A general review of geometric shape imperfections types and causes

Part 1. Introduction
In the job knowledge series welding imperfections such as cracks, lack of fusion, penetration and porosity have been discussed. This article looks at those imperfections related to poor geometric shape and will concentrate on the following:

Excess weld metal Undercut Overlap Linear misalignment Incompletely filled groove Such imperfections might be considered as anomalies in the joint and they will always be present to some degree so that it becomes necessary to separate the acceptable from the unacceptable. This is done by following guidance given by the application standard, which was the basis for the component design, and/or by direction, as set out in the job contract. Examples of standards that might be referred to are: PD 5500 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels. BS EN 5817 Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for imperfections AWS D1.1 Structural welding code - Steel

Excess weld metal

(also called cap height, overfill or reinforcement)

Fig.1. Excess weld metal This is weld metal lying outside the plane joining the weld toes. Note that the term 'reinforcement', although used extensively in the ASME/AWS specifications is avoided in Europe as it implies it adds strength to the welded joint, which is rarely the case.

Common causes
This imperfection is formed when excessive weld metal is added to the joint, which is usually a result of poor welder technique for manual processes but may be due to poor parameter selection when the process is mechanised. That is, too much filler metal for the travel speed used. In multirun welding a poor selection of individual bead sizes can result in a bead build-up pattern that overfills the joint. Different processes and parameters (eg voltage) can result in different excess weld metal shapes.

Acceptance

The acceptability of this imperfection is very dependent on the application in which the product will be used. Most standards have limit, related to material thickness (eg 10%), but also have a maximum upper limits. Both the ratio and the maximum may be related to the severity of service that the component is expected to see. The following table gives examples taken from BS EN ISO 5817.

Excess weld metal limits for quality levels: Severity of service Moderate, D Stringent, B

Limit (up to maximum) h = 1mm + 0.25 b h = 1mm + 0.25 b Maximum Transition required 10 mm smooth 5 mm smooth

Where: h = height of excess & b = width of bead (see figure 1)

An important reason for limiting the height of excess weld metal is that it represents a non-value added cost. However, it must be remembered that the height of the weld cap influences the resultant toe blend. A sharp transition causes a local stress concentration that can contribute to loss of strength, which is particularly important in fatigue situations. As a result most specifications state that 'smooth transition is required'.

Avoidance
If the imperfection is a result of welder technique then welder retraining is required. For mechanised techniques an increase in travel speed or voltage will help to reduce cap height.

Undercut

Fig.2. Undercut This is an irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal. The figure shows undercut at surface of a completed joint but it may also be found at the toes of each pass of a multi-run weld. The latter can result in slag becoming trapped in the undercut region.

Common causes

When arc and gas welding, undercut is probably the most common shape imperfection. With single-sided pipe welds it may also be found at the bore surface. It may also be seen on the vertical face of fillet welds made in the horizontal vertical position. A wide spreading arc (high arc voltage) with insufficient fill (low current or high travel speed) is the usual cause. However, welder technique, especially when weaving, and the way the welding torch is angled can both cause and be used to overcome undercutting (ie angled to push the weld metal to fill the melted groove). High welding current will also cause undercut - this is generally associated with the need for a high travel speed to avoid overfilling of the joint.

Acceptance
Largely because this imperfection is widespread, most standards permit some level of undercut although they do require that a 'smooth transition is required. The limits in BS EN ISO 5817 range from 0.5mm (stringent) to 1mm (moderate) for thickness (t) greater than 3mm (more stringent limits are required for t 0.5 to 3mm), while AWS D1.1 has a limit of 1mm. Measuring undercut can be a problem because of the small size of the imperfection compared with the general environment where there can be mill scale, irregularities in the surface and spatter. In critical applications the imperfection can be 'corrected' by blend grinding or by depositing an additional weld bead.

Avoidance
This imperfection may be avoided by reducing travel speed and/or the welding current and by maintaining the correct arc length.

Overlap (cold lapping)

Fig.3. Overlap This is an imperfection at a toe or root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it. It may occur in both fillet and butt welds.

Common causes
This is often caused by poor manipulation of the electrode or welding gun, especially when the weld pool is large and 'cold', where the welder allows gravity to influence the weld shape before solidification. Tightly adherent oxides or scale on the metal surface can also prevent the weld metal fusing with the parent metal to cause the overlap imperfection.

Avoidance
Avoidance is achieved through an acceptable level of welder skill and a reduction in weld pool size (obtained by reducing current or increasing travel speed). Adequate cleaning of the parent plate is also important.

Acceptance
Standards rarely allow the presence of this imperfection, unless the length is short (eg BS EN ISO 5817 for moderate quality level D). Overlap can be very difficult to detect, especially if it is extremely small.

Linear misalignment

Fig.4 Linear misalignment (Also known in the USA as high-low). This imperfection relates to deviations from the correct position/alignment of the joint.

Common causes
This is primarily a result of poor component fit-up before welding, which can be compounded by variations in the shape and thickness of components (eg out of roundness of pipe). Tacks that break during welding may allow the components to move relative to one another, again resulting in misalignment.

Acceptance
The acceptability of this defect is related to the design function of the structure or pipe line either in terms of the ability to take load across the misalignment or because such a step impedes the flow of fluid. Acceptance varies with the application: BS EN ISO 5817 relates misalignment to wall thickness but sets maximum limits (eg for material thickness t>3mm and moderate limits of imperfections D, = 0.25 x t, with a maximum of 5mm). AWS D1.1 allows 10% of the wall thickness up to a maximum of 3mm. The consequence of linear misalignment can, when welding is carried out from one side, be lack of root or sidewall fusion to give a sharp continuous imperfection along the higher weld face toe. In some situations linear misalignment in the bore of a pipe can lead to in-service problems where turbulence of the carrier fluid in the pipe creates subsequent erosion.

Incomplete filled groove

Incomplete filled groove This is a continuous, or intermittent, channel in the surface of a weld, running along its length, due to insufficient weld metal.

Common causes
This problem arises when there has been insufficient filler metal (current or wire feed too low or too high a travel speed) so that the joint has not been sufficiently filled. The result is that the thickness of weldment is less than that specified in the design, which could lead to failure.

Acceptance
Most standards will not accept this type of imperfection, except perhaps over short lengths and even then a smooth transition is required. The designer expects the joint to be adequately filled, but not too much so (see excess weld metal). Often the presence of this imperfection is an indication of poor workmanship and could suggest that further training is required.

A general review of the causes and acceptance of shape imperfections - Part 2

This second article on shape imperfections refers mostly to fillet welds but there are two additional butt weld imperfections that require some comment.

Excessive penetration (Excess penetration bead)

Fig.1. Excess penetration Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion (butt) weld made from one side only. With pipe welding this type of imperfection may cause effects in the fluid flow that can cause erosion and/or corrosion problems.

Common causes

Penetration becomes excessive when the joint gap is too large, the root faces are too small, the heat input to the joint is too high or a combination of these causes.

Acceptance
The criteria which sets the level of acceptable penetration depends primarily on the application code or specification. BS 2971 (Class 2 arc welding) requires that the 'penetration bead shall not exceed 3mm for pipes up to and including 150mm bore or 6mm for pipes over 150mm bore'. BS 2633 (Class 1 arc welding) gives specific limits for smaller diameters pipes, eg for pipe size 2550mm the maximum allowed bore penetration is 2.5mm. ASME B31.3 bases acceptability on the nominal thickness of the weld, for instance, allowing for a thickness range of 13-25mm up to 4mm of protrusion. However, ASME notes that 'more stringent criteria may be specified in the engineering design'. BS EN ISO 5817 (Quality levels for imperfections), which supersedes BS EN 25817, relates the acceptable protrusion to the width of the under-bead as follows:

Severity of service Limit (up to maximum) Maximum

Moderate, D h 1mm + 1.0 b 5 mm

Stringent, B h 1mm + 0.2 b 3 mm

For thicknesses > 3mm where: h = height of excess & b = width of root (see Fig.1)

Avoidance
It is important to ensure that joint fit-up is as specified in the welding procedure. If welder technique is the problem then re training is required.

Root concavity (suck-back; underwashing)

Fig.2. Root concavity A shallow groove that may occur in the root of a butt weld.

Common causes
Root concavity is caused by shrinkage of the weld pool in the through-thickness direction of the weld. Melting of the root pass by the second pass can also produce root concavity.

This imperfection is frequently associated with TIG welding with the most common cause being poor preparation leaving the root gap either too small or, in some cases, too large. Excessively high welding speeds make the formation of root concavity more likely.

Acceptance
The root concavity may be acceptable. This will depend on the relevant standard being worked to. For example: BS 2971 requires that: a) there is complete root fusion b) the thickness of the weld is not less than the pipe thickness. ASME B31.3 requires that the 'total joint thickness, including weld reinforcement, must be greater than the weld thickness'. BS EN ISO 5817 sets upper limits related to the quality level, eg for thicknesses > 3mm Moderate, (D), h 0.2t but max 2mm for Stringent, (B), h 0.05t but max 0.5mm. Furthermore, a smooth transition is required at the weld toes. In effect the standards require that the minimum design throat thickness of the finished weldment is achieved. If the first two conditions of acceptance are met but the weld face does not have a sufficiently high cap, additional weld metal may be deposited to increase the throat.

Avoidance
It is important to ensure that joint fit-up is as specified in the welding procedure and that the defined parameters are being followed. If welder technique is the problem then retraining is required.

Fillet welded joints

This Section should be read in conjunction with Job Knowledge 66 Fillet welded joints - a review of the practicalities.

Excessive convexity

Fig.3. Excessive convexity This feature is also covered by the definition for excess weld metal, see Part 1, and may be described as weld metal lying outside the plane joining the weld toes. Note that the term 'reinforcement', although used extensively in the ASME/AWS specifications is avoided in Europe as it implies that excess metal contributes to the strength of the welded joint. This is rarely the case.

Common causes
Poor technique and the deposition of large volumes of 'cold' weld metal.

Acceptance
The idealised design requirement of a 'mitre' fillet weld is often difficult to achieve, particularly with manual welding processes. BS EN ISO 5817 acceptance is based on a mitre fillet weld shape with a specific design throat and any excess weld metal is measured in relation to this mitre surface. The limits for this imperfection relate the height of the excess metal to the width of the bead with maximum values ranging from 3mm for a stringent quality level to 5mm for a moderate quality level. Surprisingly, there is no reference to a 'smooth transition' being required at the weld toes for such weld shape. AWS D1.1 also has limits relating width to acceptable excess as follows:

Width of weld face Maximum convexity W 8mm 2mm

W <8 to W<25mm 3mm W 25mm 5mm

Avoidance
Welder technique is the major cause of this problem and training may be required. It is also important to ensure that the parameters specified in the welding procedures specification are adhered to.

Oversize fillet welds (welds with a throat larger than required by the design)

Fig.4. Oversize fillet weld As discussed in Job Knowledge 66, oversize fillet welds can represent a significant additional cost and loss of productivity.

Common causes
There are some welding related causes, eg high welding current, slow travel speeds, and some supervision related (eg 'to be safe make this fillet bigger by x mm').

Acceptance
BS EN ISO 5817 has limits related to the actual throat (eg for stringent quality levels, the actual weld throat [a] may exceed the nominal (design) weld throat [h] by 1+0.15a with a maximum of 3mm. For the moderate quality level (D) the excessive throat thickness is unlimited.

Avoidance
Adhere to the specified welding procedure and parameters and do not add to the specified weld size. Where possible mechanise the welding operation.

Undersized fillet welds (fillet welds smaller than those specified)

Fig.5. Undersized fillet weld

Common causes

The welding related causes are associated with high welding speeds and low welding currents.

Acceptance
Therefore, it is normally assumed that fillet welds will be at least of the size specified. BS EN SIO 5817 states that limits to insufficient throat thickness are not applicable to processes with proof of greater depth of penetration, therefore a fillet weld with an apparent throat thickness smaller that that prescribed should not be regarded as being imperfect if the actual throat thickness with a compensating greater depth of penetration complies with the nominal value. That is if we can be sure there is good penetration the smaller fillet may be acceptable, however, this should be discussed with the designer of the fabrication. The limits set by the standard. Relying upon deep penetration to provide the required minimum design throat thickness can be difficult to justify. Penetration is a weld characteristic that is hard to measure directly and reliance must be placed on the stringent control of both the welding process and the welder. Manual welding can rarely be relied upon to provide the required consistency but it is an option with mechanised welding systems.

Quality levels Moderate D Intermediate C Stringent B Imperfection: fillet weld having a throat Long imperfections NOT permitted NOT permitted thickness smaller than the nominal value Short imperfections (see Fig.5) h 0.3mm+ 0.1 a max 2mm max 1mm

Avoidance
Adhere to the specified welding procedure and parameters. Use sufficient current and appropriate travel speed. Where possible mechanise the welding operation.

Asymmetric fillet weld (a fillet weld where the legs are of unequal length)

Fig.6. Asymmetric fillet weld

Common causes

Due to incorrect electrode positioning or to gravity pulling the molten pool towards one face of the joint. It is an mainly a problem with fillet welds made in the horizontal/vertical (PB) position.

Acceptance
There are instances where asymmetry may be specified (eg to place the toe stress concentration in a particular region). BS EN ISO 5817 would, for a 10mm leg length fillet weld (ie 7.1mm throat) allow a difference in leg lengths of about 2.5mm at the stringent quality level and 3.4mm at the moderate quality level. Acceptance is related to the throat thickness. The consequence of this imperfection is a significant increase in weld volume. Provided the leg length requirement is achieved there would not be a loss of strength. Perhaps this is why, in other standards, a requirement is not specified and the acceptability is left to the inspection personnel to make the 'engineering judgement'!

Poor fit-up

Fig.7. Poor fit-up The most common imperfection is an excessive gap between the mating faces of the materials.

Common causes
Poor workshop practice, poor dimensioning and tolerance dimensions on drawings.

Acceptance
A major problem with fillet welds is ensuring the gap between the components is within defined limits. BS EN ISO 5817 specifies the acceptance criteria as follows:

Quality levels Moderate D Intermediate C Stringent B

h 1mm + 0.3 a h 0.5mm + 0.2 a h 0.5mm + 0.1 a max 4mm max 3mm max 2mm

Where h = fit-up gap and a = fillet weld design throat

Figure 7 shows that the gap results in a reduction in the leg length on the vertical plate and this, in turn, results in a reduction in the throat thickness of the joint. A 10mm leg length fillet with a root gap of 3mm gives an effective leg of 7mm (a throat of 4.9mm instead of the expected 7mm). When the application of BS EN ISO 5817 is not required, the guidance of BS EN 1011-2 can be followed, which recommends a maximum gap of 3mm. This standard also states that the size of the fillet weld can be increased to compensate for a large gap. This discrepancy is addressed within AWS D1.1. which permits a root gap of up to 5mm for material thickness up to 75mm. However, 'if the (joint) separation is greater than 2mm the leg of the fillet weld shall be increased by the amount of the root opening, or the contractor shall demonstrate that the effective throat has been obtained'.