Semi Automattion of UTM Rajeev

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
Chapter 1 Introduction
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
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1. Introduction
INTRODUCTION
There has always been, and there will always be, a need to test products and materials to prevent disasters. Critical physical parameters must be measured to quantify performance and strength, ensuring our safety and the safety of our environment. As examples of what could happen without sufficient testing: The Titanic ship, considered indestructible by its designers and engineers, sank on its maiden voyage, as we all know. The cause has been attributed to the mild steel used in the rivets that held the steel hull plates together the cold temperature made them brittle and caused the unzipping of the hull plates when it hit the iceberg 1,523 people died as a result. On July 17 1981 during a dance contests the Hyatt Regency Skywalk in Kansas City, collapsed at its base under the weight of pedestrians killing 114 people and injuring 200 others. In April 1988, an Aloha Airlines flight 243, scheduled Boeing 737 plane was ripped apart in mid-flight. A flight attendant was sucked out of the plane and fortunately was the only casualty. The cause of the accident was attributed to metal fatigue. On August 1st, 2007, the eight lane I-35W Mississippi River Bridge in Minneapolis, MN catastrophically failed in the evening rush hour and collapsed into the riverbanks below. Thirteen people were killed and over 100 more were seriously injured. The cause has been attributed to undersized and inadequate steel gusset plates used to connect girders together in the truss structure. These disasters may have all been caused by equipment, design or material failure. It is possible, however, that tragedies such as these can be avoided through the process of physical materials testing. Although natural disasters cannot be stopped, we can try to ensure that all efforts are made to minimize or eliminate any damage caused. UTMs are designed for use in Research and Quality Control to measure and check materials strength and performance. A universal testing machine, also known as a universal tester, materials testing machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile stress and compressive strength of materials. It is named after the fact that it can perform many standard tensile and compression, bend , hardness tests on materials, components, and structures. Various advanced UTMs are available in the market on which we can perform tensile, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 2
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE compression, bending and even hardness, creep and fatigue tests. The growing technology in electronics has its effects in mechanical department as well. With the application of control systems, micro controllers and various testing softwares such as Lab View, Matlab we are able to achieve highly accurate and precise measurements and results. In our mechanical material testing laboratory we have a mechanical type Universal testing machine where operation of the machines is by hydraulic transmission of load from the test specimen to a separately housed load indicator. The hydraulic system is ideal since it replaces transmission of load through levers and knife edges, which are prone to wear and damage due to shock on rupture of test pieces. Load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder pressure is transmitted to the cylinder of the pendulum dynamometer system housed in the control panel. The cylinder of the dynamometer is also of self-lubricating design. The load transmitted to the cylinder of the dynamometer is transferred through a lever system to a pendulum. Displacement of the pendulum actuates the rack and pinion mechanism which operates the load indicator pointer and the autographic recorder. The deflection of the pendulum represents the absolute load applied on the test specimen. Return movement of the pendulum is effectively damped to absorb energy in the event of sudden breakage of a specimen. Our objective is to improve our machine so that we can perform all the material testing experiments accurately and precisely. Apart from this we aim at installing a data acquisition system using transducers, ADCs, computer software etc. This will help us improve the capability of our UTM and enable us to obtain more accurate and precise Stress-Strain data which will be stored in computer. Subsequently this data can be plotted on the screen and one can also take the print out of the data as well as graph of his/her own references. Now we shall see in our literature review the description of all the concepts and terminologies required to fabricate our project.
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Chapter 2 Literature survey
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2. Literature Survey
As we know that before constructing a project we must have a clear cut idea about the things that we are going to do, that involves a deep understanding of the objective, terminologies, concepts which can help us to accomplish our goal. Here in our project as the name suggest that we must know about the UTM, automation, Data Acquisition systems and all the components involved in this. So in this chapter we will describe all the above things in a very brief manner so that it can help you in understanding our project.
2.1 About UTM 2.1.1 Brief history

Commercial tensile-testing equipment became available in the late 1800s. The earliest equipment used manual methods, such as hand cranks, to apply the load. In 1890, Tinius Olsen was granted a patent on the Little Giant, a hand-cranked, 180 kN (40,000 lbf) capacity testing machine. In 1891, Olsen produced the first autographic machine capable of producing a stressstrain diagram. An example of an 1890 machine is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Screw-driven balance-beam universal testing machine (1890 model)
Tensile testing equipment has evolved from purely mechanical machines to more advance electromechanical and servo hydraulic machines with advance electronics and microcomputers. Electronic circuitry and microprocessors have increased the reliability of experimental data, while reducing the time to analyze information. This transition has made it possible to determine rapidly and with great precision ultimate tensile strength and elongation, yield strength, modulus of elasticity, and other mechanical properties. Current equipment manufacturers also offer workstation configurations that automate mechanical testing. Conventional test machines for measuring mechanical properties include tension testers, compression testers, or the more versatile universal testing machine (UTM. UTMs have the capability to test material in tension, compression, or bending. The word universal refers to the variety of stress states that can be studied. UTMs can load material with a single, continuous (monotonic) pulse or in a cyclic manner. Other conventional test machines MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 5
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE may be limited to either tensile loading or compressive loading, but not both. These machines have less versatility than UTM equipment, but are less expensive to purchase and maintain. The basic aspects of UTM equipment and testing generally apply to tension or compression testing machines as well. 2.1.2
Introduction to various test perform on UTM
Tensile testing
TENSILE TESTS are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are used in selecting materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties frequently are included in material specifications to ensure quality. Tensile properties often are measured during development of new materials and processes, so that different materials and processes can be compared. Finally, tensile properties often are used to predict the behavior of a material under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension.
The strength of a material often is the primary concern. The strength of interest may be measured in terms of either the stress necessary to cause appreciable plastic deformation or the maximum stress that the material can withstand. These measures of strength are used, with appropriate caution (in the form of safety factors), in engineering design. Also of interest is the materials ductility, which is a measure of how much it can be deformed before it fractures. Rarely is ductility incorporated directly in design; rather, it is included in material specifications to ensure quality and toughness. Elastic properties also may be of interest, but special techniques must be used to measure these properties during tensile testing, and more accurate measurements can be made by ultrasonic techniques. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 6
Compression testing
A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The specimen is compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some materials, compressive strength. Axial compression testing is a useful procedure for measuring the plastic flow behavior and ductile fracture limits of a material. Measuring the plastic flow behavior requires frictionless (homogenous compression) test conditions, while measuring ductile fracture limits takes advantage of the barrel formation and controlled stress and strain conditions at the equator of the barreled surface when compression is carried out with friction. Axial compression testing is also useful for measurement of elastic and compressive fracture properties of brittle materials or lowductility materials. Concrete, Metals, Plastics, Ceramics, Composites, Corrugated Cardboard etc. are the typically which are subjected to a compression test.
Bending test
Bend testing (also flex or flexural testing) is commonly performed to measure the flexural strength and modulus of all types of materials and products. This test is performed on a universal testing machine (tensile testing machine or tensile tester) with a 3 point or 4 point bend fixture. Most common for product testing is the 3 point test.The key analysis when performing bend testing are: 1. Flexural Modulus - This measures the slope of a stress / strain curve and is an indication of a material's stiffness 2. Flexural Strength - This measures the maximum force that a material with withstand before it breaks or yields. Yield is where you have pushed a material past its recoverable deformation and it will no longer go back to the shape it once was. 3. Yield Point - The yield point is the point where the material essentially "gives up" or the point where if you were to continue to bend the product, the force will not continue to increase and will then start to decrease or break. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 7
Terminology:
1. Engineering stress and engineering strain These quantities are defined relative to the original area and length of the specimen. The engineering stress (e) at any point is defined as the ratio of the instantaneous load or force (F) and the original area (Ao).
F Ao
The engineering strain (e) is defined as the ratio of the change in length (L-Lo) and the original length (Lo).
L L0 L0
2. Engineering Stress strain curve The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular material displays is known as that material's Stress-Strain curve. It is unique for each material and is found by recording the amount of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or compressive loading (stress). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material ( yield point, ultimate strength, including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E). 3. Yield point The yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering and materials science as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible.
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Fig . A stressstrain curve typical of structural steel 1. Ultimate Strength 2. Yield Strength 3. Rupture 4. Strain hardening region 5. Necking region. A: Apparent stress (F/A0) B: Actual stress (F/A) It is often difficult to precisely define yielding due to the wide variety of stressstrain curves exhibited by real materials. In addition, there are several possible ways to define yielding: True elastic limit It is the lowest stress at which dislocations move. This definition is rarely used, since dislocations move at very low stresses, and detecting such movement is very difficult. Proportionality limit Up to this amount of stress, stress is proportional to strain (Hooke's law), so the stress-strain graph is a straight line, and the gradient will be equal to the elastic modulus of the material. Elastic limit (yield strength) Beyond the elastic limit, permanent deformation will occur. The lowest stress at which permanent deformation can be measured. This requires a manual load-unload procedure, and the accuracy is critically dependent on equipment and operator skill. For elastomers, such as rubber, the elastic limit is much larger than the proportionality limit. Also, precise strain measurements have shown that plastic strain begins at low stresses. Yield point The point in the stress-strain curve at which the curve levels off and plastic deformation begins to occur. Offset yield point (proof stress) When a yield point is not easily defined based on the shape of the stress-strain curve an offset yield point is arbitrarily defined. The value for this is commonly set at 0.1 or 0.2% of the MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 9
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE strain. The offset value is given as a subscript, e.g., Rp0.2=310 MPa.[citation needed] High strength steel and aluminum alloys do not exhibit a yield point, so this offset yield point is used on these materials. Upper yield point and lower yield point Some metals, such as mild steel, reach an upper yield point before dropping rapidly to a lower yield point. The material response is linear up until the upper yield point, but the lower yield point is used in structural engineering as a conservative value. If a metal is only stressed to the upper yield point, and beyond, Lders bands can develop.
4. Ductility Ductility can be defined as the amount of deformation or strain that the material can withstand before failure. For metal forming processes, increasing the ductility increases the material formability . In general, the ductility of the specimen is defined in terms of the elongation (EL) or the area reduction (AR) before fracture, i.e.:
5. True stress and strain The true stress () uses the instantaneous or actual area of the specimen at any given point, as opposed to the original area used in the engineering values.
F A
The true strain () is defined as the instantaneous elongation per unit length of the specimen.
Lo
dL L ln L Lo
The relationship between the true and engineering values is given by:
e (1 e)
ln(1 e)
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Note: For a given value of the load and elongation, the true stress is higher than the Eng. Stress, while the true strain is smaller than the Eng. Strain as shown in pervious figure with blue line
6. Strain hardening In the plastic region, the true stress increases continuously. This implies that the metal is becoming stronger as the strain increases. Hence, the name Strain Hardening.The relationship between true stress and true strain i.e. the flow curve can be expressed using the power law:
Kn
where K is called the strength coefficient and n the strain hardening exponent.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE The plastic portion of the true stress-strain curve (or flow stress curve) plotted on a log-log scale gives the n value as the slope and the K value as the value of true stress at true strain of one. log ()=log(K)+n*log() For materials following the power law, the true strain at the UTS is equal to n. Note: when you plot the log-log plot, use datapoints after the yield point (to avoid elastic points) and before instability (necking). A material that does not show any strain-hardening (n=0) is designated as perfectly plastic. Such a material would show a constant flow stress irrespective of strain. K can be found from the y-intercept or by substituting n and a datapoint (from the plastic region) in the power law.
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2.2 Our UTM construction features

The machine consist of two unit : The loading unit and The Control panel
S.No 1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 18 19
Description S.No Description Robust base 20 Upper cross head Jaw locking handle 21 Top plate Top plate 22 Operating handle Lower table 24 Bearing holder Lower compression plate 39 Load control valve Screwed column 40 Load release valve Straight coloumn 42 Recording drum Lower cross head 43 Pen Upper compression plate 44 Pen holder Lower plate 46 Dial Zero adjusting knob 47 Dial glass cover Nuts 48 Range adjuster knob Main nuts 51 Switch for downward motion Lock nuts 52 Switch for upward motion Backlash removing nuts 53 Switch on button Screws 54 Switch off button Fig: Universal testing machine
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The loading unit:

It consists of a robust base (1-p1). The main hydraulic cylinder is fitted in the centre of the base and the piston slides in the cylinder. The motor is fitted to the left hand side of the base the chain and sprocket driven by the motor rotate two screw columns (8-p1). These screws pass through the two main nuts (16-p1&p2) fitted in the lower cross head. Lock nuts avoid the lessening of the main nuts. Another function of the main nuts is that, while lowering the lower crosshead it avoids the sudden jerks when specimen breaks. The lower table (6-p1) is connected to the main piston through Ball and Ball seat joint. This joint ensures axial loading. This lower table is rigidly connected to the upper cross head (20-p1) by two straight columns. The lower tables and upper cross head assembly moves up and down with the main piston. The ups and down movement of this assembly is guided by the _____ bearings which slides over the screw columns. For tensile test the space between the lower and upper cross head is used. the jaws inserted along with the rack jaws slides in the lower and upper cross heads. The sliding motion of the rack jaws is achieved by rotating the helical toothed pinion by the operating hand wheel (22-p1) provided. Jaw locking handle (2-p1) is provided to lock the jaws of the lower crosshead after the specimen is clamped. This arrangement ensures firm clamping of the specimen and easy takeout of the broken specimen. Separate jaw pieces are provided for different range of specimen dia. Note: The jaws should always be released slowly. The upper and lower jaws are non interchangeable
S.No 2 10 20 24 22 Fig: tensile test arrangement MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Description Jaw locking handle Lower cross head Upper cross head Bearing holder Operating hand wheel
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE For compression, bending, shear and hardness tests the space between the lower table and the lower cross head is used. For compression test we have two compression plates; upper (11-p1) and lower (7-p1) plate. The lower compression plate is kept on lower table (6-p1) in the location holder provided and the upper compression plate is to be clamped to the bottom of the lower cross head. Bending table (25-p2), Bending rollers (28-p2) Bending pane (29-p2) are provided as an attachment for carrying out bend test. An elongation scale (30-p2) is kept sliding on the scale rod (31-p2) which is fixed between the lower table and the upper cross head. The elongation indicating pointer (32-p2) is fixed to the lower crosshead. The scale can slide on the rod when the screw at its back is loosened and can be set to zero, before starting the loading specimen.
S.No 27 28 29 17 16 18 6 25 30 31 32 15 Figure:
Description Bending support Bending roller Bending pane Lock nuts Main nuts Backlash removing nuts Lower table Bending table Elongation scale Scale rod Indicating pointer Removing nuts
In any test the up and down motion of the lower table and upper cross head assembly performs the loading action. The mechanical up and down motion of the lower cross head is provided for rapid initial space adjustment depending on the length or height of the tension and compression test specimen respectively.
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The control panel

The main units in the control panel are the Oil tank (33-p3) which contains the hydraulic oil, Oil level slight glass (34-p3) for checking the oil level is fitted to the oil tank. Oil tank cover (35-p3) filters the incoming oil, to the tank. Drain cock (36-p3) is provided to take out the oil while cleaning the tank.
S No. 34 35 36 38 39 40 41 45 33 23 14 Figure:
Description Oil level sight glass Tank cover Drain cock Hinged plate for motor Load control valve Load released valve Fine control valve Niddle valve Oil tank Oil filling point Worm wheel reduction
The pump is fitted to the tank cover from bottom which makes it easily assesible. The pump is positive displacement type pump. This ensures a continuous high pressure non-pulsating oil current for the smooth application for the load on the specimen. Two valves on the control panel, one at the right side and the other at the left side are used to control the oil flow in the hydraulic system. The right side valve (39-p3) is a pressure compensated flow control valve with integral overload belief valve. The left side valve (40-p3) is a return valve. This valve allows the oil from the cylinder to go back to the tank. There-by reducing the pressure in the cylinder and then working piston come down. The rate of oil returns and so the speed of piston return can be adjusted by this valve. If the return valve is closed, oil delivered by the pump passes through the flow control valve (39MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 16
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE p3) valve to the cylinder and the piston goes up. If it comes any resistance (resistance of the test specimen) pressure starts developing until either the specimen breaks or the load reaches the maximum value of the range adjusted. Note: A pressure oil connection is given from the valve to the cylinder at its centre. High pressure oil supplied at the cylinder centre serves as a hydraulic bearing for the piston and reduces the friction, thereby increasing accuracy. It also helps in getting the pressure compensation effects. The needle valve is a damper speed control valve. It control return speed of pendulum, because when the specimen breaks and the pendulum tries to come down suddenly due to sudden pressure drop in the main cylinder. It obstructs to the return flow of oil. Dynamometer measures and indicates the load on the specimen. The overall accuracy depends on this mechanism. It is a pendulum dynamometer consisting of cylinder and the top of it connected to the main hydraulic cylinder. So the oil pressure under the work piston goes to small cylinder in the dynamometer. The displacement of the small piston cause pendulum to deflect as far as the equilibrium is reached. And this deflection represents the measurement of the load on the specimen. This deflection is registered by a pointer on a dial. In addition to the accurate load indication on the scale a recording instrument automatically registers the load elongation diagram. A pen holder (44-p1) is fixed to the main tsck, move across the rotating drum (42-p1) as the load increases. At the same time the drum is rotated through small gears by taking movement of the lower table
2.2.2 Things /Missing Components and problem involved in it.
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2.3 Data Acquisition System

Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer. Data acquisition systems (abbreviated with the acronym DAS or DAQ) typically convert analog waveforms into digital values for processing. The components of data acquisition systems include:

Sensors that convert physical parameters to electrical signals. Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form that can be converted to digital values. Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values.
Fig. A general DAQ Obtaining proper results from a PC-based DAQ system depends on each of the following system elements: Transducers Signal Conditioning DAQ Hardware The personal computer Software
Terminology
Basic databasic data are the digital equivalents of analog counterparts, such as force and displacement measurements, which under static conditions are traceable to national standards (see Fig. 1). Derived dataderived data are additional numbers derived from the basic data through computation using software algorithms, such as a peak force or a modulus value.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Data acquisition ratedata acquisition rate is defined as the rate at which digital samples of each wave-form (that is, force, strain, displacement, and so forth) are acquired, expressed in samples/second. Resolutionthe resolution is the smallest change in force, strain, or displacement, or both, that can be displayed or obtained, or both, from the computerized testing system at any applied force, strain, or position, or both. transducer-channel bandwidththe bandwidth of a transducer-measurement channel which is measuring a force, strain, or displacement in a testing machine is the frequency at which the amplitude response of the measurement system has fallen by 3 dB, that is, the measured signal is in error by about 30 % and the phase shift has become 45 or greater. The precise amplitude and phase responses vary with the electrical design of the system, but the 3 dB bandwidth (expressed in Hertz) is a simple single measure of responsiveness (see Fig. 2).
FIG. 1 Basic Data and Derived Data
FIG. 2 Bandwidth
Methodology A) Source
Data acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon or physical property to be measured. Examples of this include temperature, light intensity, gas pressure, fluid flow, and force. Regardless of the type of physical property to be measured, the physical state that is to be measured must first be transformed into a unified form that can be sampled by a data acquisition system. The task of performing such transformations falls on devices called sensors.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE A sensor, which is a type of transducer, is a device that converts a physical property into a corresponding electrical signal (e.g., a acquisition system to measure differing properties depends on having sensors that are suited to detect the various properties to be measured. Resistive Displacement Sensors Resistive displacement sensors are commonly termed potentiometers or pots. A pot is an electromechanical device containing an electrically conductive wiper that slides against a fixed resistive element according to the position or angle of an external shaft. See Figure 6.1. Electrically, the resistive element is divided at the point of wiper contact. To measure displacement, a pot is typically wired in a voltage divider configuration, as shown in Figure 6.2. The circuits output, a function of the wipers position, is an analog voltage available for direct use or digitization. Calibration maps the output voltage to units of displacement. Table 6.1 lists some attributes inherent to pots. This chapter describes the different types of pots available, their electrical and mechanical characteristics, and practical approaches to using them for precision measurement. Sources and typical prices are also discussed. Versatile, inexpensive, and easyto- use, pots are a popular choice for precision measurement. Precision Potentiometers Pots are available in great variety, with specific kinds optimized for specific applications. Position measurement requires a high-quality pot designed for extended operation. Avoid pots classified as trimmers, rheostats, attenuators, volume controls, panel controls, etc. Instead, look for precision potentiometers.
. FIGURE 6.1 Representative cutaways of linear-motion (a) and rotary (b) potentiometers
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FIGURE 6.2 (a) Schematic diagrams depict a potentiometer as a resistor with an arrow representing the wiper. This schematic shows a pot used as a variable voltage divider the preferred configuration for precision measurement. R P is the total resistance of the pot, R is the load resistance, v r is the reference or supply voltage, and v o is the output voltage. (b) shows an ideal linear output function where x represents the wiper position, and x P is its maximum position.
TABLE 6.1 Fundamental Potentiometer Characteristics Advantages Easy to use Low cost Nonelectronic High-amplitude output signal Proven technology Disadvantages Limited bandwidth Frictional loading Inertial loading Wear
Types of Precision Potentiometers Precision pots are available in rotary, linear-motion, and string pot forms. String pots also called cable pots, yo-yo pots, cable extension transducers, and draw wire transducers measure the extended length of a spring-loaded cable. Rotary pots are available with single- or multi turn abilities: commonly 3, 5, or10 turns. Linear-motion pots are available with maximum strokes ranging from roughly 5 mm to over4 m [1, 2]. String pots are available with maximum extensions exceeding 50 m [3]. Pot manufacturers usually specify a pots type, dimensions, resistive element composition, electrical and mechanical parameters, and mounting method. a) Resistive Element Broadly, a pots resistive element can be classified as either wire wound, or nonwire wound. Wirewound elements contain tight coils of resistive wire that quantize measurement in step-like increments. In contrast, nonwire wound elements present a continuous sheet of resistive material capable of essentially unlimited measurement resolution. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 21
b) Wirewound elements offer excellent temperature stability and high power dissipation abilities. The coils quantize measurement according to wire size and spacing. Providing the resolution limits are acceptable, wire wound elements can be a satisfactory choice for precision measurement; however, conductive plastic or hybrid elements will usually perform better and for considerably more cycles. These and other popular nonwire wound elements are described in more detail below. c) Conductive plastic elements feature a smooth film with unlimited resolution, low friction, low noise, and long operational life. They are sensitive to temperature and other environmental factors and their power dissipation abilities are low; however, they are an excellent choice for most precision measurement applications.
TABLE 6.2Characteristics of Conductive Plastic, Wirewound, and Hybrid Resistive Elements
TABLE 6.3 Potentiometer Terminal Markings
d) Hybrid elements feature a wirewound core with a conductive plastic coating, combining wirewound and conductive plastic technologies to realize some of the more desirable attributes of both. The plastic limits power dissipation abilities in exchange for low noise, long life, and unlimited resolution. Like wirewounds, hybrids offer excellent temperature stability. They make an excellent choice for precision measurement. e) Cermet elements, made from a ceramic-metal alloy, offer unlimited resolution and reasonable noise levels. Their advantages include high power dissipation abilities and excellent stability in adverse conditions. Cermet elements are rarely applied to precision measurement because conductive plastic elements offer lower noise, lower friction, and longer life. f) Carbon composition elements, molded under pressure from a carbonplastic mixture, are inexpensive and very popular for general use, but not for precision measurement. They offer unlimited resolution and low noise, but are sensitive to environmental stresses (e.g., temperature, humidity) and are subject to wear. Table 6.2 summarizes the
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE distinguishing characteristics of the preferred resistive elements for precision measurement.
Electrical Characteristics Before selecting a pot and integrating it into a measurement system, the following electrical characteristics should be considered. a) Terminals and Taps Table 6.3 shows the conventional markings found on the pot housing [4, 5]; CW and CCW indicate clockwise and counter-clockwise rotation as seen from the front end. Soldering studs and eyelets, integral connectors, and flying leads are common means for electrical connection. In addition to the wiper and end terminals, a pot may possess one or more terminals for taps. A tap enables an electrical connection to be made with a particular point along the resistive element. Sometimes, a shunt resistor is connected to a tap in order to modify the output function. End terminations and taps can exhibit different electrical characteristics depending on how they are manufactured. Taper Pots are available in a variety of different tapers that determine the shape of the output function. With a linear-taper pot, the output varies linearly with wiper motion, as shown in Figure 6.2. (Note that a pot with a linear taper should not be confused with a linearmotion pot, which is sometimes called a linear pot.) Linear-taper pots are the most commonly available, and are widely used in sensing and control applications. Pots with nonlinear tapers (e.g., logarithmic, sine, cosine, tangent, square, cube) can also be useful, especially where computer control is not involved. Nonstandard tapers can be custom-manufactured or alternatively, certain types of output functions can be produced using shunt resistors, by combining outputs from ganged pots or by other means. (Refer to [6, 7] for more details.) Of course, if a computer is involved, the output function can always be altered through a software lookup table or mapping function.
FIGURE 6.3 Independent linearity is the maximum amount by which the actual output function deviates from a line of best fit.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE b) Electrical Travel Figure 6.2 shows how the ideal output of a pot changes with wiper position. In practice, there is a small region at both ends where output remains constant until the wiper hits a mechanical stop. Mechanical travel is the total motion range of the wiper, and electrical travel is the slightly smaller motion range over which the electrical output is valid. Thus, when using a pot as a sensor, it is important to ensure that the wiper motion falls within the electrical travel limits. c) Linearity Linearity is the maximum deviation of the output function from an ideal straight line. Independent linearity is commonly specified, where the straight line is defined as the line that minimizes the linearity error over a series of sampled points, not necessarily measured over the full range of the pot. See Figure 6.3. Other linearity metrics, such as terminal-based linearity, absolute linearity, and zero-based linearity, are also sometimes used. Pots are commonly available with independent linearities ranging from under 0.1% to 1%. When dealing with nonlinear output functions, Conformity is specified since it is the more general term used to describe deviation from any ideal function. Conformity and linearity are usually expressed as a percentage of full-scale output (FSO). d) Electrical Loading Loading can significantly affect the linearity of measurements, regardless of a pots quality and construction. Consider an ideal linear pot connected to an infinite load impedance (i.e., as in Figure 6.2). Since no current flows through the load, the output changes perfectly linearly as the wiper travels along the length of the pot. However, if the load impedance is finite, the load draws some current, thereby affecting the output as illustrated in Figure 6.4. Circuit analysis shows that:
FIGURE 6.4 Linearity can be greatly influenced by the ratio of load resistance, RL, to potentiometer
resistance, RP
(6.1)
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Therefore, RL/RP should be maximized to reduce loading effects (this also involves other tradeoffs, to be discussed). A minimum RL/RP value of 10 is sometimes used as a guideline since loading error is then limited to less than 1% of full-scale output. Also, some manufacturers recommend a minimum load impedance or maximum wiper current in order to minimize loading effects and prevent damage to the wiper contacts. The following are some additional strategies that can be taken: Use a regulated voltage source whose output is stable with load variations Use high input-impedance signal conditioning or data acquisition circuitry Use only a portion of the pots full travel e) Resolution Resolution defines the smallest possible change in output that can be produced and detected. In wirewound pots, the motion of the wiper over the coil generates a quantized response. Therefore, the best attainable resolution is r= (1/N) x 100%, where N is the number of turns in the coil. Nonwirewound pots produce a smooth response with essentially unlimited resolution. Hybrid pots also fall into this category. In practice, resolution is always limited by factors such as: Electrical noise, usually specified as noise for wirewound pots and smoothness for nonwirewound pots, both expressed as a percentage of full-scale output Stability of the voltage supply, which can introduce additional noise into the measurement signal Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) resolution, usually expressed in bits (e.g., 10 mm travel digitized using a 12-bit ADC results in 10 mm/4096 = 0.0024 mm resolution at best) Mechanical effects such as stiction. f) Power Rating The power dissipated by a pot is P =vr/Rp. Therefore, power rating determines the maximum voltage that can be applied to the pot at a given temperature. With greater voltage supplied to the pot, greater output (and noise) is produced but more power is dissipated, leading to greater thermal effects. In general, wirewound and cermet pots are better able to dissipate heat, and thus have the highest power ratings. g) Temperature Coefficient As temperature increases, pot resistance also increases. However, a pot connected as shown in Figure 6.2 will divide the voltage equally well, regardless of its total resistance. Thus, temperature effects are not usually a major concern as long as the changes in resistance are uniform and the pot operates within its ratings. However, an increase in pot resistance also increases loading nonlinearities. Therefore, temperature coefficients can become an important consideration. The temperature coefficient, typically specified in ppm C, can be expressed as a = (Rp/Rp)/ t, where t is the change in temperature and Rp is the corresponding change in total resistance. In general, wirewound pots possess the lowest temperature coefficients. Temperature-compensating signal-conditioning circuitry can also be used. h) Resistance Since a pot divides voltage equally well regardless of its total resistance, resistance tolerance is not usually a major concern. However, total resistance can have a great impact on loading MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 25
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE effects. If resistance is large, less current flows through the pot, thus reducing temperature effects, but also increasing loading. i) AC Excitation Pots can operate using either a dc or an ac voltage source. However, wirewound pots are susceptible to capacitive and inductive effects that can be substantial at moderate to high frequencies.
Mechanical Characteristics The following mechanical characteristics influence measurement quality and system reliability, and thus should be considered when selecting a pot. a. Mechanical Loading A pot adds inertia and friction to the moving parts of the system that it is measuring. As a result, it increases the force required to move these parts. This effect is referred to as mechanical loading. To quantify mechanical loading, rotary pot manufacturers commonly list three values: the equivalent mass moment of inertia of the pots rotating parts, the dynamic (or running) torque required to maintain rotation in a pot shaft, and the starting torque required to initiate shaft rotation. For linear-motion pots, the three analogous loading terms are mass, starting force, and dynamic (or running) force. In extreme cases, mechanical loading can adversely affect the operating characteristics of a system. When including a pot in a design, ensure that the inertia added to the system is insignificant or that the inertia is considered when analyzing the data from the pot. The starting and running force or torque values might also be considered, although they are generally small due to the use of bearings and low friction resistive elements. b. Mechanical Travel Distinguished from electrical travel, mechanical travel is the wipers total motion range. A mechanical stop delimits mechanical travel at each end of the wipers range of mo tion. Stops can withstand small loads only and therefore should not be used as mechanical limits for the system. Manufacturers list maximum loads as the static stopping strength (for static loads) and the dynamic stopping strength (for moving loads). Rotary pots are also available without mechanical stops. The shaft of such an unlimited travel pot can be rotated continuously in either direction; however, electrical travel is always less than 360 due to the discontinuity or dead-zone where the resistive element begins and ends. (See Figure 6.1.) Multiple revolutions can be measured with an unlimited travel pot in conjunction with a counter: the counter maintains the number of full revolutions while the pot measures sub revolution angular displacement. c. Operating Temperature When operated within its specified temperature range, a pot maintains good electrical linearity and mechanical integrity. Depending on construction, pots can operate at temperatures from as low as 65C to as high as 150C. Operating outside specified limits can cause material failure, either directly from temperature or from thermally induced misalignment.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE d. Vibration, Shock, and Acceleration Vibration, shock, and acceleration are all potential sources of contact discontinuities between the wiper and the resistive element. In general, a contact failure is considered to be a discontinuity equal to or greater than 0.1 ms. The values quoted in specification sheets are in gs and depend greatly on the particular laboratory test. Some characterization tests use sinusoidal vibration, random vibration, sinusoidal shock, saw tooth shock, or acceleration to excite the pot. Manufacturers use mechanical design strategies to eliminate weaknesses in a pots dynamic response. For example, one technique minimizes vibration-induced contact discontinuities using multiple wipers of differing resonant frequencies. e. Speed Exceeding a pots specified maximum speed can cause premature wear or discontinuous values through effects such as wiper bounce. As a general rule, the slower the shaft motion, the longer the unit will last (in total number of cycles). Speed limitations depend on the materials involved. For rotary pots, wirewound models have preferred maximum speeds on the order of 100 rpm, while conductive plastic models have allowable speeds as high as 2000 rpm. Linear-motion pots have preferred maximum velocities up to 10 m s1. f. Life Despite constant mechanical wear, a pots expected lifetime is on the order of a million cycl es when used under proper conditions. A quality film pot can last into the hundreds of millions of cycles. Of wirewound, hybrid, and conductive plastic pots, the uneven surface of a wirewound resistive element inherently experiences the most wear and thus has the shortest expected operating life. Hybrids improve on this by using a wirewound construction in combination with a smooth conductive film coating. Conductive plastic pots generally have the longest life expectancy due to the smooth surface of their resistive element. g. Contamination and Seals Foreign material contaminating pots can promote wear and increase friction between the wiper and the resistive element. Consequences range from increased mechanical loading to outright failure (e.g., seizing, contact discontinuity). Fortunately, sealed pots are available from most manufacturers for industrial applications where dirt and liquids are often unavoidable. To aid selection, specifications often include the type of case sealing (i.e., mechanisms and materials) and the seal resistance to cleaning solvents and other commonly encountered fluids. h. Misalignment Shaft misalignment in a pot can prematurely wear its bearing surfaces and increase its mechanical loading effects. A good design minimizes misalignment. (See Implementation, below) Manufacturers list a number of alignment tolerances. In linear-motion pots, shaft misalignment is the maximum amount a shaft can deviate from its axis. The degree to which a shaft can rotate around its axis is listed under shaft rotation. In rotary pots, shaft end play and shaft radial play both describe the amount of shaft deflection due to a radial load. Shaft runout denotes the shaft diameter eccentricity when a shaft is rotated under a radial load.
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Signal conditioning
Signal conditioning may be necessary if the signal from the transducer is not suitable for the DAQ hardware being used. The signal may need to be filtered or amplified in most cases. Various other examples of signal conditioning might be bridge completion, providing current or voltage excitation to the sensor, isolation, linearization. For transmission purposes, single ended analog signals, which are more susceptible to noise can be converted to differential signals. Once digitized, the signal can be encoded to reduce and correct transmission errors.
DAQ hardware
DAQ hardware is what usually interfaces between the signal and a PC. It could be in the form of modules that can be connected to the computer's ports (parallel, serial, USB, etc. The cable between this box and the PC can be expensive due to the many wires, and the required shielding. DAQ cards often contain multiple components (multiplexer, ADC, DAC, high speed timers, RAM). These are accessible via a bus by a microcontroller, which can run small programs. A controller is more flexible than a hard wired logic, yet cheaper than a CPU so that it is permissible to block it with simple polling loops. For example: Waiting for a trigger, starting the ADC, looking up the time, waiting for the ADC to finish, move value to RAM, switch multiplexer. In our case it is the waiting of ADC to finish and switch the multiplexer. In general the components involved in a DAQ hardware are following:
ADC An analog-to-digital converter (abbreviated ADC, A/D or A to D) is a device that converts a continuous quantity to a discrete time digital representation. An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement. The reverse operation is performed by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Typically, an ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage or current to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current. However, some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can also be considered ADCs. The digital output may use different coding schemes. Typically the digital output will be a two's complement binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities. An encoder, for example, might output a Gray code. Concepts Resolution:
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Fig. 1. An 8-level ADC coding scheme. The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce over the range of analog values. The values are usually stored electronically in binary form, so the resolution is usually expressed in bits. In consequence, the number of discrete values available, or "levels", is a power of two. For example, an ADC with a resolution of 8 bits can encode an analog input to one in 256 different levels, since 28 = 256. The values can represent the ranges from 0 to 255 (i.e. unsigned integer) or from 128 to 127 (i.e. signed integer), depending on the application. Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The minimum change in voltage required to guarantee a change in the output code level is called the least significant bit (LSB) voltage. The resolution Q of the ADC is equal to the LSB voltage. The voltage resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall voltage measurement range divided by the number of discrete values:
where M is the ADC's resolution in bits and EFSR is the full scale voltage range (also called 'span'). EFSR is given by
where VRefHi and VRefLow are the upper and lower extremes, respectively, of the voltages that can be coded. Normally, the number of voltage intervals is given by
where M is the ADC's resolution in bits. [1] That is, one voltage interval is assigned in between two consecutive code levels. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 29
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Example: Coding scheme as in figure 1 (assume input signal x(t) = Acos(t), A = 5V) Full scale measurement range = -5 to 5 volts ADC resolution is 8 bits: 28 - 1 = 256 - 1 = 255 quantization levels (codes) ADC voltage resolution, Q = (10 V 0 V) / 255 = 10 V / 255 0.039 V 39 mV.
In practice, the useful resolution of a converter is limited by the best signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) that can be achieved for a digitized signal. An ADC can resolve a signal to only a certain number of bits of resolution, called theeffective number of bits (ENOB). One effective bit of resolution changes the signal-to-noise ratio of the digitized signal by 6 dB, if the resolution is limited by the ADC. If a preamplifier has been used prior to A/D conversion, the noise introduced by the amplifier can be an important contributing factor towards the overall SNR. Response type Most ADCs are linear types. The term linear implies that the range of input values has a linear relationship with the output value. Some early converters had a logarithmic response to directly implement A-law or -law coding. These encodings are now achieved by using a higher-resolution linear ADC (e.g. 12 or 16 bits) and mapping its output to the 8-bit coded values. Accuracy An ADC has several sources of errors. Quantization error and (assuming the ADC is intended to be linear) non-linearity are intrinsic to any analog-to-digital conversion. There is also a socalled aperture error which is due to a clock jitter and is revealed when digitizing a time-variant signal (not a constant value). These errors are measured in a unit called the least significant bit (LSB). In the above example of an eight-bit ADC, an error of one LSB is 1/256 of the full signal range, or about 0.4%. Quantization error Main article: Quantization error Quantization error (or quantization noise) is the difference between the original signal and the digitized signal. Hence, The magnitude of the quantization error at the sampling instant is between zero and half of one LSB. Quantization error is due to the finite resolution of the digital representation of the signal, and is an unavoidable imperfection in all types of ADCs. Non-linearity All ADCs suffer from non-linearity errors caused by their physical imperfections, causing their output to deviate from a linear function (or some other function, in the case of a deliberately nonMECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 30
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE linear ADC) of their input. These errors can sometimes be mitigated by calibration, or prevented by testing. Important parameters for linearity are integral non-linearity (INL) and differential nonlinearity (DNL). These non-linearities reduce the dynamic range of the signals that can be digitized by the ADC, also reducing the effective resolution of the ADC. Aperture error Imagine digitizing a sine wave time uncertainty due to the clock jitter is estimated as . Provided that the actual sampling , the error caused by this phenomenon can be .
The error is zero for DC, small at low frequencies, but significant when high frequencies have high amplitudes. This effect can be ignored if it is drowned out by the quantizing error. Jitter requirements can be calculated using the following formula: number of ADC bits. , where q is the
The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce over the range of analog values. The values are usually stored electronically in binary form, so the resolution is usually expressed in bits. In consequence, the number of discrete values available, or "levels", is a power of two. For example, an ADC with a resolution of 8 bits can encode an analog input to one in 256 different levels, since 28 = 256. The values can represent the ranges from 0 to 255 (i.e. unsigned integer) or from 128 to 127 (i.e. signed integer), depending on the application. Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The minimum change in voltage required to guarantee a change in the output code level is called the least significant bit (LSB) voltage. The resolution Q of the ADC is equal to the LSB voltage. The voltage resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall voltage measurement range divided by the number of discrete values:
where M is the ADC's resolution in bits and EFSR is the full scale voltage range (also called 'span').
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE EFSR is given byformula: , where q is the number of ADC bits. Input frequency Output size (bits) 1 Hz 44.1 kHz 192 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GHz
1,243 s 28.2 ns
6.48 ns
1.24 ns 124 ps
12.4 ps
1.24 ps
10
311 s
7.05 ns
1.62 ns
311 ps 31.1 ps 3.11 ps
0.31 ps
12
77.7 s 1.76 ns
405 ps
77.7 ps 7.77 ps 0.78 ps
0.08 ps
14
19.4 s 441 ps
101 ps
19.4 ps 1.94 ps 0.19 ps
0.02 ps
16
4.86 s 110 ps
25.3 ps
4.86 ps 0.49 ps 0.05 ps 1.21 ps 0.12 ps 0.16 ps
18
1.21 s 27.5 ps
6.32 ps
20
304 ns
6.88 ps
1.58 ps
24
19.0 ns 0.43 ps 74.1 ps
0.10 ps
32
This table shows, for example, that it is not worth using a precise 24-bit ADC for sound recording if there is not an ultra low jitter clock. One should consider taking this phenomenon into account before choosing an ADC. Clock jitter is caused by phase noise.[2][3] The resolution of ADCs with a digitization bandwidth between 1 MHz and 1 GHz is limited by jitter.[4]
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE When sampling audio signals at 44.1 kHz, the anti-aliasing filter should have eliminated all frequencies above 22 kHz. The input frequency (in this case, 22 kHz), not the ADC clock frequency, is the determining factor with respect to jitter performance.[5] Sampling rate The analog signal is continuous in time and it is necessary to convert this to a flow of digital values. It is therefore required to define the rate at which new digital values are sampled from the analog signal. The rate of new values is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency of the converter. A continuously varying bandlimited signal can be sampled (that is, the signal values at intervals of time T, the sampling time, are measured and stored) and then the original signal can be exactly reproduced from the discrete-time values by an interpolation formula. The accuracy is limited by quantization error. However, this faithful reproduction is only possible if the sampling rate is higher than twice the highest frequency of the signal. This is essentially what is embodied in the Shannon-Nyquist sampling theorem. Since a practical ADC cannot make an instantaneous conversion, the input value must necessarily be held constant during the time that the converter performs a conversion (called the conversion time). An input circuit called a sample and hold performs this taskin most cases by using a capacitor to store the analog voltage at the input, and using an electronic switch or gate to disconnect the capacitor from the input. Many ADC integrated circuitsinclude the sample and hold subsystem internally. Aliasing Main article: Aliasing All ADCs work by sampling their input at discrete intervals of time. Their output is therefore an incomplete picture of the behaviour of the input. There is no way of knowing, by looking at the output, what the input was doing between one sampling instant and the next. If the input is known to be changing slowly compared to the sampling rate, then it can be assumed that the value of the signal between two sample instants was somewhere between the two sampled values. If, however, the input signal is changing rapidly compared to the sample rate, then this assumption is not valid. If the digital values produced by the ADC are, at some later stage in the system, converted back to analog values by a digital to analog converter or DAC, it is desirable that the output of the DAC be a faithful representation of the original signal. If the input signal is changing much faster than the sample rate, then this will not be the case, and spurious signals called aliases will be produced at the output of the DAC. The frequency of the aliased signal is the difference between the signal frequency and the sampling rate. For example, a 2 kHz sine wave being sampled at 1.5 kHz would be reconstructed as a 500 Hz sine wave. This problem is called aliasing. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 33
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE To avoid aliasing, the input to an ADC must be low-pass filtered to remove frequencies above half the sampling rate. This filter is called an anti-aliasing filter, and is essential for a practical ADC system that is applied to analog signals with higher frequency content. Although aliasing in most systems is unwanted, it should also be noted that it can be exploited to provide simultaneous down-mixing of a band-limited high frequency signal (see undersampling and frequency mixer). The alias is effectively the lower heterodyne of the signal frequency and sampling frequency. Dither In A-to-D converters, performance can usually be improved using dither. This is a very small amount of random noise (white noise), which is added to the input before conversion. Its effect is to cause the state of the LSB to randomly oscillate between 0 and 1 in the presence of very low levels of input, rather than sticking at a fixed value. Rather than the signal simply getting cut off altogether at this low level (which is only being quantized to a resolution of 1 bit), it extends the effective range of signals that the A-to-D converter can convert, at the expense of a slight increase in noise - effectively the quantization error is diffused across a series of noise values which is far less objectionable than a hard cutoff. The result is an accurate representation of the signal over time. A suitable filter at the output of the system can thus recover this small signal variation. An audio signal of very low level (with respect to the bit depth of the ADC) sampled without dither sounds extremely distorted and unpleasant. Without dither the low level may cause the least significant bit to "stick" at 0 or 1. With dithering, the true level of the audio may be calculated by averaging the actual quantized sample with a series of other samples [the dither] that are recorded over time. A virtually identical process, also called dither or dithering, is often used when quantizing photographic images to a fewer number of bits per pixelthe image becomes noisier but to the eye looks far more realistic than the quantized image, which otherwise becomes banded. This analogous process may help to visualize the effect of dither on an analogue audio signal that is converted to digital. Dithering is also used in integrating systems such as electricity meters. Since the values are added together, the dithering produces results that are more exact than the LSB of the analog-todigital converter. Note that dither can only increase the resolution of a sampler, it cannot improve the linearity, and thus accuracy does not necessarily improve. Oversampling Main article: Oversampling Usually, signals are sampled at the minimum rate required, for economy, with the result that the MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 34
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE quantization noise introduced is white noise spread over the whole pass band of the converter. If a signal is sampled at a rate much higher than the Nyquist frequency and then digitally filtered to limit it to the signal bandwidth there are the following advantages: digital filters can have better properties (sharper rolloff, phase) than analogue filters, so a sharper anti-aliasing filter can be realised and then the signal can be downsampled giving a better result a 20-bit ADC can be made to act as a 24-bit ADC with 256 oversampling the signal-to-noise ratio due to quantization noise will be higher than if the whole available band had been used. With this technique, it is possible to obtain an effective resolution larger than that provided by the converter alone The improvement in SNR is 3 dB (equivalent to 0.5 bits) per octave of oversampling which is not sufficient for many applications. Therefore, oversampling is usually coupled with noise shaping (see sigma-delta modulators). With noise shaping, the improvement is 6L+3 dB per octave where L is the order of loop filter used for noise shaping. e.g. - a 2nd order loop filter will provide an improvement of 15 dB/octave.
Relative speed and precision The speed of an ADC varies by type. The Wilkinson ADC is limited by the clock rate which is processable by current digital circuits. Currently, frequencies up to 300 MHz are possible. The conversion time is directly proportional to the number of channels. For a successiveapproximation ADC, the conversion time scales with the logarithm of the number of channels. Thus for a large number of channels, it is possible that the successive-approximation ADC is faster than the Wilkinson. However, the time consuming steps in the Wilkinson are digital, while those in the successive-approximation are analog. Since analog is inherently slower than digital, as the number of channels increases, the time required also increases. Thus there are competing processes at work. Flash ADCs are certainly the fastest type of the three. The conversion is basically performed in a single parallel step. For an 8-bit unit, conversion takes place in a few tens of nanoseconds. There is, as expected, somewhat of a tradeoff between speed and precision. Flash ADCs have drifts and uncertainties associated with the comparator levels, which lead to poor uniformity in channel width. Flash ADCs have a resulting poor linearity. For successive-approximation ADCs, poor linearity is also apparent, but less so than for flash ADCs. Here, non-linearity arises from accumulating errors from the subtraction processes. Wilkinson ADCs are the best of the three. These have the best differential non-linearity. The other types require channel smoothing to achieve the level of the Wilkinson.[6][7] The sliding scale principle The sliding scale or randomizing method can be employed to greatly improve the channel width uniformity and differential linearity of any type of ADC, but especially flash and successive approximation ADCs. Under normal conditions, a pulse of a particular amplitude is always converted to a certain channel number. The problem lies in that channels are not always of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 35
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE uniform width, and the differential linearity decreases proportionally with the divergence from the average width. The sliding scale principle uses an averaging effect to overcome this phenomenon. A random, but known analog voltage is added to the input pulse. It is then converted to digital form, and the equivalent digital version is subtracted, thus restoring it to its original value. The advantage is that the conversion has taken place at a random point. The statistical distribution of the final channel numbers is decided by a weighted average over a region of the range of the ADC. This in turn desensitizes it to the width of any given channel.[8][9] ADC types These are the most common ways of implementing an electronic ADC:
A direct-conversion ADC or flash ADC has a bank of comparators sampling the input signal in parallel, each firing for their decoded voltage range. The comparator bank feeds a logic circuit that generates a code for each voltage range. Direct conversion is very fast, capable of gigahertz sampling rates, but usually has only 8 bits of resolution or fewer, since the number of comparators needed, 2N - 1, doubles with each additional bit, requiring a large, expensive circuit. ADCs of this type have a large die size, a high input capacitance, high power dissipation, and are prone to produce glitches at the output (by outputting an out-ofsequence code). Scaling to newer submicrometre technologies does not help as the device mismatch is the dominant design limitation. They are often used for video, wideband communications or other fast signals in optical storage. A successive-approximation ADC uses a comparator to successively narrow a range that contains the input voltage. At each successive step, the converter compares the input voltage to the output of an internaldigital to analog converter which might represent the midpoint of a selected voltage range. At each step in this process, the approximation is stored in a successive approximation register (SAR). For example, consider an input voltage of 6.3 V and the initial range is 0 to 16 V. For the first step, the input 6.3 V is compared to 8 V (the midpoint of the 016 V range). The comparator reports that the input voltage is less than 8 V, so the SAR is updated to narrow the range to 08 V. For the second step, the input voltage is compared to 4 V (midpoint of 08). The comparator reports the input voltage is above 4 V, so the SAR is updated to reflect the input voltage is in the range 48 V. For the third step, the input voltage is compared with 6 V (halfway between 4 V and 8 V); the comparator reports the input voltage is greater than 6 volts, and search range becomes 68 V. The steps are continued until the desired resolution is reached. A ramp-compare ADC produces a saw-tooth signal that ramps up or down then quickly returns to zero. When the ramp starts, a timer starts counting. When the ramp voltage matches the input, a comparator fires, and the timer's value is recorded. Timed ramp converters require the least number of transistors. The ramp time is sensitive to temperature because the circuit generating the ramp is often just some simple oscillator. There are two solutions: use a clocked counter driving a DAC and then use the comparator to preserve the counter's value, or calibrate the timed ramp. A special advantage of the ramp-compare system is that comparing a second signal just requires another comparator, and another register to store the voltage value. A very simple (non-linear) ramp-converter can be implemented with a microcontroller and one resistor and capacitor.[10] Vice versa, a filled capacitor can be taken from an integrator, time-to-amplitude converter, phase Page 36
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE detector, sample and hold circuit, or peak and hold circuit and discharged. This has the advantage that a slow comparator cannot be disturbed by fast input changes. The Wilkinson ADC was designed by D. H. Wilkinson in 1950. The Wilkinson ADC is based on the comparison of an input voltage with that produced by a charging capacitor. The capacitor is allowed to charge until its voltage is equal to the amplitude of the input pulse (a comparator determines when this condition has been reached). Then, the capacitor is allowed to discharge linearly, which produces a ramp voltage. At the point when the capacitor begins to discharge, a gate pulse is initiated. The gate pulse remains on until the capacitor is completely discharged. Thus the duration of the gate pulse is directly proportional to the amplitude of the input pulse. This gate pulse operates a linear gate which receives pulses from a high-frequency oscillator clock. While the gate is open, a discrete number of clock pulses pass through the linear gate and are counted by the address register. The time the linear gate is open is proportional to the amplitude of the input pulse, thus the number of clock pulses recorded in the address register is proportional also. Alternatively, the charging of the capacitor could be monitored, rather than the discharge.[11][12] An integrating ADC (also dual-slope or multi-slope ADC) applies the unknown input voltage to the input of an integrator and allows the voltage to ramp for a fixed time period (the run-up period). Then a known reference voltage of opposite polarity is applied to the integrator and is allowed to ramp until the integrator output returns to zero (the run-down period). The input voltage is computed as a function of the reference voltage, the constant run-up time period, and the measured run-down time period. The run-down time measurement is usually made in units of the converter's clock, so longer integration times allow for higher resolutions. Likewise, the speed of the converter can be improved by sacrificing resolution. Converters of this type (or variations on the concept) are used in most digital voltmeters for their linearity and flexibility. A delta-encoded ADC or counter-ramp has an up-down counter that feeds a digital to analog converter (DAC). The input signal and the DAC both go to a comparator. The comparator controls the counter. The circuit uses negative feedback from the comparator to adjust the counter until the DAC's output is close enough to the input signal. The number is read from the counter. Delta converters have very wide ranges and high resolution, but the conversion time is dependent on the input signal level, though it will always have a guaranteed worst-case. Delta converters are often very good choices to read real-world signals. Most signals from physical systems do not change abruptly. Some converters combine the delta and successive approximation approaches; this works especially well when high frequencies are known to be small in magnitude. A pipeline ADC (also called subranging quantizer) uses two or more steps of subranging. First, a coarse conversion is done. In a second step, the difference to the input signal is determined with a digital to analog converter (DAC). This difference is then converted finer, and the results are combined in a last step. This can be considered a refinement of the successive-approximation ADC wherein the feedback reference signal consists of the interim conversion of a whole range of bits (for example, four bits) rather than just the next-mostsignificant bit. By combining the merits of the successive approximation and flash ADCs this type is fast, has a high resolution, and only requires a small die size. A sigma-delta ADC (also known as a delta-sigma ADC) oversamples the desired signal by a large factor and filters the desired signal band. Generally, a smaller number of bits than required are converted using a Flash ADC after the filter. The resulting signal, along with the Page 37
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE error generated by the discrete levels of the Flash, is fed back and subtracted from the input to the filter. This negative feedback has the effect of noise shaping the error due to the Flash so that it does not appear in the desired signal frequencies. A digital filter (decimation filter) follows the ADC which reduces the sampling rate, filters off unwanted noise signal and increases the resolution of the output (sigma-delta modulation, also called delta-sigma modulation). A time-interleaved ADC uses M parallel ADCs where each ADC samples data every M:th cycle of the effective sample clock. The result is that the sample rate is increased M times compared to what each individual ADC can manage. In practice, the individual differences between the M ADCs degrade the overall performance reducing the SFDR.[13] However, technologies exist to correct for these time-interleaving mismatch errors. An ADC with intermediate FM stage first uses a voltage-to-frequency converter to convert the desired signal into an oscillating signal with a frequency proportional to the voltage of the desired signal, and then uses afrequency counter to convert that frequency into a digital count proportional to the desired signal voltage. Longer integration times allow for higher resolutions. Likewise, the speed of the converter can be improved by sacrificing resolution. The two parts of the ADC may be widely separated, with the frequency signal passed through an opto-isolator or transmitted wirelessly. Some such ADCs use sine wave or square wave frequency modulation; others use pulse-frequency modulation. Such ADCs were once the most popular way to show a digital display of the status of a remote analog sensor.[14][15][16][17][18]
There can be other ADCs that use a combination of electronics and other technologies:
A time-stretch analog-to-digital converter (TS-ADC) digitizes a very wide bandwidth analog signal, that cannot be digitized by a conventional electronic ADC, by time-stretching the signal prior to digitization. It commonly uses a photonic preprocessor frontend to timestretch the signal, which effectively slows the signal down in time and compresses its bandwidth. As a result, an electronic backend ADC, that would have been too slow to capture the original signal, can now capture this slowed down signal. For continuous capture of the signal, the frontend also divides the signal into multiple segments in addition to timestretching. Each segment is individually digitized by a separate electronic ADC. Finally, a digital signal processor rearranges the samples and removes any distortions added by the frontend to yield the binary data that is the digital representation of the original analog signal.
Commercial analog-to-digital converters These are usually integrated circuits.Most converters sample with 6 to 24 bits of resolution, and produce fewer than 1 megasample per second. Thermal noise generated by passive components such as resistors masks the measurement when higher resolution is desired. For audio applications and in room temperatures, such noise is usually a little less than 1 V (microvolt) of white noise. If the MSB corresponds to a standard 2 V of output signal, this translates to a noise-limited performance that is less than 20~21 bits, and obviates the need for any dithering. As of February 2002, Mega- and giga-sample per second converters are available. Mega-sample converters are required in digital video cameras, video capture cards, and TV tuner cards to convert full-speed analog video to digital video files. Commercial converters usually have 0.5 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 38
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE to 1.5 LSB error in their output. In many cases, the most expensive part of an integrated circuit is the pins, because they make the package larger, and each pin has to be connected to the integrated circuit's silicon. To save pins, it is common for slow ADCs to send their data one bit at a time over a serial interface to the computer, with the next bit coming out when a clock signal changes state, say from 0 to 5 V. This saves quite a few pins on the ADC package, and in many cases, does not make the overall design any more complex (even microprocessors which use memory-mapped I/O only need a few bits of a port to implement a serial bus to an ADC). Commercial ADCs often have several inputs that feed the same converter, usually through an analog multiplexer. Different models of ADC may include sample and hold circuits, instrumentation amplifiers or differential inputs, where the quantity measured is the difference between two voltages. Applications Music recording ADCs are integral to current music reproduction technology. Since much music production is done on computers, when an analog recording is used, an ADC is needed to create the PCM data stream that goes onto acompact disc or digital music file. Digital signal processing AD converters are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to be processed, stored, or transported in digital form. Fast video ADCs are used, for example, in TV tuner cards. Slow on-chip 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit ADCs are common in microcontrollers. Very fast ADCs are needed in Digital storage oscilloscopes, and are crucial for new applications like software defined radio. Electrical Symbol
Multiplexer
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Schematic of a 2-to-1 Multiplexer. It can be equated to a controlled switch.
Schematic of a 1-to-2 Demultiplexer. Like a multiplexer, it can be equated to a controlled switch. In electronics, a multiplexer (or MUX) is a device that selects one of several analog or digital input signals and forwards the selected input into a single line.[1] A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n select lines, which are used to select which input line to send to the output.[2] Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount of data that can be sent over the network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth.[1] A multiplexer is also called a data selector. They are used in CCTV, and almost every business that has CCTV fitted, will own one of these. An electronic multiplexer makes it possible for several signals to share one device or resource, for example one A/D converter or one communication line, instead of having one device per input signal. On the other hand, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input signal and selecting one of many data-output-lines, which is connected to the single input. A multiplexer is often used with a complementary demultiplexer on the receiving end.[1] An electronic multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-output switch, and a demultiplexer as a single-input, multiple-output switch.[3] The schematic symbol for a multiplexer is an isosceles trapezoid with the longer parallel side containing the input pins and the short parallel side containing the output pin.[4] The schematic on the right shows a 2-to-1 multiplexer on the left and an equivalent switch on the right. The wire connects the desired input to the output. Telecommunications In telecommunications, a multiplexer is a device that combines several input information signals into one output signal, which carries several communication channels, by means of some multiplex technique. A demultiplexer is, in this context, a device taking a single input signal that carries many channels and separates those over multiple output signals. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 40
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Cost savings
The basic function of a multiplexer: combining multiple inputs into a single data stream. On the receiving side, a demultiplexer splits the single data stream into the original multiple signals. One use for multiplexers is cost savings by connecting a multiplexer and a demultiplexer (or demux) together over a single channel (by connecting the multiplexer's single output to the demultiplexer's single input). The image to the right demonstrates this. In this case, the cost of implementing separate channels for each data source is more expensive than the cost and inconvenience of providing the multiplexing/demultiplexing functions. In a physical analogy, consider the merging behaviour of commuters crossing a narrow bridge; vehicles will take turns using the few available lanes. Upon reaching the end of the bridge they will separate into separate routes to their destinations. At the receiving end of the data link a complementary demultiplexer is normally required to break single data stream back down into the original streams. In some cases, the far end system may have more functionality than a simple demultiplexer and so, while the demultiplexing still exists logically, it may never actually happen physically. This would be typical where a multiplexer serves a number of IP network users and then feeds directly into a router which immediately reads the content of the entire link into its routing processor and then does the demultiplexing in memory from where it will be converted directly into IP packets. Often, a multiplexer and demultiplexer are combined together into a single piece of equipment, which is usually referred to simply as a "multiplexer". Both pieces of equipment are needed at both ends of a transmission link because most communications systems transmit in both directions. A real world example is the creation of telemetry for transmission from the computer/instrumentation system of a satellite, space craft or other remote vehicle to a groundbased system. In analog circuit design, a multiplexer is a special type of analog switch that connects one signal selected from several inputs to a single output. Digital multiplexers In digital circuit design, the selector wires are of digital value. In the case of a 2-to-1 multiplexer, a logic value of 0 would connect to the output while a logic value of 1 would connect to the MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 41
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE output. In larger multiplexers, the number of selector pins is equal to number of inputs. where is the
For example, 9 to 16 inputs would require no fewer than 4 selector pins and 17 to 32 inputs would require no fewer than 5 selector pins. The binary value expressed on these selector pins determines the selected input pin. A 2-to-1 multiplexer has a boolean equation where input, and is the output: and are the two inputs, is the selector
A 2-to-1 mux Which can be expressed as a truth table:
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
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1 0 0
This truth table shows that when then but when then . A straightforward realization of this 2-to-1 multiplexer would need 2 AND gates, an OR gate, and a NOT gate. Larger multiplexers are also common and, as stated above, require selector pins for inputs. Other common sizes are 4-to-1, 8-to-1, and 16-to-1. Since digital logic uses binary values, powers of 2 are used (4, 8, 16) to maximally control a number of inputs for the given number of selector inputs.
4-to-1 mux
8-to-1 mux The boolean equation for a 4-to-1 multiplexer is:
Two realizations for creating a 4-to-1 multiplexer are shown below:
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These are two realizations of a 4-to-1 multiplexer:

one realized from a decoder, AND gates, and an OR gate one realized from 3-state buffers and AND gates (the AND gates are acting as the decoder)
Note that the subscripts on the inputs indicate the decimal value of the binary control inputs at which that input is let through.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Digital demultiplexers Demultiplexers take one data input and a number of selection inputs, and they have several outputs. They forward the data input to one of the outputs depending on the values of the selection inputs. Demultiplexers are sometimes convenient for designing general purpose logic, because if the demultiplexer's input is always true, the demultiplexer acts as a decoder. This means that any function of the selection bits can be constructed by logically OR-ing the correct set of outputs. If X is the input and S is the selector, and A and B are the outputs:
Example: A Single Bit 1-to-4 Line Demultiplexer
Multiplexers as PLDs Multiplexers can also be used as components of programmable logic devices. By specifying the logic arrangement in the input signals, a custom logic circuit can be created. The selector inputs MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 45
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE then act as the logic inputs. This is especially useful in situations when cost is a factor and for modularity. 555 timer IC
NE555 from Signetics in dual-in-line package
Internal block diagram The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package. Design The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans R. Camenzind under contract to Signetics, which was later acquired by Philips. Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8).[2] Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the two 558 & 559s (both a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive). There is no 557. The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 C to +70 C, and the SE555 part number designated the military temperature range, 55 C to +125 C. These were available in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package) packages. Thus the full part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T. It has been hypothesized that the 555 got its name from the three 5 k resistors used within,[3] but Hans MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 46
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary.[1] Low-power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and CMOS TLC555.[4] The 7555 is designed to cause less supply noise than the classic 555 and the manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a "control" capacitor and in many cases does not require a decoupling capacitor on the power supply. Such a practice should nevertheless be avoided, because noise produced by the timer or variation in power supply voltage might interfere with other parts of a circuit or influence its threshold voltages. Usage Pins
Pinout diagram The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows:
Pin Name
Purpose
GND
Ground, low level (0 V)
TRIG
OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC.
OUT
This output is driven to +VCC or GND.
RESET A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND.
CTRL
"Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
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THR
The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL.
DIS
Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals.
V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.
Modes The 555 has three operating modes: Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement,pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on. Astable: free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. Selecting athermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.
Monostable
Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode
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The relationships of the trigger signal, the voltage on C and the pulse width in monostable mode See also: RC circuit In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a "one-shot" pulse generator. The pulse begins when the 555 timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls below a third of the voltage supply. The width of the output pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC network, which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The output pulse ends when the voltage on the capacitor equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific application by adjusting the values of R and C.[5] The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by
where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads. While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the main disadvantage is that the time span between the two triggering pulses must be greater than the RC time constant.[6] Bistable
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Schematic of a 555 in bistable mode In bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via Pull-up resistors while the threshold input (pin 6) is simply grounded. Thus configured, pulling the trigger momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high state). Pulling the reset input to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the output pin to ground (low state). No capacitors are required in a bistable configuration. Pin 5 (control) is connected to ground via a small-value capacitor (usually 0.01 to 0.1 uF); pin 7 (discharge) is left floating. Astable
Standard 555 astable circuit In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor. In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and C:
[7]
The high time from each pulse is given by:
and the low time from each pulse is given by:
where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 50
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE in farads.
The power capability of R1 must be greater than
Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of R1 must be avoided so that the output stays saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the above equation. Otherwise the output low time will be greater than calculated above. To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2 towards the capacitor. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the high interval depends only on R1 and C. Specifications These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have different specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc.). Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V
Supply current (VCC = +5 V)
3 to 6 mA
Supply current (VCC = +15 V)
10 to 15 mA
Output current (maximum)
200 mA
Maximum Power dissipation
600 mW
Power consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V
Operating temperature
0 to 70 C
Derivatives Many pin-compatible variants, including CMOS versions, have been built by various companies. Bigger packages also exist with two or four timers on the same chip. The 555 is also known under the following type numbers: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 51
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE 556 Dual timer The dual version is called 556. It features two complete 555s in a 14 pin DIL package. 558 Quad timer The quad version is called 558 and has 16 pins. To fit four 555s into a 16 pin package the control, voltage, and reset lines are shared by all four modules. Each module's discharge and threshold are wired together internally and called timing.
Printed circuit board (PCB)

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Printed circuit boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). In informal use the term "PCB" is used both for bare and assembled boards, the context clarifying the meaning. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs must initially be designed and laid out, but become cheaper, faster to make, and potentially more reliable for highvolume production since production and soldering of PCBs can be automated. . Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards published by the IPC organization. History Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th century. In 1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated to an insulating board, in multiple layers. Thomas Edison experimented with chemical methods of plating conductors onto linen paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented a print-and-etch method in Britain, and in the United States Max Schoop obtained a patent[1] to flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Durcase in 1927 patented a method of electroplating circuit patterns. [2] The Austrian Jewish engineer Paul Eisler invented the printed circuit while working in England around 1936 as part of a radio set. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a large scale to make proximity fusesfor use in World War II [2]. After the war, in 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid-1950s, after the Auto-Semblyprocess was developed by the United States Army. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 52
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Before printed circuits (and for a while after their invention), point-to-point construction was used. For prototypes, or small production runs, wire wrap or turret board can be more efficient. Predating the printed circuit invention, and similar in spirit, was John Sargrove's 19361947 Electronic Circuit Making Equipment (ECME) which sprayed metal onto a Bakelite plastic board. The ECME could produce 3 radios per minute. During World War II, the development of the anti-aircraft proximity fuse required an electronic circuit that could withstand being fired from a gun, and could be produced in quantity. The Centralab Division of Globe Union submitted a proposal which met the requirements: a ceramic plate would be screenprinted with metallic paint for conductors and carbon material for resistors, with ceramic disc capacitors and subminiature vacuum tubes soldered in place.[3] Originally, every electronic component had wire leads, and the PCB had holes drilled for each wire of each component. The components' leads were then passed through the holes and soldered to the PCB trace. This method of assembly is called through-hole construction. In 1949, Moe Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko of the United States Army Signal Corps developed the Auto-Sembly process in which component leads were inserted into a copper foil interconnection pattern and dip soldered. The patent they obtained in 1956 was assigned to the U.S. Army. [4] With the development of board lamination and etching techniques, this concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today. Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a wave-soldering machine. However, the wires and holes are wasteful since drilling holes is expensive and the protruding wires are merely cut off. From the 1980s small surface mount parts have been used increasingly instead of through-hole components; this has led to smaller boards for a given functionality and lower production costs, but with some additional difficulty in servicing faulty boards.
Manufacturing PCB component and solderside Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating layers dielectric are typically laminated together with epoxy resin prepreg. The board is typically coated with a solder mask that is green in color. Other colors that are normally available are blue, black, white and red. There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3.
Well known prepreg materials used in the PCB industry are FR-2 (Phenolic cotton paper), Page 53
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE FR-3 (Cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (Woven glass and epoxy), FR-5 (Woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (Matte glass and polyester), G-10 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-3 (Non-woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-5 (Woven glass and polyester).
Thermal expansion is an important consideration especially with ball grid array (BGA) and naked die technologies, and glass fiber offers the best dimensional stability. FR-4 is by far the most common material used today. The board with copper on it is called "copper-clad laminate". Copper foil thickness can be specified in ounces per square foot or micrometres. One ounce per square foot is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometres.
Patterning (etching)
The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB") then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (e.g., by etching), leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex process of multiple electroplating steps. Subtractive processes Subtractive methods, that remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board, used for the production of printed circuit boards: Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may be conductive, printed on a blank (non-conductive) board. The latter technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits. Photoengraving uses a photomask and developer to selectively remove a photoresist coating. The remaining photoresist protects the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. The photomask is usually prepared with a photoplotter from data produced by a technician using CAM, or computer-aided manufacturingsoftware. Laser-printed transparencies are typically employed for phototools; however, direct laser imaging techniques are being employed to replace phototools for high-resolution requirements.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is extracted from files generated in PCB design software and stored in HPGL or Gerber file format.
Additive processes Additive processes add desired copper traces to an insulating substrate. The most common is the "semi-additive" process: the unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is then applied. (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the substrate that will eventually become the traces.) Additional copper is then plated onto the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step removes the nowexposed bare original copper laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some single-sided boards which have plated-through holes are made in this way. General Electric made consumer radio sets in the late 1960s using additive boards. The additive process is commonly used for multi-layer boards as it facilitates the plating-through of the holes to produce conductive vias in the circuit board. Circuit properties of the PCB Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. The resistance, determined by width and thickness, of the traces must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces.. In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits the inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired; but they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit design, obviating the need for additional discrete components. Chemical etching Chemical etching is done with ferric chloride, ammonium persulfate, or sometimes hydrochloric acid. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away. The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride. Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 55
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production rates. As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper, with some as high as 150 grams of copper per litre of solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the dissolved copper recovered and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal content. The etchant removes copper on all surfaces exposed by the resist. "Undercut" occurs when etchant attacks the thin edge of copper under the resist; this can reduce conductor widths and cause open-circuits. Careful control of etch time is required to prevent undercut. Where metallic plating is used as a resist, it can "overhang" which can cause short-circuits between adjacent traces when closely spaced. Overhang can be removed by wire-brushing the board after etching. [5] Drilling Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since many board materials are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also remain sharp so as not to mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and thus tear the copper and ruin the boards. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias. It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers. Exposed conductor plating and coating PCBs are plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel as a resist for etching away the unneeded underlying copper. After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the soldermask is applied, and then any exposed copper is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-corrosion coating. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 56
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Solder resist Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with a polymer solder resist (solder mask) coating typically 2030 micrometres thick. The solder resist helps to prevent solder from bridging between conductors and creating short circuits. Solder resist also provides some protection from the environment. Screen printing Line art and text may be printed onto the outer surfaces of a PCB by screen printing. When space permits, the screen print text can indicate component designators, switch setting requirements, test points, and other features helpful in assembling, testing, and servicing the circuit board. Codes identifying the board and the current version number can be etched. Screen print is also known as the silk screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red print. Some digital printing solutions are used instead of screen printing. This technology allows printing variable data onto the PCB, including individual serial numbers as text and bar code. Test Unpopulated boards may be subjected to a bare-board test where each circuit connection (as defined in a netlist) is verified as correct on the finished board. For high-volume production, a bed of nails tester, a fixture or arigid needle adapter is used to make contact with copper lands or holes on one or both sides of the board to facilitate testing. A computer will instruct the electrical test unit to apply a small voltage to each contact point on the bed-of-nails as required, and verify that such voltage appears at other appropriate contact points. A "short" on a board would be a connection where there should not be one; an "open" is between two points that should be connected but are not. For small- or medium-volume boards, flying probe and flyinggrid testers use moving test heads to make contact with the copper/silver/gold/solder lands or holes to verify the electrical connectivity of the board under test. Another method for testing is industrial CT scanning, which can generate a 3D rendering of the board along with 2D image slices and can show details such a soldered paths and connections. Printed circuit assembly
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE PCB with test connection pads After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components must be attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly,[14][15] or PCA (sometimes called a "printed circuit board assembly" PCBA). In through-hole construction, component leads are inserted in holes. In surface-mount construction, the components are placed on pads orlands on the outer surfaces of the PCB. In both kinds of construction, component leads are electrically and mechanically fixed to the board with a molten metal solder. There are a variety of soldering techniques used to attach components to a PCB. High volume production is usually done with SMT placement machine and bulk wave soldering or reflow ovens, but skilled technicians are able to solder very tiny parts (for instance 0201 packages which are 0.02 in. by 0.01 in.)[16] by hand under a microscope, using tweezers and a fine tip soldering iron for small volume prototypes. Some parts may be extremely difficult to solder by hand, such as BGA packages. Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be combined in a single assembly because some required components are available only in surface-mount packages, while others are available only in through-hole packages. Another reason to use both methods is that throughhole mounting can provide needed strength for components likely to endure physical stress, while components that are expected to go untouched will take up less space using surface-mount techniques. After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways: While the power is off, visual inspection, automated optical inspection. JEDEC guidelines for PCB component placement, soldering, and inspection are commonly used to maintain quality control in this stage of PCB manufacturing. While the power is off, analog signature analysis, power-off testing. While the power is on, in-circuit test, where physical measurements (i.e. voltage, frequency) can be done. While the power is on, functional test, just checking if the PCB does what it had been designed to do.
To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make temporary connections. Sometimes these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit test may also exercise boundary scan test features of some components. In-circuit test systems may also be used to program nonvolatile memory components on the board. In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the board form temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use a standard test configuration procedure, the most common one being the Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) standard. The JTAG test architecture provides a means to test interconnects between integrated circuits on a board without using physical test probes. JTAG tool vendors provide various types of stimulus and sophisticated MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 58
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE algorithms, not only to detect the failing nets, but also to isolate the faults to specific nets, devices, and pins.[17] When boards fail the test, technicians may desolder and replace failed components, a task known as rework. Protection and packaging PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating, which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were wax; modern conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for plastic to be sputtered onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage of conformal coatings is that servicing of the board is rendered extremely difficult.[18] Many assembled PCBs are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed in antistatic bags during transport. When handling these boards, the user must be grounded (earthed). Improper handling techniques might transmit an accumulated static charge through the board, damaging or destroying components. Even bare boards are sometimes static sensitive. Traces have become so fine that it's quite possible to blow an etch off the board (or change its characteristics) with a static charge. This is especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as MCMs and microwave PCBs.
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Chapter 3 Design and fabrication
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Our whole project can be divided in two sections depending upon the concept involved in fabricating that part.
A) Mechanical Design
All the mechanical portion of the Universal Testing Machine including the fixation of the potentiometer, preparation of the electric insulation box, preparation of the standard specimen etc. are covered in this section. The design and fabrication of each part are explained as follows:
a) Graph plotter Mechanism

As we are having a mechanical UTM, so the mechanism involved for plotting the loaddisplacement curve was mechanical. It involves a rack-pinion arrangement. The pinion is engaged with the drum on which graph paper is rolled. The rack is connected to the main shaft of the frame which is connected with the hydraulic section and causes the linear motion of the frame. The main problem involved here was the engagement of rack with the pinion. As we can see in the fig. that we are required to have the rack engaged with the pinion even when the main shaft is ascending or descending . to accomplish this we prepared a proper weight to apply a moment on the rack to keep it engaged with the pinion all the time .
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Fig. 2-dimensional diagram of rack (dimensions in mm)
CALCULATION OF WEIGHT The weight of the rack is assumed to be uniformly distributed over its total length. The rack is made up of Aluminum having density of 2.70 gcm3. The dimension of this rack is shown in the above figure.
Fig. Loading Diagram Where, W= Load to be applied to engage the rack with pinion, w1= total weight of rack in the left side acting at b, w2= total weight of rack in the right side acting at d. ac= 45mm, ce= 255mm, ae=300mm=total length of the rack. Equating the moment about c, Wx(ac) + w1x (ac/2) = w2x(cd), Now, w1= 45.53gms, w2= 175.57gms, ac= 45mm, cd=ce/2=(ae-ac)/2=127.5mm, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 62
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE substuting all these above values, we get W = 474.7gms It means we have to apply the load greater than this towards the left end of the rack so to engage it with the pinion. As it comes out there was already some installation problems while setting up the UTM machine as the distance between the loading unit and control unit was not proper. The distance between control unit and loading unit had to be but out of some negligence during installation it was found to be also causing the two units to be misaligned while it was required to be parallel to each other. This led to the frame containing the weight and rack be slightly out of plane of the pinion attached to cylinder. To fix this it was required to increase the frame length a little than its actual size . The original length of L-shaped frame was but the required length was for which we had to add a 10x30x6 mm section to the frame through electric arc welding in our welding shop.
Fig:
L-shaped frame (all dimensions in mm)
a) Calibration of the pointer(force displacement) and its rectification
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE The control unit consists of a dial which gives us the value of force applied to cause the extension or compression of sample . the caliberation of the dial is done on the basis of a rack pinion mechanism at the back of the control unit . depending upon the rotation of the pinion caused by linear motion of the rack, the dial rotates . the linear motion of the rack is caused by the angular motion of the pendulum in the forward direction . after the force is cut off the pendulum retracts to its original position while the rack is supposed to retract by a mechanism where the pulley rotates in opposite direction to the direction of rotation of pinion with the help of a weight applying torque to the pulley.
The rack and pinion mechanism at the back of control unit was at fault since they were not properly engaged thereby causing improper motion. Also the supporting pulleys for the rack were damaged and needed to be replaced. The retracting mechanism of rack was not working due to the absence of weight on the pulley which was needed to cause the rotation of pulley in the opposite direction to the direction of rotation of pinion. Hence the rack could not be retracted back to its initial position due to which the needle of dial also could not come back to zero initial value. The rack and pinion mechanism was mended to allow linear motion of rack be converted properly to rotational motion of pinion . Followed by this , the retracting mechanism of rack was rectified by hanging a proper weight to the pulley to cause backward rotation of pinion and hence withdrawing rack to its original position while also bringing the needle of the dial to zero initial value. The supporting pulleys were replaced to provide proper support to rack and hence keep it nicely engaged to pinion. a) Fixing of the potentiometers on utm and their selection As an initial step towards automating our UTM ,we needed to convert our mechanical data from UTM to electrical data for which we required sensors to sense the mechanical signals to be later converted to electrical signals. We chose linear potentiometers as our sensors for the purpose MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 64
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE because of their compactness and high reliability . To sense linear displacement of main frame in the loading unit, we needed a linear potentiometer of stroke length 200mm to be coupled with autocut mechanism attached to the lower table of the loading unit . Similarly to sense force supplied to cause the tension or compression of the sample , we installed a linear potentiometer of stroke length 50mm in the control unit and coupled it to the dynamometer mechanism(which caliberates fluid pressure into linear motion).
To fix the potentiometers to the UTM , we designed clamps to hold them still even when experiencing force in upward or downward direction the specifications of which are given as under :
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b) Limitation of jaws The jaws provided in upper cross head and in lower cross head of the loading unit to grasp the sample have a limitation that they cannot firmly hold samples with cross sections below 12.5mm causing the sample to slip off the grip of jaws. Also the jaw holders have a limitation that they are not properly aligned in the grooves since the helical gears provided in the grooves to engage the jaw holders are not able to hold the jaw holders completely vertical. To solve the problem of engagement of jaw holder in helical gears of grooves, we need to purchase new sets of jaw holders as the current jaw holders are worn out.
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c) Preparation of the specimen
Standard Specimen for Tensile Testing
ile Testing
Dimensions:
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NOTE: 1. On Specimens 1 any standard thread is permissible that provides for proper alignment and aids in assuring that the specimen will break within the reduced section. 2. Dimensions, mm [in.] 3. Reference: ASTM E8/E8M 09; Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials These samples with circular cross sections were prepared by us in our production laboratory with above specifications to be tested in the UTM of different materials such as mild steel , aluminium, copper , brass etc. These tensile tests can be carried out on samples with rectangular cross sections as well . the specifications for the samples with rectangular cross sections are mentioned below.
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NOTE 1The ends of the reduced section shall differ in width by not more than 0.1 mm [0.002 in.]. There may be a gradual taper in width from the ends to the center, but the width at each end shall be not more than 1 % greater than the width at the center. NOTE 2The dimension T is the thickness of the test specimen as stated in the applicable product specifications. NOTE 3For some materials, a fillet radius R larger than 13 mm [0.500 in.] may be needed. NOTE 4Holes must be on center line of reduced section within 6 0.05mm [0.002 in]. NOTE 5Variations of dimensions C, D, E, F, and L may be used that will permit failure within the gage length.
FIG. : Pin-Loaded Tension Test Specimen with 50-mm [2-in.] Gage Length
d) Preparation of electric insulation box To keep our electronic circuit protected, free from dust and insulated, we needed a wooden box that could ensure all this. Thus we had the wooden box created in the carpentry shop where we could keep our circuit. Multiple vent holes are drilled to ensure proper cooling of electronic items in the circuit. Slots are provided for wires and connections to pass through .
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e) Greasing and oiling of all the components Lubrication is the process, or technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity, and moving relative to each another, by interposing a substance called lubricant between the surfaces to carry or to help carry the load (pressure generated) between the opposing surfaces. The interposed lubricant film can be a solid, (e.g. graphite, MoS2) a solid/liquid dispersion, a liquid, a liquid-liquid dispersion gasses exceptionally a gas. Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can rub destructively over each other, causing destructive damage, heat, and failure. That is why lubrication of each and every component of our mechanical UTM is necessary and it should be carried out carefully so that no friction occurs in any component and we can get accurate readings. Our loading unit requires force which is produced by hydraulic unit inside our control unit. The hydraulic unit requires high pressure oil for generating the required amount of force. Best suggested high pressure oils for the UTM are: Table: different high pressure oil and their manufacturers Types of oil Veedol Atline 40 Regal oil F(R 40) Shell Tellus oil 69 Teresso 65 Servo system 526 Company Veedol Caltex Burmah Shell Esso Indian oil
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A) Electrical design Main circuit design

The heart of any current computational device relies upon digital bits, voltage states which can be at either high or low voltages. One of the simplest constructions, the ADC, converts an analog voltage signal to a digital one. In this project, a 8 bit ADC is constructed, with a 555 timer circuit, a 7415 multiplexer, a power circuit and a computer with Mat lab installed in it.
Timer circuits LM555 The first part of the circuit involved a 555 timer which output the raw digital square wave of 480 kHz frequency. The 555 is a classic IC chip which is able to output a highly regular and tuneable square wave. It does this by charging, and then discharging a capacitor of known MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 71
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE capacitance (0.001 F) through different resistors(R1 = R2 = 1 K). By changing the values of the resistors, the time constant of the capacitor charging (1/RC) is changed, and thus the timing can be changed. timer compare the voltage values before and after the capacitor, and turn the output to a high state when the capacitor is charging, and a low state when it is discharging. The entire 555 circuit is collected within a single chip, with pin numbers (fig. 1) that can be connected to the resistors, to control the timing.
Figure f
where, C = capacitance 0.001 F, R = R = resistance 1 k. After substiutuing all above values we get f= 480 kHz.
( ) ( )
figure:
ADC 0808 with multiplexer 74157 ADC0808 is an 8 bit analog to digital converter with eight input analog channels, i.e., it can take eight different analog inputs. The input which is to be converted to digital form can be selected by using three address lines. The voltage reference can be set using the Vref+ and Vrefpins. The step size is decided based on set reference value. Step size is the change in analog input to cause a unit change in the output of ADC. The default step size is 19.53mV corresponding to 5V reference voltage. ADC0808 needs an external clock to operate unlike ADC0804 which has MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 72
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE an internal clock. The ADC needs some specific control signals for its operations like start conversion and bring data to output pins. When the conversion is complete the EOC pins goes low to indicate the end of conversion and data ready to be picked up.In our project we are using 480 kHz external clock frequency.
Details of all 28 pins are as follows:

Pin No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Function Name IN3 IN4 IN5 IN6 IN7 SC EOC D3 Output enable Clock input Vcc Vref(+) GND D1 D2 Page 73
Analog input pins
Start conversion; input pin; a low to high pulse is given End of conversion; output pin; goes low when the conversion is over Digital output bit 4 Input pin; a low to high pulse brings data to output pins from the internal registers at end of conversion Clock input; to provide external clock Supply voltage; 5V Positive reference voltage Ground (0v) Digital output bit
SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Analog inputs Negative reference voltage Vref(-) D0 D4 D5 D6 D7 ALE AddressC AddressB AddressA IN0 IN1 IN2
Digital output bits
Address latch enable; Input pin; low to high pulse is required to latch in the address Address lines
The output obtained from the ADC is an 8 bit data which as such could not be fed to the computer using parallel port cable as the parallel port contains only 5 data lines to feed input to the computer. For that we are required to divide the 8 bit data into two sets of data line each with 4 bit using a multiplexer 74157.
A 2-to-1 multiplexer has a boolean equation where the selector input, and is the output:
and
are the two inputs,
is
Figure: Schematic of a 2-to-1 Multiplexer
A straightforward realization of this 2-to-1 multiplexer would need 2 AND gates, an OR gate, and a NOT gate which is given below.
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Regulated Power supply
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to one or more electric loads. The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source. Circuit diagram for simple +5V power supply
The +5 volt power supply is based on the commercial 7805 voltage regulator IC. This IC contains all the circuitry needed to accept any input voltage from 8 to 18 volts and produce a steady +5 volt output, accurate to within 5% (0.25 volt). It also contains current-limiting circuitry and thermal overload protection, so that the IC won't be damaged in case of excessive load current; it will reduce its output voltage instead. The 1000f capacitor serves as a "reservoir" which maintains a reasonable input voltage to the 7805 throughout the entire cycle of the ac line voltage. The two rectifier diodes keep recharging the reservoir capacitor on alternate half-cycles of the line voltage, and the capacitor is quite capable of sustaining any reasonable load in between charging pulses. The 10f capacitors serve to help keep the power supply output voltage constant when load conditions change. The electrolytic capacitor smooths out any long-term or low frequency variations. However, at high frequencies this capacitor is not very efficient.
Other output voltage If you need other voltages than +5V, you can modify the circuit by replacing the 7805 chips with another regulator with different output voltage from regulator 78xx chip family. The last numbers in the chip code tells the output voltage. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. Remember that the input voltage must be at least 3V greater than regulator output voltage otherwise the regulator does not work well.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Parallel ports
A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers (personal and otherwise) for connecting various peripherals. In computing, a parallel port is a parallel communicationphysical interface. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics port. The IEEE 1284 standard defines the bi-directional version of the port, which allows the transmission and reception of data bits at the same time. Pinouts for parallel port connectors are:
PCB
PCB OR a printed circuit board is a component made out of layers of insulating materials with electrical conductors. The insulator can be made of many materials mainly plastic, fibreglass and ceramics. During manufacture , the extra conductors that are not required are etched off, leaving printed circuit made of those required conductors where we can attach our electronic components . Now obviously this is a very fancy defination , for a layman PCB is nothing but a normal board like your veroboard where the circuit patterns are already printed with the help of conductors like copper so that you do not need to attach any more wires to the circuit.An image of a PCB...
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Need of dedicated PCB 1.The first reason can be , a pcb can give much higher density in the circuit connection that it has. 2.They easily reduce the number of wiring errors that we can make in a normal veroboard as the circuits are premade and the design is embedded into the pcb. 3.They can really decrease assembly cost over a long period of time . 4.They consume less space than the traditional circuit board because the etching and the circuits are made by the use of chemicals and not hand. 5.The circuits are much more reliable than traditional circuit boards as minimal no. of wires are used hence a smaller chance of the circuit falling apart due to some kind of loose connections .
These are some of the basic advantages of a pcb over a normal circuit board , enough reasons to make us motivate to make our own pcb's than relying on unreliable veroboards.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE 1. ETCHING MATERIAL EITHER FERRIC CHLORIDE OR AMMONIUM PERSULPHATE , JUST FOLLOW THE GIVEN INSTRUCTIONS FOR DILUTION LEVEL. 2. PLASTIC TRAYS OR CONTAINERS FOR THE CHEMICALS(DONT USE METAL). 3. COPPER CLAD BOARDS. 4. A LASER PRINTER(FOR THE TONER TRANSFER). 5. A DRILL PRESS. 6. BASIC TOOLS SUCH AS HACKSAWS , A FILE ,SANDPAPER OR SCROTCH BRITE 7. SMALL DRILL BITS. 8. SEMI GLOSS PAPER(INCREASES CLARITY OF THE CIRCUIT PATTERN).
PROCEDURE: 1. The 1st thing to do is to make the PCB layout either by using the inch graph paper, eagle cad or by using EXPRESSPCB software...these softwares are easily available in order to make such a layout......
2.Now take a printout of the layout in a semi gloss paper.
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3.Now take the gloss paper with design printed on it and place this on the copper clad board, face down.Take a carbon paper below the gloss paper along with the board so that the paper is completely stuck with the board...give good pressure and leave no gaps...and over write on the mark lines so that the circuit is printed on the copper board. 4. remove the carbon paper and gloss paper very carefully and finally we have the copper clad with design printed on it. 5.now painting is being done on those mark lines with the BLACK ENAMEL as fine as possible with uniform line width and sufficient gap between the two circuits line in order to reduce the possibilities of short circuits. 6.The pcb is done and ready for etching now use an etchant and follow the normal dilution level given.Use a glass or a ceramic bowl.Do not use copper or iron bowls.
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Figure: 7.Take this board with the design stuck to it and soak it in ferric chloride solution. The portion of the copper covered with enamels stayed on the board while other copper is being etched away with the help of ferric chloride solution. Since chemical etching is a very slow process and it took 3-4 hours of time to remove copper from the copper clad board.
8.Dilute the etchant with boiling water and place the pcb inside it..And slowly swirl or rock the bowl around. The liquid must be always moving over the copper board to get it to etch properly.
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Figure: 8.After all the copper has been etched and scrub the blank ink off the board and there we have OUR NEW PCB BOARD.
Figure: 9.Use drill bits to make holes whereever required in the pcb and attach ur components to it.
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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Chapter 2 Literature survey

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

2.1 About UTM 2.1.1 Brief history

Fig. 1 Screw-driven balance-beam universal testing machine (1890 model)

Introduction to various test perform on UTM

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

2.2 Our UTM construction features

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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

The loading unit:

S.No 2 10 20 24 22 Fig: tensile test arrangement MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

The control panel

2.2.2 Things /Missing Components and problem involved in it.

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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

2.3 Data Acquisition System

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FIG. 1 Basic Data and Derived Data

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

TABLE 6.3 Potentiometer Terminal Markings

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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

311 ps 31.1 ps 3.11 ps

77.7 ps 7.77 ps 0.78 ps

19.4 ps 1.94 ps 0.19 ps

4.86 ps 0.49 ps 0.05 ps 1.21 ps 0.12 ps 0.16 ps

19.0 ns 0.43 ps 74.1 ps

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Schematic of a 2-to-1 Multiplexer. It can be equated to a controlled switch.

SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE Cost savings

A 2-to-1 mux Which can be expressed as a truth table:

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SEMI-AUTOMATION OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

8-to-1 mux The boolean equation for a 4-to-1 multiplexer is: