D enk./orrnob.j ects arrd e\cn(h are Iogi cal l y r e f a te d wh ich wo u ld n o t h e la wfu lly rel atcri accordi ng l o othur l )enk.formen, w i th o u t e a sily d e te cta b le ir r co n sisle ncyand tl i strrrbi ng the l ogi cl l consci ence" ( p . 2 0 8 ) . T h e wo r d "lo g ica l" in th is p a ssage. horvever,i s probatrl i , too strong i f i t r e fe r s to Ar isto te lia n lo g r c, th c wo r cl "consci errce" bei ng morc appropri ate. The D e n kJitr m itse lf co n stitu te slh e se r ) sc o f w hal i s l cl ated and how . 1 2 . F o r th e d istin ctio n b ( - twe e n in le llectual ratrd i ntcl l i gentsi a, seetl rc paper "On ( Ca ltung, 1980b). t h e r isc o f in te lle ctu a lsa s a cl::r ss" 3 3 . I se e th i.sa s a so u r ce o f cr p la r r ati on, ancl a nraj or one, behi rrd l he poi nts q u o te d in n o te 2 7 . M o r e p a r ticu la r ly, o ne funcri on of the stri cr di vi si on i nto school s i s t o m a ke th e a r g u n r e n ts e xo g e n o u s to one's crw rr school i rrel evanl , hencereduci ng I h e r isk o f fa lsifica tio n . 3 4 . T h e wa y th is is cr p r e sse d in "D educri vc thi nki ng and pol i ti cal pracri ce" ( C a ltu n g , 1 9 7 9 ) : "...th e r e is a fu n d a r lental i sonrorphi snrberw eencl ecl ucti on and c a u sa tio n ; p r ir r e va r ia b lcs r r r fa cto r s are al so pri nre nrovers...thr l trrotvs ol i nf e r e n ceb e co n r ea r r o ws o f ca u sa tio n .F o r thi s ro l r,orkout, soci al rcul i ty has to be as s t r on g ly co u p le d e n r p ir ica llyls a d e d u cti vesl ,stenr i s l ogi cal l y" 1p. )01). 15 . Ash isNa n d yh a sp cr in r e d o u r r o n lethal i rnri ghrbel rui rl ul l ornakeadi sri nct i o n b e twe e n b r a h n r a n ic a n d su clr a ic i ntel l cctr"ral styl es; the fornrer bei ng nrore e s o te r icth e la tte r n r o r e clL r wn - to ,e a r th , sonrel hi ngl i ke the cl i stj rrcti uns ntade i n note I 8 a b o ve . Ag a in , h o we ve r , th e tr e m e n dous [orce oi the 6l i tes, tl )o cxtent to w hi ch " t h e d o n r in a n t in te lle ctu a lstyle is th e in tel l ertual styl e of the donri rri .url cl asses"(ro p a r a p h r a seM a r x) sh o u ltl b e ke p t in m ind. 36 . On e isr e m in d e d o f th e g o a l o fr h e V i ennaci rcl ebefcrrethcscconclw ri ri du,ar, e x pr e ssin gitse lf in th e n r a u y e ffo r ts t ow ards "uni fi ed sci ence", w ri tten i n the language o f Ru d o lf Ca r r r ilp ,b r in g in g in speci al i sts i n al l ki nds of fi el ds (thc Internotional encyctopedia of unified science). 3 7 . A ke y p r o p o n e n t o f th is in th e Nordi c c:ountri es has been A rne N aess,hi ghl y i n f lu e r r tia lth r o u g h h is a d va n ce dwo r k in phi l osophy of sci ence and methodol ogyas w e l i a s th r o u g h h is te xtb o o ks fo r p r o p cdeuri ccoursesi n phi l osophy. l l i s w hol e app r o a ch is ch a r a cte r ize d b y a n e ffo r t r o bal ancei trducti onand decl ucl i oni n a spi ral p r o ce ss. l i n g h yo th e tico - d e d u ctive 38 . Actu a lly, tile style u se d b y a tjS soci al sci entrstw hen enp',agcd i n cri ti cal a n a lysisis ve r y sin tila r to th e $ tyle a jo u rnal i sl , cLrfor that nratter peopl e i n general w o uld u se . T h is ve r y p a p e r wa s e ve n tr iggeredoff'by a remark oncc nracl e i n the U S b y a US h o u se wife wh o wa s co lle ctin g sonre reci pes: "l am goi rrg to rhe l i brary t o m o r r o w r o d o a little r e se a r ch o n th e s ereci pes". A C erman or French l rousew i fe w o u ld h a r tlly lr a ve u se d su ch e xp r e ssio ns for that type of acti vi ty; i n thei r soci eti es t h e d ista n ce b ctwce n e ve r vd a yth in kir r g and sci *nti fi c thi nki ng bcrn1l consi derabl y

fri gl rc r, ev c n r.l i l c trrr{ i nLrous ts : o s eparate * ' orl ds , u,i th i ntc l l c c tLralhar s i ng rnrrrropol y on i ntel l ec tualw ork . J 9. S ee [i . B ov enk erk , "S oc i ol ogi e i n N ederl and deugt ni et" (1981), a rev i ew of !l a uri c c l )unc h, " [)utc h s oc i oi ogy and uni v c rs i tl ' r' efbrnr l * ' etens c l tap" (.S o< i al e pe n Z4 (l ), 1981).H e i s quoti rrg, i n an efforr to ex pl ai n the "depl orabh s rareof affairs " thr nrc nroi rsof the S pani s hdi pl omat, the D uk e of B uena, to thc efferr rhat e e i n the w orl d" nnd that ti rey "c l i s pl ay thc [)utei t are "the n]os t ((.)ns c rv ati vpeopl the nrerrtal i ty of an ac c ountan(". May be, but the approac h I tak e i n tr;,i r:gro ac c (.)urtt for thc l rc k of ori gi nal i ty ' j rr D utc h s oc i al s c i c nc ei s a di fl erenr one. 4 0. l -c t' note 2 abov e.

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856 Th.-,r)r.\' and flethods

Oulttrrtt;

(ontpdrin.q Irrdo-l:uropean tilt).t.',ttn.q(\, ("hinest'untl JQlturtt'.sc. (icrrrrrr, I ns l i tu t I l ni v c rs i tai rcd' c t uti rs rl rr tl * c k .ppc rnc nl((]l ,l l ) l )i tpc rs ). (l rac i arc rra,.l , 1965 "l a s oc i ol ogi a c rr A nr6ri c u l .ati rra. ,\l gunas c ri l s i c l erl rc i c ,rres rotrrr ta c ()opc ra{ :i (i n i l ttc l i l ac i trttalI, c l c l c s arrol l orc c i c ntc dc l a i nrc :ti .c i rri i rn s oc i o16l .l i c i -r c r] A nrc ri c a l -ati nr", R t,v i .s l c tLuti ttouttteri Lunu rl e Soc! u k.r.g ia 1\2): 23 l -242.

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.\oc rul.s ti enc e,s pol i r' .l apqi l (R c porr prc parc d b1,A . K rri g, .1. N l ul l c v and D . 5eers .)P ari s , O[:C D .

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"S ur I' c tudr al gc bri quc dc c c rtai ns ty pc s de l oi s c l c nri l ri ng,r(s y ' ,rc l rrr: N 4urugi n)", c hap. x i v , pp. 279 285 i n: C . Lc v i -S traus s ,l .{ ' \ .\tnt(.tnrc s i l trrtttttui res rl e Iu S turenti . P ari s , P rc s s c s U ni v ers i tai res ti l .:[' rarrr.:tr.

\\'i tt gc ns tc i n, L. ' l ' rac tuttts l og,i c ' rt-phi l ox tl .r/l r' 1.r. l 92l Lontl on, l n{ ernati oni l l l i brar\ (rf' 1922 P s y c hol og.v -, P hi l os ophy arrtl S c i c rrti ifc Merhod. (N ew ed. l i )4{ ). I on d()n. R ()utl c dgeand K egarrl )aul ).