Contents

1. MODULE 1 (MATHEMATICS)...................................................................2 1.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................2 1.2 ARITHMETIC....................................................................................2 1.3 Number Systems..............................................................................2 1.3.1 The Decimal system...........................................................2 1.3.2 The Binary System.............................................................3 1.3.3 Whole Numbers..................................................................4 1.3.4 Addition..............................................................................4 1.3.5 Subtraction.........................................................................4 1.3.6 Multiplication.......................................................................5 1.3.7 Division...............................................................................6 1.3.8 Directed Numbers (Signed Numbers).................................7 1.3.9 Adding Directed Numbers...................................................7 1.3.10 Subtracting Directed Numbers..........................................7 1.3.11 Multiplying Directed Numbers...........................................8 1.3.12 Dividing Directed Numbers...............................................8 1.3.13 Common Fractions...........................................................9 1.3.14 Reducing Fractions...........................................................10 1.3.15 Lowest Common Denominator.........................................11 1.3.16 Adding Common Fractions...............................................11 1.3.17 Subtracting Common Fractions........................................12 1.3.18 Mixed Numbers................................................................12 1.3.19 Adding Mixed Numbers....................................................12 1.3.20 Subtracting mixed numbers..............................................14 1.3.21 Multiplying Fractions.........................................................14 1.3.22 Simplify Fractions for Multiplication...................................15 1.3.23 Dividing Fractions.............................................................15 1.3.24 Decimals...........................................................................16 1.3.25 Adding Decimals...............................................................16 1.3.26 Subtracting Decimals........................................................17 1.3.27 Multiplying Decimals.........................................................17 1.3.28 Dividing Decimals.............................................................18 1.4 Converting Decimals to Fractions.....................................................19 1.4.1 Rounding Decimals............................................................19 1.4.2 Factors...............................................................................20 1.4.3 Highest Common Factor.....................................................21 1.4.4 Percentage.........................................................................22 1.5 Ratio and Proportion.........................................................................23 1.6 Powers and Roots.............................................................................24 1.7 Averages...........................................................................................25 1.8 Weights and Measures.....................................................................25 1.9 ALGEBRA.........................................................................................26 1.9.1 Equations...........................................................................27 1.9.2 Algebraic Rules..................................................................27 1.9.3 Solving For A Variable........................................................28 1.9.4 Order Of Operation.............................................................30 1.9.5 Complex Equations............................................................31 1.10 GEOMETRY...................................................................................32 1.10.1 Calculating Area...............................................................32 1.10.2 The Rectangle..................................................................32 1.10.3 The Square.......................................................................33 1.10.4 The Triangle.....................................................................33 Module 1. Page 1 Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013

1.10.5 The Parallelogram............................................................35 1.10.6 The Circle.........................................................................36 1.10.7 Calculating Volume...........................................................37 1.10.8 Volume of a Cube.............................................................38 1.10.9 Volume of a Cylinder........................................................38 1.10.10 Volume of a Sphere........................................................39 1.11 CHARTS AND GRAPHS.................................................................41 1.11.1 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Waves...................................46 1.11.2 Nomograms......................................................................46

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1.

MODULE 1 (MATHEMATICS)

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Mathematics is the basic language of science and technology. It is an exact language that has a vocabulary and meaning for every term. Since mathematics follows definite rules and behaves in the same way every time, scientists and engineers use it as their basic tool. Long before any metal is cut for a new aircraft design, there are literally millions of mathematical computations made. Aviation maintenance technicians perform their duties with the aid of many different tools. Like the wrench or screwdriver, mathematics is an essential tool in the maintenance, repair and fabrication of replacement parts. With this in mind, you can see why you must be competent in mathematics to an acceptable level. These notes cover the complete mathematics syllabus required to comply with JAR-66 A licence level.

1.2

ARITHMETIC

Arithmetic is the basic language of all mathematics and uses real, non-negative numbers. These are sometimes known as counting numbers. Only four operations are used, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Whilst these operations are well known to you, a review of the terms and operations used will make learning the more difficult mathematical concepts easier.

1.3

NUMBER SYSTEMS

Numbers are a large part of everyone's life, and you are constantly bombarded with figures. Yet little attention is paid to the basic structure of the of the numbering system. In daily life, most people typically use a base ten or decimal system. However, another numbering system that is used in computer calculations is the base two or binary system.

1.3.1 THE DECIMAL SYSTEM

The decimal system is based on ten whole numbers, often called integers, from zero to nine. Above the number nine, the digits are reused in various combinations to represent larger numbers. This is accomplished by arranging the numbers in columns based on a multiple of ten. With the use of a minus (-) sign, numbers smaller than zero are indicated.

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To describe quantities that fall between whole numbers, fractions are used. Common or Vulgar fractions are used when the space between two integers is divided into equal segments, such as quarters. When the space between integers is divided into ten segments, decimal fractions are typically used.

1.3.2 THE BINARY SYSTEM

Because the only option in an electrical circuit is ON or OFF, a number system based on just two digits is used to create electronic calculations. The base two or binary system simply utilises the digits zero and one. For example, when a circuit is ON a 'one' is represented, and when a circuit is OFF, a zero is indicated. By converting these ON or OFF messages to represent numbers found in the decimal system, a computer can perform complex tasks. To build a binary system number that corresponds to the decimal system, begin with one switch. When this switch is in the OFF position, a zero is represented. When it is in the ON position, a 1 is indicated. These are the only possibilities for a single switch, therefore additional switches must be added to represent larger quantities. For example, a second switch represents the quantity 2. When the first switch is OFF and the second switch in ON, the quantity 2 is indicated. When both the first and the second switches are ON, the 1 and 2 are added to indicate the quantity 3. This procedure of adding switches continues with each switch value doubling as you progress. The first 8 values in the binary system are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128.

Decimal Number

Binary Numbers

Binary Output 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 10 11 100 101 110

128 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0 0 0 0 0

64 0 0 0 0 0 0

Binary Numbers Fig. 1

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1.3.3 WHOLE NUMBERS

While integers are useful in communicating a given quantity, you must be able to manipulate them to discover their full power. There are four fundamental mathematical operations with which you must be familiar. They are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

1.3.4 ADDITION

The process of finding the total of two or more numbers is called addition. This operation is indicated by the plus (+) symbol. When numbers are combined by addition, the result is called the sum. When adding whole numbers whose total is more than nine, it is necessary to arrange the numbers in columns so that the last digit of each number is in the same column. The units column contains the values zero to nine, the tens column contains multiples of ten, up to ninety and the hundreds column consists of multiples of hundred. Example: Hundreds Tens Units 7 2 4 7 4 6 8 8 3 2 3 (+)

To check addition problems, add the figures again in the same manner, or in reverse order from bottom to top. It makes no difference in what sequence the numbers are combined.

1.3.5 SUBTRACTION

The process of finding the difference between two numbers in known as subtraction and is indicated by the minus (-) sign. Subtraction is accomplished by taking the quantity of one number from another number. The number that is subtracted is known as the subtrahend, and the number from which the quantity is taken is known as the minuend. To find the difference of two numbers, arrange them in the same manner as used for addition. With the minuend on top and the subtrahend on the bottom, align the vertical columns so the last digits are in the same column. Beginning at the right, subtract the subtrahend from the minuend. Repeat this for each column.

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Example: Hundreds Tens Units 7 4 3 6 3 2 4 6 8 (-)

1.3.6 MULTIPLICATION

Multiplication is a special form of repetitive addition. When a given number is added to itself a specified number of times, the process is called multiplication. The sum of 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 20 is expressed by multiplication as 4 x 5 = 20. The numbers 4 and 5 are called factors and the answer, 20, represents the product. The number multiplied (4) is called the multiplicand, and the multiplier represents the number of times the multiplicand is added to itself. Multiplication is typically indicated by a (x) but can sometimes be represented by a dot (.) or in some equations, by no sign at all. One important fact to remember when multiplying is that the order in which the numbers are multiplied does not change the product.

Example: 3 4 12 (x) 4 3 12 (x)

Like addition and subtraction, when multiplying large numbers it is important they be aligned vertically. Regardless of the number of digits in the multiplicand or multiplier, the multiplicand should be written on top and the multiplier beneath it. When multiplying numbers greater than nine, multiply each digit in the multiplicand by each digit in the multiplier. Once all multiplicands are used as a multiplier, the products of each multiplication operation are added to arrive at a total product.

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Example: 532 24 (x) 2128 10640 12768 Multiplicand Multiplier First partial product Second partial product

1.3.7 DIVISION

Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of multiplication. Division is a means of finding out how many times a number is contained in another number. The number divided is called the dividend, the number you are dividing by is the divisor and the result is the quotient. With some division problems, the quotient may include a remainder. A remainder represents that portion of the dividend that cannot be divided by the divisor. Division is indicated by the use of the division sign () with the dividend to the left and the divisor to the right of the sign, or with the dividend inside the sign and the divisor to the left. Division is also indicated in fractional form. For example, in the fraction 3/4, the 3 is the dividend and the 4 is the divisor. When division is carried out, the quotient is 0.75. The process of dividing large quantities, is performed by breaking the problem down into a series of operations, which results in a single or series of digits, which form the final quotient. This is best illustrated by this example.

Example: 52 8)416 40 16 16 (-) 0 (-)

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To check a division problem for accuracy, multiply the quotient by the divisor and add the remainder (if any). If the operation is carried out properly, the result equals the dividend.

1.3.8 DIRECTED NUMBERS (SIGNED NUMBERS)

If zero is used as a starting point, all numbers larger than zero have a positive value, and all those smaller than zero have a negative value. This is illustrated by constructing a number line (refer Fig. 2) -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Number Line Fig. 2 THE SUM OF POSITIVE NUMBERS IS POSITIVE THE SUM OF NEGATIVE NUMBERS IS NEGATIVE

1.3.9 ADDING DIRECTED NUMBERS

When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the sign and find the sum of the values and then place the common sign in front of the answer. In other words, adding two or more positive numbers always results in a positive sum, whereas adding two or more negative numbers results in a negative sum. When adding a positive and a negative number, find the difference between the two numbers and apply the sign (+ or -) of the larger number. So adding a negative number is the same as subtracting a positive number. The result of adding or subtracting signed numbers is called the algebraic sum of those numbers. ADD 25 +(-15) 25 +(- 15) 10 25 - 15 10

1.3.10 SUBTRACTING DIRECTED NUMBERS

When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to a plus and change the sign of the subtrahend. Once this is done, proceed as you do in addition. For example, +3 - - 4 is the same as +3 + + 4. It makes no difference if the subtrahend is larger than the minuend, since the operation is done as though the two quantities are added. Example: Subtract 48 from 216. Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 7

Step 1:

Set up the subtraction problem - 216 - 48

Step 2:

Change the operation sign to a plus sign and change the sign of the subtrahend and add. - 216 + - 48 = - 264

1.3.11 MULTIPLYING DIRECTED NUMBERS

Multiplication of directed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as multiplication of any other number, but after multiplying the product must be given a sign. There are three rules to follow when determining a products sign. 1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive. 2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive. 3. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative. Example: 6x2 = 12 12 6 x (-2) (- 6) x (2) = = - 12 - 12

(- 6) x (- 2) =

1.3.12 DIVIDING DIRECTED NUMBERS

Like multiplying signed numbers, division of directed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as dividing any other number. The sign of the quotient is determined using rules identical to those used in multiplication. 1. The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive. 2. The quotient of two negative numbers is always positive. 3. The quotient of a positive and a negative number is always negative Examples: 12 3 = 4 Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013

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12 (-3)

-4 4 -4

(-12) (-3) = (- 12) 3 =

1.3.13 COMMON FRACTIONS

A common fraction represents a portion or part of a quantity. For example, if a number is divided into four equal parts, each part is one quarter () of the number. A fraction consists of two numbers, one above and one below a line, or fraction bar. The fraction bar indicates a division of the top number (numerator) by the bottom number (denominator). When a fractions numerator is smaller than the denominator, the fraction is called a proper fraction. A proper fraction is always less than one (<1). If the numerator is larger than the denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. In this situation, the fraction is greater than one (>1). If the numerator and denominator are identical, the fraction is equal to one or unity. A mixed number is the combination of a whole number (integer) and a proper fraction. Mixed numbers can be expressed as 1 or 29 and are typically used in place of improper fractions. The numerator and denominator of a fraction can be changed without changing the fractions value. One way this is done is by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number. Example: 3/8 x 3/3 = 9/24

A fractions value also remains the same, if both numerator, and denominator are divided by the same number. This type of operation allows you to simplify, or reduce, large fractions to their smallest terms. Example: 3/9 3/3 = 1/3

21875

25

875 Page 9

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100000 875 4000 35 160

25 25 25 5 5 = =

4000 35 160 7 32

1.3.14 REDUCING FRACTIONS

It is generally considered good practice to reduce fractions to their lowest terms. The simplest reductions occur when the denominator is divisible by the numerator. If the denominator is not evenly divisible by the numerator, you must find a number by which both the numerator and denominator are divided. Here are a few tips to help in the selection of divisors: If both numbers are even, divide by 2 If both numbers end in 0 or 5, divide by 5 If both numbers end in 0, divide by 10 Example: Reduce 15/45 to its lowest terms. Step 1. Divide both the numerator and denominator by 5 15 45 Step 2. 5 5 = 3 9

Reduce further by dividing both terms by 3 15 45 = 3 9 3 3 = 1 3

When neither the numerator nor the denominator can be divided evenly, the fraction has been reduced to its lowest terms.

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1.3.15 LOWEST COMMON DENOMINATOR

You cannot add or subtract common fractions without first converting all of the denominators into identical units. This process is known as finding the lowest common denominator (LCD). For example, the quickest way to find the lowest common denominator for 1/3 and 1/2 is to multiply the two denominators (3 x 2 = 6). To determine the numerators, multiply the numerator by the same number used to obtain the LCD. Example: 1 3 1 2 x x 2 2 3 3 = = 2 6 3 6

1.3.16 ADDING COMMON FRACTIONS

As mentioned earlier, you cannot add common fractions without first determining the least common denominator. However, once this is done, you only need to add the numerators to arrive at a sum. This answer is then reduced to its lowest terms. Example: Add 1 12 Step 1. + 2 6 + 1 3

Rewrite using the least common denominator 1 12 + 4 12 + 4 12

Step 2. 1 12

Add the numerators and reduce to the lowest terms, if possible. + 4 12 + 4 12 = 9 12 or 3 4

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1.3.17 SUBTRACTING COMMON FRACTIONS

Subtracting fractions also requires an LCD to be determined. Once this is accomplished, subtract the numerators, express the difference over the LCD and reduce the answer to its lowest terms. Example: Subtract 2/8 from 1/3 Step 1. 8 24 Step 2. 8 24 Rewrite using the least common denominator _ 6 24 Subtract the numerators and reduce to lowest terms. _ 6 24 = 2 24 or 1 12

1.3.18 MIXED NUMBERS

Mixed numbers contain both whole numbers and proper fractions. Before adding or subtracting mixed numbers, you must convert them to improper fractions. To convert a mixed number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole number by the denominator and add the product to the numerator. The sum of these two numbers becomes the numerator. Example: Convert 3 to an improper fraction. 3 = (4 x 3) + 3 = 4 15 4

1.3.19 ADDING MIXED NUMBERS

When adding mixed numbers, either to other mixed numbers or to proper fractions, you must convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions. Once Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 12

accomplished, determine the LCD and add in the same manner as with proper fractions. When adding improper fractions, the sum is usually another improper fraction. When faced with an improper fraction in an answer, you should convert it back to a mixed number. To do this, divide the numerator by the denominator to determine the whole number. If there is a remainder, leave it in fractional form.

Example:

Add the following. 2 2/3 + 3 1/4 + 5 1/2

Step 1.

Convert each to an improper fraction. 2 2/3 = (2 x 3) + 2 = 3 3 = (3 x 4) + 1 = 4 5 = (5 x 2) + 1 = 2 8 3 13 4 11 2

Step 2.

Find the LCD and add. 32 12 + 39 12 + 66 12 = 137 12

Step 3.

Convert the improper fraction to a mixed number. 137 = 12 11 5 12

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1.3.20 SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS

To subtract a mixed number from another mixed number or proper fraction, begin by converting the mixed number to an improper fraction. Once converted, find the LCD and perform the subtraction. To complete the problem, convert the resulting improper fraction into a mixed number. Example: Subtract 2 1/6 from 5 2/3

Step 1.

Convert to improper fractions. 5 2/3 = (5 x 3) + 2 = 3 2 1/6 = (2 x 6) + 1 = 6 17 3 13 6

Step 2. 34 6

Find the LCD and subtract. _ 13 6 = 21 6

Step 3. 21 6

Convert to a mixed number. = 3 3/6 or 3

1.3.21 MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS

Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplying the numerators of each fraction to form the product numerator, then multiplying the individual denominators to form the product denominator. The resulting fraction is then reduced to its lowest terms. Example: Multiply the following, 8/32 x 5/8 x 4/16 Page 14

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Step 1.

Multiply the numerators and the denominators. 8 32 x 5 8 x 4 16 = 160 4096

Step 2.

Reduce to lowest terms. 160 4096 32 32 5 128

1.3.22 SIMPLIFY FRACTIONS FOR MULTIPLICATION

It was mentioned earlier that the value of a fraction does not change when you perform the same operation (multiplication or division) on both the numerator and denominator. You can use this principle to simplify the multiplication of fractions. Example: 8/32 x 5/8 x 4/16 is equivalent to: 8 x 5 x 4 32 x 8 x 16 Notice that there is an 8 in the numerator and denominator. Since these are equivalent values, they can be removed from the equation. Furthermore, the 16 in the denominator is divisible by the 4 in the numerator. Therefore, when both are divided by 4, the 4 in the numerator reduces to 1 and the 16 reduces to 4. This makes the multiplication appear as this: 1 32 x 5 1 x 1 4 = 5 128

The final fraction would then be simplified (if possible).

1.3.23 DIVIDING FRACTIONS

Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, the divisor and then multiplying. However, it is important that you invert the divisor only and not the dividend. Once the divisor is inverted, multiply the numerators to obtain a new numerator, multiply the denominators to obtain a new denominator and reduce the quotient to its lowest terms. Example: Divide 2/3 by 1/4

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Step 1. 2 3 becomes 2 3

Invert the divisor and multiply. 1 4 x 4 1

Step 2. 2 3 8 3

Multiply and simplify the product. x 4 1 = 2 2/3

1.3.24 DECIMALS

Working with fractions is typically time consuming and complex. One way you can eliminate fractions in complex equations is by replacing them with decimal fractions or decimals. A common fraction is converted to a decimal fraction by dividing the numerator by the denominator. For example, is converted to a decimal by dividing the 3 by the 4. The decimal equivalent of is 0.75. Improper fractions are converted to decimals in the same manner. However, whole numbers appear to the left of the decimal point. In a decimal, each digit represents a multiple of ten. The first digit represents tenths, the second hundredths and the third thousandths. Example: 0.5 is read as five tenths 0.05 is read as five hundredths 0.005is read as five thousandths When writing decimals, the number of zeros to the right of the decimal does not affect the value as long as no other number except zero appears. So numerically, 2.5, 2.50 and 2.500 are the same.

1.3.25 ADDING DECIMALS

The addition of decimals is done in the same manner as the addition of whole numbers, so care must be taken to correctly align the decimal points vertically. Module 1. Page 16 Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013

Example:

Add the following: 25.78 + 5.4 + 0.237

Step 1.

Rewrite with the decimal points aligned and add. 25.78 5.4 0.237 31.417 (+)

Once everything is added, the decimal point is placed directly below the other decimal points.

1.3.26 SUBTRACTING DECIMALS

Like adding, subtracting decimals is done in the same manner as with whole numbers. Again, it is important that you keep the decimal points aligned. Example: If you have 325.25 kilograms of ballast on an aircraft and you remove 30.75 kilograms, how much ballast remains? 325.25 30.75 (-) 294.50 kilograms

1.3.27 MULTIPLYING DECIMALS

When multiplying decimals ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting whole numbers. Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the right of the decimal point in both the multiplier and the multiplicand. This number represents the number of places from the right, that the decimal point is placed in the product.

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Example: 26.757 0.32 53514 802710 856224 Count 5 decimal places from the right in the answer, this gives: 8.56224 3 decimal places (x) 2 decimal places

1.3.28 DIVIDING DECIMALS

When dividing decimals, the operation is carried out in the same manner as division of whole numbers. To ensure accurate placement of the decimal point in the quotient, two rules apply: When the divisor is a whole number, the decimal point in the quotient aligns vertically with the decimal in the dividend when doing long division. When the divisor is a decimal fraction, it should first be converted to a whole number by moving the decimal point to the right. However, when the decimal in the divisor is moved, the decimal in the dividend must also move in the same direction and the same number of spaces. Example: Step 1. Divide 37.26 by 2.7 Move the decimal in the divisor to the right to convert it to a whole number. 27 37.26 Step 2. Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of places to the right. 27 372.6 Step 3. Divide. 372.6 27 = 13.8 Page 18

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1.4

CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS

Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use of a fraction is more practical. For example, when measuring something, most scales are in fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know how to convert a decimal number into a fraction. For the decimal 0.125 we write 125/1000 and say one hundred and twenty five thousandths. This fraction is then reduced to its lowest terms, which in this case is 1/8. Example: Convert 0.625 to a common fraction.

Step 1.

Rewrite as a fraction. 0.625= 625 1000

Step 2.

Reduce to lowest terms. 625 1000 25 25 = 25 40 = 5 8

1.4.1 ROUNDING DECIMALS

As decimal numbers can often be carried out an unreasonable number of places, they are usually limited to a workable size. This process of retaining a certain number of digits and discarding the rest is known as rounding. In other words, the retained number is an approximation of the calculated number. Rounding is accomplished by viewing the digit immediately to the right of the last retained digit. If this number is 5 or greater, increase the last retained digit to the next highest value. When the number to the right of the last retained digit is less than 5, leave the last retained digit unchanged. For example, when rounding 3.167 to 2 decimal places, the final 7 determines what is done to the 6, which is the last retained digit. Since the 7 is greater than 5, the 6 becomes 7 and the final rounded number becomes 3.17. When rounding to significant figures instead of decimal places, the number of figures given are counted from the LEFT. For example, 3.17 to two significant Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 19

figures becomes 3.2 and 0.456 to two significant figures, becomes 0.46. Note also that in this case zeros do not count as significant figures.

1.4.2 FACTORS

We know for example that 2 x 6 = 12, so we say that 2 and 6 are factors of 12. The numbers 1, 3, 4 and 12 are also factors of 12 because these numbers can be made into a multiplication, which produces the sum of 12. This may seem obvious, but it will sometimes be useful to factorise, i.e. determine the factors of a given number, or more commonly, find the factors of an algebraic expression. Example Find the possible factors of 60. (In other words, find the integers, which divide into 60). They are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30 and 60 Prime Numbers A prime number is a number whose only factors are 1 and itself. Example List the prime numbers between 1 and 30. They are: 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 and 29. It is sometimes useful to express the factors of a given number in terms of prime numbers. Using the factors of 60 again, taking 4 and 15 as 2 factors. 4 x 15 = 60, but 4 has factors of 2 and 2, and 15 has factors of 5 and 3. Hence the number 60 can be expressed as 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 which are all factors of 60. Note that we have now factorised the number 60 in terms of prime numbers.

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1.4.3 HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR

Suppose that we take 3 numbers, 1764, 2100 and 2940. The factors of each number, in terms of prime numbers are: The High Common Factor of these three numbers will be: 2 x 2 x 3 x 7 = 84 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7 x 7 = 1764 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 = 2100 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 2940 This is the greatest number which is a factor of all three number, i.e. the Highest Common Factor and is found by multiplying together all the factors which are common in each of the individual numbers. Lowest Common Factor Consider the same three numbers, 1764, 2100 and 2940 and their factors. 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7 x 7 = 1764 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 = 2100 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 2940 The Lowest Common Multiple of these three numbers will be: 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 44100 This is the lowest number of which each of the three numbers are factors. It is comprised of the least number of factors, which are found in all three numbers. 1764 x 25 = 44100 2100 x 21 = 44100 2940 x 15 = 44100 It is found by multiplying together each prime number and repeated if necessary, which appears in any of the three number considered here 2 x 2 (in all) x 3 x 3 (in 1764) x 5 x 5 (in 2100) x 7 x 7 (in 1764 and 2940) Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 21

2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 44100

1.4.4 PERCENTAGE

Percentages are special fractions whose denominator is 100. The decimal fraction 0.33 is the same as 33/100 and is equivalent to 33 percent or 33%. You can convert common fractions to percentages by first converting them to decimal fractions and then multiplying by 100. For example, 5/8 expressed as a decimal is 0.625, and is converted to a percentage by moving the decimal point two places to the right, the same as multiplying by 100. This becomes 62.5%. To find the percentage of a number, multiply the number by the decimal equivalent of the percentage. For example, to find 10% of 200, begin by converting 10% to its decimal equivalent, which is 0.1, which is achieved by dividing the percentage figure by 100. Now multiply 200 by 0.1 to arrive at the value of 20. If you want to find what percentage one number is of another, you must divide the first number by the second and multiply the quotient by 100. For instance, an engine produces 85hp of a possible 125hp. What percentage of the total horsepower available is being developed ? To solve this, divide the 85 by 125 and multiply the quotient by 100. Example: 85 125 = 0.68 x 100 = 68% power.

Another way that percentages are used to determine a number when only a portion of the number is known. For example, if 4180 rpm is 38% of the maximum speed, what is the maximum speed ? To determine this, you must divide the known quantity, 4180 rpm, by the decimal equivalent of the percentage. Example: 4180 0.38 = 11,000 rpm maximum

A common mistake made on this type of problem is multiplying by the percentage instead of dividing. One way of avoiding making this error is to look at the problem and determine what exactly is being asked. In the problem above, if 4180 rpm is 38% of the maximum then the maximum must be greater than 4180. The only way to get an answer that meets this criterion is to divide by 0.38.

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1.5

RATIO AND PROPORTION

A ratio provides a means of comparing one number to another. For example, if an engine turns at 4000 rpm and the propeller turns at 2400 rpm, the ratio of the two speeds is 4000 to 2400, or 5 to 3 when reduced to the lowest terms. This relationship can also be expressed as 5/3 or 5:3. Ratios are often used in aviation, such as when considering the compression ratio of an engine. This is the ratio of cylinder displacement, when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, compared with the displacement when it is at the top. For example, if the volume of the cylinder at the bottom of the stroke is 240 cm 3 and at the top it becomes 30 cm 3 then the compression ratio is 240:30 or, reduced to its lowest terms 8:1. Another typical ratio is that of different gear sizes. For example, the ratio of a drive gear with 15 teeth to a driven gear with 45 teeth is 15:45 or 1:3 when reduced. This means that for every one tooth of the drive gear there are three teeth on the driven gear. However, when working with gears, the ratio of teeth is opposite the ratio of revolutions. In other words, since the drive gear has one third as many teeth as the driven gear, the drive gear must complete three revolutions to turn the driven gear once. This results in a revolution ratio of 3:1, which is the opposite of the ratio of teeth. A proportion is a statement of equality between two or more ratios and represents a convenient way to solve problems involving ratios. For example, if an engine has a reduction gear ratio between the crankshaft and the propeller of 3:2 and the engine is turning at 2700 rpm, what is the rotational speed of the propeller ? In this problem let Vp represent the unknown value, which in this case is the speed of the propeller. Next, set up a proportional statement using the fractional form, 3/2 = 2700/ Vp. To solve this equation, cross multiply to arrive at the equation 3 Vp = 2 x 2700 or 5400 rpm. To solve for Vp divide 5400 by 3. Thus, the propeller speed is 1800 rpm. 3 2 3 2 3 Vp = Vp = = = Engine Speed Propeller Speed 2700 Vp 5400 5400 3 Vp = 1800 rpm

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This same proportion may also be expressed as 3:2 = 2700: Vp. The first and the last terms of the proportion are called the extremes. The second and third terms are called the means. In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means. In this example, multiply the extremes to get 3 V p and multiply the means to get 2 x 2700 or 5400 rpm.

1.6

POWERS AND ROOTS

When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be raised to a given power. As an example 6 x 6 = 36, therefore 6 2 = 36. The number of times the base number is multiplied by itself is expressed as an exponent and is written to the right and slightly above the base number. A positive exponent indicates how many times a number is multiplied by itself. 3 2 is read 3 squared or 3 to the second power. Its value is found by multiplying 3 by itself. 3x3 = 9 2 3 is read 2 cubed or 2 to the third power. Its value is found by multiplying 2 by itself 3 times. 2 x 2 x 2 = 8

A negative exponent implies division or fraction of a number. It indicates the inverse or reciprocal of the number with its exponent made positive. Example: 2 -3 is read 2 to the negative third power. The inverse or reciprocal of 2 -3 with its exponent made positive is: 1 2
3

1 2x2x2

1 8

Any number, except zero, that is raised to the zero power equals 1. When a number is written without an exponent, the exponent value is assumed to be 1. Furthermore, if the exponent does not have a positive or negative sign preceding it, the exponent is assumed to be positive. The root of a number is that value which, when multiplied by itself a certain number of times, produces that number. For example, 4 is a root of 16 because when multiplied by itself the product is 16. However, 4 is also a root of 64 because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64. The symbol used to indicate a root is the radical sign (x) placed over the number. If only the radical sign appears over a number, it Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 24

indicates you are to extract the square root of the number under the sign. The square root of a number is the root of that number, which when multiplied by itself, equals that number. When asked to extract a root other than a square root, an index number is placed outside the radical sign. For example, the cube root of 64 is expressed as:
3

64

1.7

AVERAGES

Many times you will need to find an average, (or mean) of two or more numbers. This is simply carried out by adding up the numbers for which the average is required and dividing the total by the number of figures being averaged. Example: Find the average of the following numbers: Step 1. Add the numbers together. 24 + 6 + 74 + 16 = 120 Step 2. Divide the total by the number of figures (4). 120 4 = 30. This is the average or mean. 24 + 6 + 74 + 16

1.8

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

A wide number of different weights and measures are used during the maintenance of aircraft. The ones that come to mind first are probably fuel capacities, tyre pressures, temperatures and speeds. The purpose of these notes is to make you aware of the different systems used and some of the more simple conversions to transpose from one system to another. The commonest system in use in aviation today is the Systeme Internationale (SI). This system is based on multiples of 10 and has been accepted widely, with the exceptions of the USA. It consists of a standard set of units for length (metre), mass (kilogram), time (second), temperature (Kelvin), current (ampere) and luminous intensity (candela). There are several other units which, whilst not Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 25

being part of the basic SI ones above, are in common use and still use the metric system for calculations. An older system that is used mainly in the USA is the Imperial System, which uses a mixture of old units such as feet and inches for length, pounds for weight, gallons for capacity and Fahrenheit for temperature. You will occasionally meet a mixture of systems, which will require conversion from one to another. A good example is the amount of fuel put into an aircrafts tanks. This can be measured in gallons (Imperial or American), pounds (Imperial), kilograms (SI) or litres (Metric). Changing units of one quantity to units of another requires a conversion factor which, when applied to the first units, will give the answer in the other units. For example, the conversion factor for changing Imperial gallons to litres is to multiply by 4.546 Example 1: Convert 25 gallons to litres. 25 x 4.546 = 113.65 litres. Example 2: Convert 1500 miles to kilometres, using the conversion factor of 1.6094 1500 x 1.6094 = 2413.9 kilometres.

1.9

ALGEBRA

Algebra is a form of arithmetic that uses letters or symbols to represent numbers in equations and formulas. For example, if an aeroplane cruises at 200 knots (kts), how long will it take to fly 600 nautical miles (nm), where 1 knot represents a speed of 1 nautical mile per hour? To solve this problem, an equation is set up with the unknown variable of time represented by the letter t. The equation is 200 kts x t = 600 nm. Through algebra, you can calculate the time (t) required of 3 hours. Whilst some forms of algebra are extremely complex, others are fairly simple and straightforward. This section introduces you to the basic algebra you need to know to perform your duties as an aircraft mechanic.

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1.9.1 EQUATIONS

One way to express a mathematics problem is to write it out in words. Such as What is 24 divided by 3? This is written in an algebraic sentence in the form 24 3 = x. In this example, x represents the unknown quantity or variable, you are trying to obtain. The expression 24 - 3 = x is called an equation. The purpose of the equation is to identify two equal quantities. Typically, once you get a mathematics problem set up in an equation, the problem is fairly easy to solve. For example, if asked to determine what quantity, when added to 23 results in 48, your first step should be to set up an equation. The equation used to solve this problem is 23 + x = 48. To find the value of x, subtract 23 from both sides of the equation. The equation now reads x = 48 23. Once simplified, the equation reads x = 25.

1.9.2 ALGEBRAIC RULES

There are some basic rules you must use to simplify and solve algebraic equations, such as fractions. When working with fractions, the numerator and denominator can be changed without changing the fractions value as long as you do the same operation to both. This is often useful in reducing or combining fractions. This same principle is also used to simplify fractions and cancel out units such as litres and kilometres. For example 60 km/h x h = x

Since hour is in each element, it cancels out. Furthermore, since the 60 in the numerator is divisible by the 2 in the denominator, both figures are reduced. Once completed, all that remains is 30 km = x or x = 30 km

In another example, determine the number of revolutions a gear completes in 30 seconds when the gear turns at 100 revolutions per minute (rpm).

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Example: Step 1. Convert the word problem to an equation. x minute = x

100 rev/min

Step 2.

Cancel the like terms and reduce where appropriate. x minute = 50 revolutions

100 rev/min

Therefore x

50 revolutions.

It is important to keep all labels in an equation. If this is not done, it may be difficult to determine the appropriate label for the answer. Another important rule you must follow when solving algebraic equations is to never perform an operation to one side of an equation without performing the identical operation on the other side. In other words, you can add, subtract, multiply or divide on one side of an equation as long as you do the same thing to the other side. So when solving the equation x + 16 = 30, 16 is subtracted from both sides of the equation. Example: x + 16 = 30

Subtract 16 from both sides to solve for x x x + = 16 14 16 = 30 16

1.9.3 SOLVING FOR A VARIABLE

Most of the algebra carried out in everyday life requires you to solve for a variable. For example, suppose you want to determine your cars fuel consumption. With a full tank, you drive 700 kilometres (km), then added 35 litres (l) of fuel. What was the fuel consumption in kilometres per litre (km/l)? Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 28

To begin, build an equation and let x = km/l. x = kilometres driven = litres used 700 35 = 20 km/l

Now suppose you are planning a journey, and want to know how far you drive could without stopping for fuel. The manual says the fuel tank has a capacity of 50 litres. Using the same formula used to calculate the km/l the problem reads: 20 km/l = kilometres 50 litres Multiply both sides by 50 litres. 20 km/l x 50 litres = x km 50 litres Both the 50s cancel out on the right hand side of the equation and the label litres cancels out on the left. Carry out the multiplication to find x. 20 km x 50 = x kilometres x 50 litres

1000 =

x kilometres

The range of the car is 1000 kilometres. Use Of Brackets (Parenthesis) In algebra, brackets indicate an operation that must be carried out before any other operation. For example, in the expression 10 x (8 + 7), the 8 and the 7 must be added first. When using brackets, the absence of an operation sign between the number and the bracket indicates multiplication. For example, 8(3 - 2) is the same as 8 x (3 - 2). Furthermore, if a negative sign (-) precedes the brackets, it is the same as multiplying each of the quantities within the brackets by -1. Example: -(6 + 4 - 8) = -2 or -6 -4 + 8 = -2 Page 29

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1.9.4 ORDER OF OPERATION

When solving complex equations, the only way you can arrive at the correct answer is if you follow the correct order of operations. For example, when solving the equation 4 x 3 + 2 x 5, it is possible to arrive at several different answers by carrying out the mathematical operations in different orders. You could, for example, multiply before you add, add before you multiply or work the equation from left to right. Only ONE of these results in the correct answer. The proper order for performing mathematical operations is as follows:

Brackets: Indices: Division: Multiplication: Addition: Subtraction:

Operations contained in brackets are always carried out first. Then carry out operations with exponents. The operations of division are then performed from left to right. Followed by multiplication operations from left to right. Then sum the additions together again. Finally the operations involving subtraction.

A memory aid used to remember the correct order of mathematical operations is BIDMAS Example: Apply the correct order of operation to solving this equation. x = (12 + 6) (2)2 + 9 (14) 16 Carry out the operations in parenthesis contained in the numerator. x = (18) (4) + 9 (14) 16 Now multiply from left to right.

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72 + 126 16

Add the terms in the numerator. x = 198 16 Calculate the square root and simplify. x = 198 4 Finally complete the division which gives the final answer of, x = 49.5

In the previous example, you will notice that you finished up with a fraction. This division was not carried out after the multiplication but at the end. When an equation is presented in the form of a fraction, complete ALL operations in the numerator and denominator before you reduce the fraction. The same is true for operations within a square root sign. The operations must be carried out within the square root sign, in the correct order before extracting the root. If you perform mathematical operations in the correct order, calculations typically go smoother and you obtain the right answer. The importance of correct order becomes clear when you begin performing more complex equations.

1.9.5 COMPLEX EQUATIONS

The algebraic rules presented in this section are useful for answering test questions. They also allow you to use the complex formulas frequently found in the study of electricity and weight and balance calculations. Work out the following equation. x = 2.246 + (- 0.47)2

Brackets are calculated first. x = 5.0445 + 0.2209 Page 31

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Add the elements within the square root sign. x = 5.2654

Extract the root. x = 2.2946

While it may seem complex, a problem of this type is fairly simple to solve when you observe the basic rules of signed numbers and follow the correct order of operations.

1.10

GEOMETRY

Geometry is the measurement of dimensions, area and volumes of geometric shapes and is useful in aspect certain aspects of aircraft maintenance. In fact, it is geometry that allows you to calculate the capacity of a cylinder, the volume of a fuel tank or the surface area of a wing.

1.10.1 CALCULATING AREA

The area of a surface is two-dimensional and is expressed in square units. An area that is square and measures one metre on each side is called a square metre. This same relationship holds true for other units of measure. The area of a figure is equal to the number of square units the figure contains.

1.10.2 THE RECTANGLE

A rectangle is a four-sided plane figure, having opposite sides of equal length, and four angles of 90. The area (A) of a rectangle is found by multiplying its length (L) by its width (W), A = L x W. Before the calculation can be carried out, both measurements must reflect the same units of measure. Take a sheet of aluminium that is 4 metres long by 1500 millimetres wide, before calculating the area you must convert both length and width to the same units. In this case we will convert both dimensions to metres.

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= = =

LxW 4 x 1.5 6m2

Width 1.5 m

Length 4 m Fig. 3 Rectangle

1.10.3 THE SQUARE

A square is a symmetrical plane figure in which all four sides are of equal length. The same formula used for a rectangle is used to find the area of a square. However, since all sides of a square are of equal length, the formula is sometimes expressed as the square of the sides. A A = = L L2 x or W W2

1.10.4 THE TRIANGLE

The triangle is a three-sided figure consisting of three angles whose combined total equals 180 (degrees). Three basic types of triangles you should be familiar with are the scalene triangle, consisting of three unequal angles and sides, the equilateral triangle, which has equal sides and equal angles, and the isosceles triangle which has two equal angles (refer Fig. 4). Triangles are further classified by the measurement of one angle. For example, a right-angled triangle has one angle measuring 90. In an obtuse triangle, one angle is greater than 90 while in an acute triangle all angles are less than 90. There are several terms associated with triangles. For instance, the base of a triangle is the side the triangle rests or stands on. Depending on a triangles orientation, any side may be the base. The vertex is a common end point, or the Module 1. Page 33 Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013

point where the sides of the triangle meet. The altitude of the triangle is the height of the vertex above the base. If a triangle is set in a rectangle and the triangles base and height are equal to two of the rectangles sides, the area of the triangle is exactly half that of the rectangle. So the formula for calculating the area of a triangle is one half of the base times the height. A Example: Find the area of a triangle whose base is 6 metres and height 15 metres. Step 1. A Step 2. A Insert the given values into the formula. = ( x 6) x 15 = bh

Perform the multiplication. = 45 m2

30

45

40

90

60

90

45

70

70

Scalene

Isosceles

Acute

60 110

60

60

60

60

Equilateral Types of Triangles Fig. 4

Obtuse

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1.10.5 THE PARALLELOGRAM

The parallelogram like the rectangle, has opposite sides that are parallel and equal in length (refer Fig. 5). The corner angles of a parallelogram are some measurement other than 90. The area of a parallelogram is calculated by multiplying the length by the height (A = L x H). The height is measured perpendicular to the length, in the same way the altitude of a triangle is determined.

AREA = L x H

L Parallelogram Fig. 5 The Trapezium The trapezium is a four-sided figure that has ONE set of parallel sides (refer Fig.6). If you lay two of these side by side so the top and bottom sides form straight lines, a parallelogram is formed with a base that is the combined length of the trapeziums parallel sides. The area of case equals trapezium is one half the formula: the parallelogram is found by multiplying the length, which in this the sum of the parallel sides, by the height. The area of a single one-half that of the parallelogram, the trapeziums area is equal to product of the base times the height. This is expressed with the AREA = (b1 + b2) H b2

b1 Trapezium Fig. 6

b2

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1.10.6 THE CIRCLE

A circle (refer Fig. 7) is a closed figure bounded by a single curved line. Every point on the line forming a circle is an equal distance from the centre. The distance from the centre to the line forming the circle is called the radius, and the distance around the circle is known as the circumference. The diameter of a circle is represented by a line that touches two points on the circumference and passes through the circles centre. The circumference has a definite relationship with the diameter. This relationship is represented by the Greek letter Pi (), and is equal to 3.1416 to four decimal places. The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is always and regardless of the size of the circle, is constant. The circumference of a circle is found by multiplying by the diameter. The area is calculated by multiplying by the square of the radius. A circle has a diameter of 100 millimetres (mm), determine the circumference (C) and area (A). C C C = = = D 3.1416 x 100 314.16 mm A A A = A = = r2 = 3.1416 x 50 2

3.1416 x 2500 7854 mm 2

Circumference

Radius Diameter Circle Fig. 7 Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 36

1.10.7 CALCULATING VOLUME

Solids are objects that have three dimensions, length, width and height. Having the ability to calculate volume enables you to determine the capacity of a fuel tank or reservoir, calculate the capacity of a cargo area or work out the volume of a cylinder. Volumes are calculated in cubic units such as cubic metres. Volumes are easily converted to other terms, such as litres. For example, a cubic metre contains 1000 litres of liquid and a cubic foot contains 6.229 gallons of liquid. Volume of a Rectangular Prism The volume of a rectangular solid is found by multiplying the length, width and height. When calculating volume, it is important that all measurements are in like terms. W

L Volume Calculation of a Rectangular Prism Fig. 8 L W H V = = = = = 25 mm 20 mm 15 mm LxWxH 25 x 20 x 15

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7500 mm 3

1.10.8 VOLUME OF A CUBE

A cube is a solid with all sides equal. So to find the volume of a cube, multiply one side by three times. If one side of a cube is 3 metres, determine its volume? V = = LxLxL L3 L

= =

LxLxL 3x3x3 L 27 m
3

Volume Calculation of a Cube Fig. 9

1.10.9 VOLUME OF A CYLINDER

A cylinder is a solid with circular ends and parallel sides. Its volume is found by multiplying the area of one end by the height of the cylinder. The formula is expressed as V=r2H As an engineer, you can use this formula to calculate piston displacement. This is defined as the volume of air displaced by a piston as it moves from Bottom Dead Centre, (BDC), to Top Dead Centre, (TDC). Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 38

For example, one cylinder of a four-cylinder aircraft engine has a bore (diameter) of 10 cm and the piston has a stroke of 15 cm. What is the displacement of the cylinder?

D Bore = Stroke V = = = 10 cm = 15 cm

r2H 3.1416 x 5 x 5 x 15 1178.1 cm 3 or 1.178 litres H

To find the total capacity of the engine, multiply this capacity by the number of cylinders, so 1178.1 x 4 = 4712.4 cm3. Volume Calculation of a Cylinder Fig. 10

1.10.10

VOLUME OF A SPHERE

A sphere is any round body having a surface on which all points are an equal distance from the centre. A useful fact is that a sphere has the greatest volume for its surface area and is used in aircraft systems for hydraulic accumulators and liquid oxygen converters. The volume of a sphere is determined by multiplying the cube of the radius by a factor, of 4/3 of , or 4.1887 to four decimal places. To find the volume of a sphere that has a radius of 100 mm. cube the radius and multiply the resultant by 4/3 .

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Example:

Volume Calculation of a Sphere Fig. 11 V = 4/3 r 3 = = = V = 4.1887 x 100 x 100 x 100 4.1887 x 1 000 000 4 188 790.1mm 3 41.887 m 3

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1.11

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Charts and Graphs are pictorial representations of data. They enable you to quickly visualise certain relationships, complete complex calculations and predict trends. Furthermore, charts allow you to see the rate and magnitude of changes. Information is presented graphically in many different forms. Graphs are often found in the form of bar charts, pictographs, broken line graphs (or continuous curve graphs) and the circular or pie chart. Another type of graph that you will meet in aircraft maintenance is the nomogram. (Refer Fig. 11)

Bar Graph

Pictograph 9 8 9 9 0 0

Broken Line Graph

Continuous Curved-Line Graph

Pie Chart

Types of Charts and Graphs Fig. 12 Many of the graphs that you will meet will conform to a standard layout of two variables displayed on adjacent axes, normally vertical and horizontal. This Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 41

layout is described as Cartesian (refer Fig. 13) and usually has the two axes, labelled x and y which intersect at the zero point.

Ordinate

y axis (+)

Quadrant 2 (-,+) x axis (-) (-,-) Quadrant 3 (-) Abscissa

Quadrant 1 (+,+) (+) (+,-) Quadrant 4

Cartesian Co-ordinate Graph Fig. 13 You will find many graphs also produce a straight line, which may, or may not pass through the origin. A graph of this type is formed when load is plotted against extension for an elastic material subjected to a tensile test (refer Fig. 14).

Extension a Load

Extension b Stretched Material Fig. 14 Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 42 Graph of Stretched Material

For such a graph, it is evident that the load value is directly proportional to the extension that the load produces.

Example: Load Load = Extension Constant x Extension Constant

Load / Extension =

The value of this constant can easily be obtained, simply by selecting a value of load (y) and dividing it by its corresponding extension (x). This is equivalent to determining the slope of the graph, given the symbol m. y/x = m or y = mx

This relationship alters slightly if the straight-line graph fails to pass through the origin. A graph (refer Fig. 15) of electrical resistance (ohms) plotted against temperature variation (C) shows this. Resistance () in ohms

a c b

0 Temperature (T) in C Straight Line Graph Fig. 15 In the preceding graph, the resistance is no longer directly proportional to the temperature. The gradient (m) now has to be calculated by considering two points on the graph, a distance b apart on the x-axis ( C) and a apart on the yaxis (ohms). Therefore a/b = m. Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 Page 43

The relationship in this case takes the form of y = mx + c. This is the law of the straight line, in which c is the value measured from the origin to the point where the graph cuts the y-axis. In terms of the two quantities plotted against each other in the example (refer Fig. 15), = mT + c. Other forms of common graphs are the curved graphs, which are usually produced as a result of plotting from an algebraic formula. These are known as parabolic, hyperbolic, sine and cosine. A quadratic equation, taking the form of y = ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are all constants, will produce a curve that is known as a Parabola. If you consider the simplest form of quadratic, y = x2 + 1 and plot the result on to a graph, you form a parabola, a shape that frequently occurs in engineering. It is useful to be able to recognise the type of formula that produces a parabola. This is the graph produced by plotting y = x + 1 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Parabolic Graph Fig. 16 5 4 3 2 1 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Page 44 y 5 3 1 1 1 3 5

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-2

If you plot a graph, which represents the compression of a gas in a closed cylinder, it takes the form as shown in Fig. 17. If the temperature of the gas remains constant during the compression, then P x V = constant. You may recognise this relationship as Boyle's Law. The curve produced from the formula, pressure x volume = constant, produces a curve known as a Hyperbola.

Pressure (P) Compressed Gas

Uncompressed Volume (V) Gas Cylinder Compressing a Gas Fig. 17 Hyperbola Graph

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1.11.1 GRAPHS OF SINE AND COSINE WAVES

Alternating voltages and currents are often represented by sine and cosine waves. These are the result of plotting the path of a rotating output along a straight axis (refer Fig. 18). The only difference between them is that the sine wave always has its zero value at the start and completion of each rotation. The cosine wave however, begins and finishes its rotation with the output at its maximum value.

0/360 1 0.5 90 270 90 -0.5 180 Sine Wave Cosine Wave Sine and Cosine Wave Graphs Fig. 18 0 180 270 360

1.11.2 NOMOGRAMS

The need to show how two or more variables affect a value is common in the maintenance of aircraft. Nomograms also known as an alignment chart, are a special type of graph that enables you to solve complex problems involving more than one variable. Most nomogram charts contain a great deal of information and require the use of scales on three sides of the chart, as well as diagonal lines. In fact, some charts Module 1. Page 46 Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013

contain so much information, that it can be very important for you to carefully read the instructions before using the chart and to show care when reading information from the chart itself. Illustrated below is a graph of three variables, distance, speed and time. If any two of the three variables are known, the approximate value of the third can be quickly determined. In the example the dotted line indicates a known speed and time, the resulting distance can be extracted from the graph at the point where these two dashed lines meet. A speed of 375 knots for 2.5 hours would result in a distance of approximately 950 nautical miles.

Distance in Nautical Miles 0 500 400 40 350 35 300 30 Speed 250 25 in 200 20 Knots 150 15 100 10 50 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Page 47 Module 1. Mathematics A1 by COBC - Issue 1 - 03 April 2013 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Time in Hours

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