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UNIT 9 DATA PROCESSING AND PRELIMINARY DATA ANALYSIS

Structure 9.1 Introduction Objectives 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 Survey field work and Data collection Nature and scope of data preparation Editing Coding Data entry Data cleaning Preliminary data analysis Assessing for normality and outliers Summary Glossary Terminal Questions Answers Case Study

9.1 INTRODUCTION In the earlier unit you must have learnt about the concept of Hypothesis, its process, Test of Significance of a Mean-large Sample, Test of Significance of Difference between Two Standard Deviations (Large Sample), and Test of Significance of Difference between Two Means (Large Sample). Further you have studied about the Test of Significance of a Sample, Proportion, _ Test of Significance of Difference between Two Sample Proportions, Student's T Distribution, Kruskal-Wallis Test. In the end you have learnt Kolmogorov-Simrnov Test. In this unit you will study about the data processing and preliminary data analysis process.

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After collecting the data for the questionnaire, data preparation and analysis is done. Data preparation process has the direct impact upon the quality of the researcher analysis. This unit discusses the data collection process which initiates with checking the complete questionnaire thoroughly. Then data editing and coding terms are used. Data editing means to scrutinize the data among irrelevant and relevant data. Data coding is the process of giving numberings and symbol to the edited data. After that data cleaning is used in which different statistical software are used. A preliminary data analysis is done after doing the cleaning of the data. In this unit you will focus on the fieldwork and the process of data collection. When the data is collected you will be able to learn about the concept of editing and coding. Further you will be aware about how to use different statistical software in the data preparation process. After data coding and editing next step is data cleaning. Then before doing the final analysis of the data, a proper check on the data is to be done. Further you will know about the preliminary data analysis like normality and outlier check. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to:

describe the nature and scope of data preparation learn the data editing, coding and cleaning step know about the preliminary data analysis ass the normality and outliers concept

CASELET

Nielsens Internet Survey: Does it Carry Any Weight? The Nielsen Media Research Company, a longtime player in television-related marketing research has come under fire from the various TV networks for its surveying techniques. Additionally, in another potentially large, new revenue business, Internet surveying, Nielsen is encountering serious questions concerning the validity of its survey results. Due to the tremendous impact of electronic
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commerce on the business world, advertisers need to know how many people are doing business on the Internet in order to decide if it would be lucrative to place their ads online. Nielsen performed a survey for Commerce Net, a group of companies that includes Sun Microsystems and American Express, to help determine the number of total users on the Internet. Nielsens research stated that 37 million people over the age of 16 have access to the Internet and 24 million have used the Net in the last three months. Where statisticians believe the numbers are flawed is in the weighting used to help match the sample to the population. Weighting must be used to prevent research from being skewed toward one demographic segment. The Nielsen survey was weighted for gender but not for education which may have skewed the population toward educated adults. Nielsen then proceeded to weight the survey by age and income after they had already weighted it for gender. Statisticians also feel that this is incorrect because weighting must occur simultaneously, not in separate calculations. Nielsen does not believe the concerns about their sample are legitimate and feel that they have not erred in weighting the survey. However, due to the fact that most third parties have not endorsed Nielsens methods, the validity of their research remains to be established. Activity 1 Enter the relevant data by using the 10 samples of your questionnaire. 9.2 SURVEY FIELD WORK AND DATA COLLECTION Primary data and surveys are normally used in different areas of marketing problems and the best option to collect these primary data is the survey method. Fieldwork is thus needed to collect the primary data in marketing research. This is very rare instance in the field of marketing especially in corporate research case that the person who designed the research rarely collects the primary data. A specialized agency or the person in the research department normally collects this kind of data for the research study. There are lots of problems and issue concerning with this fieldwork.

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These problems are only occurred when a proper recruitment procedure in not followed. Data collection process can be categorized as follows: 1. Select the fieldworkers 2. Train them 3. Supervise them 4. Evaluate their fieldwork as well themselves Before selecting any fieldworker, an analyst must determine the suitability of the fieldwork for a particular study. This seems very critical in situations when personal and telephonic interviews are conducted. However respondents may feel comfortable when they interact with the fieldworkers on telephonic. In many cases, an analyst dont bother the working of their fieldworkers which can prove to be an adverse impact on quality of data collected as well as on overall response rate also. Thus, it is to be notified that an analyst must train their fieldworkers related to the pattern and objectives of the questionnaire. It is normally seen that fieldworkers are not properly aware about the questionnaire process. This situation appears sue to lack of proper training. Due to this reason fieldworkers my feel unable to conduct the interviews in a proper and efficient manner. Researchers have developed some guidelines for their fieldworkers related to the research as follows: 1. Firstly go through with the questionnaire thoroughly 2. Put up the question in the same sequence as they appear in the questionnaire 3. Use the wording exactly the same as in the questionnaire 4. Repeat or vocalize the question which is not understood by your respondents 5. Read the questions in a slow motion always 6. Put up every possible and applicable question 7. Follow all the instructions properly and carefully While examining the research techniques, researcher must train their fieldworkers too. Examining or probing process helps the researcher in encouraging the respondent and making focus on a specific problem or issue. If they are not trained properly then it can create biasness in the process. There are lots of probing techniques involved in the research as follows: 1. Drawing out clarification 2. Questions to be repeated 3. Respondents reply to be repeated 4. Respondents should be reassured and boosted 5. A pause should be used or it can also be termed as silent probe
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6. Sometimes ask neutral questions or comments also The process of how to collect the respondents response and how to wind up the interview session, it must be trained to the fieldworkers politely. As this training gives rise to a normal worker to a trained fieldwork. And this trained fieldworker can become the good asset for the research process in totality in comparison to those who feel disengagement with the whole process. It is to be noted that these fieldworkers are given their payment on hourly or daily basis and in many cases. Due to this reason their motivation ratio to conduct the efficient interviews may not be as high as a researcher looking across the whole process. In this situation supervision influence is also high with the help of which a researcher can look after the control on their fieldworkers whether they are following the techniques and procedures according to their training. Supervision plays a vital role in these kinds of situations. This helps the researcher in keeping a tab or close watch on the ethical standards used in this field as well as on cheating or fraud cases also. Another issue related to the fieldwork is to evaluate the fieldwork and fieldworkers. In terms of the authentication of the interviews conducted, evaluation the fieldwork is very significant issue. To check the authenticity, a researcher can call 10-15% of the respondents taken in the sample to check whether fieldworkers conducted the interviews properly. Supervisor can put up various questions also from the same questionnaire to make a confirmation of the data authenticity. There are various measures to evaluate the fieldworkers like their response rates, total cost incurred and the quality of data collected while conducting the interviews. Self Assessment questions 1. Secondary data and surveys are normally used in different areas of marketing problems and the best option to collect these primary data is the survey method 2. A _____________ agency or the person in the research department normally collects this kind of data for the research study. 9.3 NATURE AND SCOPE OF DATA PREPARATION Data collection term is very important in the whole marketing research process. The data which fieldworkers collect is known as raw data which further needs to be organized and systematized in a well proper way. Raw data may be inaccurate, incomplete, and crude and scattered in various formats of data collection. The researcher must keep in mind various

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measures like editing, coding, classification and tabulating to organize the data in a proper order to analyse it further. After collecting the data, next step of researcher is to give attention on data analysis. Once the final data has been collected, researcher can initiate the analysis process instantly. The steps are as follows:

EDITIN G

CODING

ENTRY

CLEANING

Figure: 9.1; process of Data preparation These above steps help in collecting the data for analysis. This process plays a very significant role in collecting the data in a correct way. If the collected data is not relevant as per the requirement then it can hamper a researchers objectives. Simultaneously manager can make wrong decision too. Self Assessment questions 3. Data collection term is very important in the whole marketing promotion process. (True/False) 4. Raw data may be inaccurate, incomplete, and crude and scattered in various formats of data collection. (True/False)

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9.4 EDITING After collecting the raw data with the help of the questionnaire, the first step in data preparation process is to do editing. Edition is done to detect the errors and omissions while collecting the data and then helps in converting into the correct form. Editing also specifies the quality standards to be achieved in a proper way. The main objective of editing is to generate accurate, complete and well arranged data which further helps in simplifying the coding step of data processing It will be apparent in some cases that the questionnaire entry is entered in the wrong place. Such kind of errors or mistakes could have happened at the time of recording or interpreting the data. When the researcher finds little information missing or inappropriate then he has three options: a) While doing review of other information, a researcher can detect the exact answer for the missing information. A researcher can do this thing only in those cases where he already aware about the correct answer. b) When researcher finds the answer in terms of no answer or unknown then he can strike out the answer by considering it clearly inappropriate. But if your sample size is small in nature then this method doesnt found successful. As striking out answer can be taken in otherwise sense like it can generate that information is missing and analysis of this answer should not be done. c) To get data authentication, researcher can make direct contact to the sample respondents. This option is chosen in those cases where respondents have plenty of time and money also. There are other major problems also in the process of editing like fakeness in an interview. Such kinds of interviews which are fake are hard to come in limelight and if these interviews involve tick boxes, it becomes very difficult to spot out. They can only be captured in editing stage. The best option to track out those interviews that are fake is to add some open-ended questions in your questionnaire. Then it becomes difficult to fake. If faking occurs then the researcher finds different response pattern in other questions. To eliminate this issue, editor must analyse the interviewers instruments used by him. Self Assessment questions 5. After collecting the raw data with the help of the questionnaire, the first step in data preparation process is to do: (i) Formatting (ii) Editing (iii) Processing (iv) Collecting.
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6. There are other major problems also in the process of editing like faking of an: (i) Questionnaire (ii) answer (iii) interview (iv) coding

9.5 CODING Coding is the second step of data preparation. Coding is the process by which some numbers or symbols are assigned to the responses in the editing data of the questionnaire. These responses are further collected in a group or categories which ensure their depthness and exclusivity. In this numerical values are assigned to each respondents response for each question during the research survey. At the time of classification of the data some data is lost but this classification is very important for the data preparation process. It is better to not to use the word Male or Female for identification instead M or F . the variable could be as follows: Male- 1 Female- 2 or 0 and 1

In the same sense coding of Likert Scale is done as: Strongly disappointed- 1 Disappointment- 2 Neither disappointed nor agree-3 Agree-4 Strongly agree-5

This coded language makes the overall analysis more interpretable as mostly all the numbers are understood easily with the help of these statistical softwares. Coding helps in scrutinizing the huge data into a lot which makes simpler for the researcher to interpret the meaning. In coding language, when a set of partitioned data is structured it is known as categories and when some rules and policies are framed to partition the data it is known as categorization. To develop this coding structure for the questionnaire, there is one easiest option namely codebook.

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For example: 103103042 83941991019110 10310305 1124232130110110 103104063 92221241000110 A codebook is a set of all the variables used in the study and it also specifies how these rules and policies are applicable to the variable. This codebook is normally used by the researcher and their staff as a guide which helps in making data entry less prone to mistakes and error. During analysis with the help of this guide, positions of variables can be easily located in the data file. The contents of the codebook includes as follows: Question serial number Variable name Location of the variable code Descriptive response options of the respondents

Note: it is not necessary that every code book is computerized. It can be hand made also. Another thing to be noted that variable can be alpha (A-Z) or numeric (0-9). There is certainty in the close ended questions of coding. Thus it is to be notified that it becomes easier to analyse the coding close ended questions. Because these questions are more predetermined and structured in nature. However, these questions are tricky as well as respondents answers may be staggering in nature.

Format of Codebook School identification code Student identification code

1. Are you a boy or a girl? (Tick one number) Boy .............................................. 1 Girl .............................................. 2 2. How old are you? (Put in your age in years) ....................................................... years

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3. How often do you eat each of the following meals? (Tick one number on each line) Not at all (a) Morning meal 1 4 (b) Lunch 4 (c) Evening meal 4 1 1 1 or 2 times a week 2 2 2 3 or 4 times a week 3 3 3 Every day

4. Are there any books where you live that you could read which are not your school books? (Tick one number) Yes .............................................. 1 No .............................................. 2 If No, go to question 6. 5. If Yes, how often do you read these books? (Tick one number) Always.......................................... 3 Sometimes................................... 2 Never............................................ 1 6. If Yes, how many books are there in your home? (Tick one number) None............................................. 1 1 to 10 books............................. 2 11 to 50 books........................... 3 More than 50 books................. 4 7. Do you have the following things in your home? (Tick one number on each line) Do not have this Have one or more

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(a) Radio (b) TV (c) Table to Write on (d) Bicycle (e) Electricity (f) Running Water (g) Daily Newspaper

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Source: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/TR_Mods/Qu_Mod10.pdf

Self Assessment questions 7. __________ is the second step of data preparation 8. A factbook is a set of all the variables used in the study and it also specifies how these rules and policies are applicable to the variable. (True/False) 9.6 DATA ENTRY After doing the coding to the information, next step of data preparation is to make data entry. This is done with the help of applying statistical software package. Data entry can be divided into various methods as follows: Manual data entry This is the common method generally used by the researchers who have shortage of time while preparing data. Thus researcher creates the data file immediately by using keyboarding and then save it in a minimal space of hard drive. When there is large number of data entry files then this method is highly prone to error.

Optical scanners When there is large scale of study or where the large number of data is to be entered then this optical scanners are used. In this method, character recognition or optical mark recognition of questionnaire takes place with the help of scanner. After that data is converted into a statistical output with the help of computer. By using these methods, the overall efficiency and effectiveness of data entry is achieved.
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For example: in case of CATI or CAPI, data is directed stored in the memory of the computer due to which there is no requirement for data entry at further stage. Now a days trend becomes changed and advanced. Many organisations use electronic devices like PDAs. For example: utility of Tablet PCs and new Tech savvy Mobiles have changes the older methods of data entry. Self Assessment questions 9. _______________ is the common method generally used by the researchers who have shortage of time while preparing data 10. Researcher creates the data file immediately by using keyboarding and then save it in a minimal space of hard drive.(True/False) 9.7 DATA CLEANING The next and the final stage of data preparation is data cleaning. Data cleaning is the process of detecting errors and consistency checks and then making a proper treatment of missing responses. Data cleaning can be done by checking each variable properly. Check each variable for the data: Check the variables which are logically inconsistent or considered as out of range. This kind of data can hamper the overall process of analysis thus it must be rectified on time. To rectify this inconsistent data, most advance statistical packages are used which provide correct output for the analysis. You must keep in mind that there should be a close supervision on these inconsistent data as sometimes there is confusion of inconsistency which further represents legitimate response. This is a common activity found in most of the research surveys. It occurs because of two reasons: a) Whether the respondent has given ambiguous response to the interviewer or, b) Recording of the respondents record is improper Thus in such cases, data cleaning helps in analyzing the missing value. If the ratio of missing value is 10% more then it can create major problems for the researcher in data analysis. For treating missing values, four options are used as follows:
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a) Convert the missing value with a neutral value b) Convert an assigned response by following a pattern of respondents responses c) Delete the cases where missing responses of respondents are discarded from the analysis. d) Delete pair wise, where the complete responses provided by the respondents for specific variables are included. All the different procedures have their different responses in data cleaning. Thus, a researcher must take care of every point during cleaning of the data. Also the process of data cleaning should not be very large. Self Assessment questions 11. Data _____ is the process of detecting errors and consistency checks and then making a proper treatment of missing responses. 12. Data cleaning helps in analyzing the missing value.(True/False) 9.8 PRELIMINARY DATA ANALYSIS In the earlier sections of this unit you learnt how responses are coded and entered. This process provides valuable information while creating the numerical summaries. For example: the data which is missing related to the respondent may be detected with the help of this process. In this stage of preliminary data analysis, all the problems are rectified whether it can be mis-coded, out of range, extreme values or any other problem related to the data preparation. Once the data cleaning process is done efficiently, a researcher can complete the journey of data analysis. Here you should focus on the first step of data analysis which is related to descriptive analysis. Descriptive statistics is the process which describes the features or characteristics of the data. This method further helps in making the analysis for the violations of the assumptions of statistical techniques. Descriptive analysis also traces out the specific research questions. In this method, lot of advance statistical tests are used which are very sensitive to data violation. These tests further create a clear picture in the mind of researcher to track the exact position of the violation of data.

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Figure 9.2: Statistical methods Source: finntrack.co.uk These tests include: Mean Range of scores Standard deviation Skewness and kurtosis

By using frequencies and exploration command in SPSS, this kind of statistics can be obtained. SPSS is a name of Software. In the whole world, SPSS is commonly used statistical software package. There are other lot of software packages like this which includes SAS, Strata and Minitab etc. To analyse these purposes, researcher normally use the primary scale of measurements which can be further categorized into two parts. a) Categorical variables or non-metric data b) Continuous variables or metric data Categorical data is that data which includes nominal and ordinal scale based variables. For example: marital status, gender etc. Continuous variables include the variables of interval and ratio scale based. For example: weight, height, temperature, distance, speed and more on.

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Descriptive statistics method is used for both categorical and continuous variables. It is applicable to SPSS kind of programmes also. This statistics give information related to the frequency and percentages. For example: for a single variable how many times a specific data happen like number of males and females respondents. For continuous variables, descriptive data give information related to mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis. Self Assessment questions 13. ______ statistics is the process which describes the features or characteristics of the data. 14. Categorical data is that data which includes ______ and _______scale based variables. 9.9 ASSESSING FOR NORMALITY AND OUTLIERS A researcher has to presume this thing that the data collected from the respondents is normal and free of outliers. For example: if on a bell curve data is plotted, then mostly the strength of data appears in the middle. And as you move here and there, strength of data will decrease accordingly either side in a proportional trend. In normality situation, the other methods of statistics also provide some information. These methods are skewness and kurtosis. Positive skewness indicates the data points or strength on the left side of the bell curve which indicates low value. Negative skewness indicates the data points cluster on the higher side or on the right side of the bell curve. On the other hand positive kurtosis indicates the data points collected at the center with long thin tails. Negative kurtosis indicates the values below 0 where the data points are relatively flat. In normality, SPSS also provide various techniques. The result or output provided by this technique has few things to look as follows:

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Source: virtual-pharma-research.com Figure:9.3: SPSS method a) 5% trimmed mean, there are lot of extreme values in the data base in case where there is a huge difference between 5% trimmed mean and original mean. b) This technique also provide information related to skewness and kurtosis c) Normality is indication in the situation where the test of normality has 0.05 or more than this significance value. You should note this thing that in case of having large sample of data, this method gives indication that data is non-normal. d) In normality, histograms indicate visual representation of the data to be distributed. e) To identify the outliers, box plots are used in this method. In SPSS, the cases which found as outliers will be specified in other mode like it can be marked as small rounds at the corner of the box plot areas. If a researcher wants to rectify the anomalies in the data collection then he has to use these tests of normality and outliers. Self Assessment questions 15. A researcher has to presume this thing that the data collected from the respondents is normal and free of outliers. (True/False)

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16. ______ kurtosis indicates the values below 0 where the data points are relatively flat. Activity 2 Assume yourself as Logistic manager of XYZ Company. Prepare a codebook for your company. 9.10 SUMMARY Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: This unit explains major two aspects of the process of marketing research as data preparation and preliminary data analysis. After designing the questionnaire, researcher collects the primary data which requires the involvement of the fieldworkers. Researcher has to be specific while doing the selection, training and supervision of their fieldworkers. Because it directly affect the quality of the data collection. After collecting the data by fieldworkers, the researcher has to go for the next stage which includes editing and coding of the data. Editing and coding plays a major part in data preparation process though both steps are tedious in nature as well. Both editing and coding steps are very helpful for the researcher in eliminating the anomalies with the data by using data cleaning method. After doing data cleaning the researcher analyse the data in normality sense. For normality and outliers, the researcher must use different kind of descriptive statistical tests. After doing normality and outlier tests, preliminary data is analysed then researcher start hypothesis testing. 9.11 GLOSSARY Raw data: The data which fieldworkers collect is known as raw data which further needs to be organized and systematized in a well proper way. Editing: It is done to detect the errors and omissions while collecting the data and then help in converting into the correct form. Coding: It is the process by which some numbers or symbols are assigned to the responses of the questionnaire editing part.

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Data cleaning: It is the process of detecting errors and consistency checks and then making a proper treatment of missing responses. Descriptive statistics: This is the process which describes the features or characteristics of the data. 9.12 TERMINAL QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the concept of data editing. 2. Explain the process of data preparation. 3. What is the nature and scope of data preparation? 4. Discuss the concept of data entry and data cleaning. 5. What kinds of statistical software are used in data analysis? 6. Elaborate the concept of preliminary data analysis. 7. How would you assess the normality and outliers concept in data preparation process? 9.13 ANSWERS Self-Assessment Questions 1. False 2. Specialized 3. False 4. True 5. ii) 6. iii) 7. Coding 8. False 9. Manual data entry
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10. True 11. Cleaning 12. True 13. Descriptive 14. Nominal, ordinal 15. True 16. Negative Terminal questions 1. After collecting the raw data with the help of the questionnaire, the first step in data preparation process is to do editing..Refer 9.4 2. The steps are as follows:.Refer 9.3-9.7 3. Data collection term is very important in the whole marketing research process.Refer 9.3 4. After doing the coding to the information, next step of data preparation is to make data entry..Refer 9.6 & 9.7 5. Descriptive statistics is the process which describes the features or characteristics of the data..Refer 9.8 6. In the earlier sections of this unit you learnt how responses are coded and entered.. Refer 9.8 7. A researcher has to presume this thing that the data collected from the respondents is normal and free of outliers..Refer 9.9 9.14 CASE STUDY Actuarial Firm Needed to Reduce Data Preparation Costs A global actuarial firm was taking too much time preparing census data for valuations and needed to reduce costs. The Partner

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This project established a partnership with a global actuarial and benefits consulting firm The Challenge A global actuarial and benefits consulting firm was taking too much time preparing census data for actuarial valuations and wanted to reduce their costs. Their business was growing and they needed a tool that could more easily consolidate data, reconcile differences from prior years and produce comprehensive analysis reports before sending the data to their valuation systems. They also needed a tool that was flexible enough to adapt to various data formats and tailor data validation criteria for each client to facilitate correction of data problems. The Approach Our Professional Services Group used Applaud-Benefits to build a customized solution for the actuarial firm. The solution that we built with Applaud gave the firm everything on their wish list: They were able to access client data easily and in any format and identify data anomalies quickly using profiling and analysis tools. Since matching the current data to the prior year's data was always a problem, the solution included the capability to match records on four different criteria: Social Security number, employee ID, employee name, and a combination of first initial, birth date, and hire date (looking for a female that was married or divorced since last year). Comprehensive reports identified each match as well as non-match participants. The firm wanted to roll the tool out to their offices around the globe. The tool had to be flexible enough to easily handle a wide range of data validation routines that its actuaries and consultants needed in the field. We incorporated over 75 data validation routines that could be selectively turned on or off, depending on each client's requirements.

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In addition, the system made it easy to produce many types of reports including experience reports, age/service reports and many other types of analysis reports.

In the end, data was reformatted and exported to the firm's valuation systems. The Success The solution took only 12 weeks to design, develop and test. The firm's ongoing cost of data preparation was greatly reduced and their data quality improved dramatically, which ultimately led to a significantly higher level of client satisfaction. Source: file:///C:/Documents%20and %20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Temp/Prem Questions: 1. Elaborate the case in detail. 2. What is the main issue discussed in the case? 3. What method is adopted to solve that issue? 4. How success is achieved to recover the issue?

REFERENCES Boyd, H., R. Westfall, and S. Stasch (1989), Marketing research: Text and Cases. Boston:Irwin.(1989), Marketing research: Text and Cases. Boston: Irwin. Reichheld, F. (1996), "Learning From Customer Defections," Harvard Business Review, 74(March-April), 56-69.
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Shukla, P. (2002), "Managing Customer Expectations: The Ethical Way," in Ethics inManagement: Emerging Issues in the New Millennium, B. Prajapati (Ed.). North GujaratUniversity, India. Malhotra, N. (2004b), Marketing Research: An Applied Orientation. New Jersey: PearsonEducation.Aaker, D. and G. Day (1980), Marketing Research. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Malhotra, N. and D. Birks (2003), Marketing Research: An Applied Approach. London:Prentice Hall.

E-References

www.bookboon.com 27/06/2012, 5.30 pm http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/TR_Mods/Qu_Mod10.pdf 28/06/2012, 2.30 pm

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