WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

TOPIC 1

PARTS OF SPEECH

1.0 This topic aims to enhance learners knowledge of the formal features of the English language system. It provides an explanation to a selection of language structures identified in the English Language Proficiency 11 syllabus for non - TESL learners. The exercises that follow the explanation should provided some immediate practice applying the language rules learnt. Leraners are required to practice much more from publications readily available, should they wish to improve their personal proficiency in the English language.

1.1 Learning outcomes 1.1.1 identify the different types of language structures of word clasess namely, conjuctions, prepositions and interjections.

1.1.2. apply the language structures appropriately through relevant exercises

1.2 Content CONJUNCTIONS INTERJECTIONS PREPOSITIONS

NOUNS

PARTS OF SPEECH

VERBS

ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS ADVERBS

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

2.1 CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are used to join words, phrases, clauses or sentences to express a partticular idea or ideas. Study the following examples.

Anne and Kamilla are coming to the party.

The conjunction and joins the words Anne and Kamilla.

You can write the answer in ink or in pencil

The conjunction or joins the phrases in ink or in pencil

Although she is a famous and successful writer, she leads a simple and frugal life.

The conjunction although joins she is, a famous and successful writer and she leads a simple and frugal life

Both the girls and their fathers are scientists.

The conjunction both...and joins the sentences the girls are scientists and their fathers are scientists

2.2 We can further discuss conjunctions in terms of their meanings or functions. Conjunctions usually perform one function, but some conjunctions perform two different functions.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Conjunctions as

Examples i) As he was walking down the dark lane, he heard a strange noise behind him. ii) I did not want to go to the movies as I did not have enough money

Function shows time

cause and effect

since

i) I have not met my brother since the day I was born. ii) Since I studied hard for the examination, I passed them with flying colours.

Time

cause and effect choice

or

i) Coffee or tea, sir asked the waiter. ii) You had better finish the assingment fast, or you will not be able to submit it on time.

condition

while

i) While I was walking home, it started to rian heavily. ii) In the movie Beauty and the Beast, the heroine is ravishingly beautiful, while the hero is just the opposite.

time

contrast

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Conjunctions are analysed from three aspects, which are form, function and position. 2.3 Forms Conjunctions have three basic forms; 2.3.1 Single word Example: so, for, while, since 2.3.2 Compound Example: provided that, as well as, so that 2.3.3 Correlative Correlative conjunctions always appear in parts. The most common correlative conjunctions are; both...and , either...or , neither...nor not only...but also,so...as and whether...or . Example: Both my husband and my father were born in November.

2.4 Functions Conjunctions have two basic functions 2.4.1 Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single or clauses, for example: 1. Amariah and Azham are getting married next month (noun and noun) 2. They ran and laughed together. (verb and verb) 3. The water was warm , but I didnt go swimming . (clause and clause) 2.4.2 Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example; 1. I went swimming although it was cold .

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

2.5 Positions Conjuctions can be placed at the beginning or between words or clauses. Example; 1. Since he is not there, we should not enter. 2. When I am sick, my father takes me to that clinic. 3. My mother cooked through the night though she was not well. 4. They would not take any action unless the firm does not meet the requirement.

Exercise 1 Fill in the blanks with the appropriate conjunctions. 1. _______________he tried hard, he failed to get through the security.

2. Wait here___________ I tell you to move.

3. Take your umbrella___________it is going to rain.

4. Sazali is slow____________ smart.

5. ______________he was ill, he had to stay at home.

6. I shall not ride in his carriage____________invited.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

7. Be kind ___________you will be rewarded.

8. ____________Azlan ___________his wife are attending the ceremony.

9. ____________soon __________he is ready, bring down the cake.

10. He is___________here__________there.

3.1

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are used to show the relationship or connection of a word with other words. Prepositions generally indicates the position, source, direction, destination, situation, comparison, reason and so on between two sets of ideas. 3.2 FORMS OF PREPOSITIONS Prepositions may consist of one, two or three parts: 3.2.1 Examples of One-part prepositions: at after 3.2.2 by below for into on to

Examples of Two-parts prepositions: according to away from because of except for up to out of

3.2.3

Examples of Three-parts prepositions: in front of on top of in relation to by means of in comparison with

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

3.3

TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

3.3.1

We use at to designate specific times. The train is due at 12:15 p.m. We use on to designate days and dates. My brother is coming on Monday. We're having a party on the Fourth of July. We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year. She likes to jog in the morning. It's too cold in winter to run outside. He started the job in 1971. He's going to quit in August.

3.3.2

3.3.3

3.4

Prepositions of Time: for and since 3.4.1 We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years). He held his breath for seven minutes. She's lived there for seven years. The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries. 3.4.2 We use since with a specific date or time. He's worked here since 1970. She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty. a) One point in time : at with noon, night, midnight; with the time of day b) Periods of time on with days in with periods longer or shorter than a day; with part of the day, with months, with years

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3.4.3

Extended time ( duration) since, for, by, fromto, fromuntil, during

Examples: They are getting engaged on Sunday at 5 oclock in the evening. He has been away from school for three weeks. World War II lasted from 1939 until 1945.

3.5 Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in 3.5.1 We use at for specific addresses. Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham. 3.5.2 We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc. Her house is on Burma Road. And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents). She lives in Durham. Durham is in Windham County. Windham County is in Connecticut.

3.5.3

3.6 Preposition of Location Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition IN (the) bed* the bedroom the car (the) class* the library* school* AT class* home the library* the office school* work ON the bed* the ceiling the floor the horse the plane the train NO PREPOSITION downstairs downtown inside outside upstairs uptown

* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

3.6.1

The point itself

in, inside for something contained. There is plenty of food in the refrigerator. on, on (to) the surface A coconut tree fell on to the roof of the house. at a general vicinity Ill meet you at the hotel.

3.6.2

away from the point

away ( from ) general places or vicinities I came away from the library. off at a distance from the point The car ran off the road when it knocked the signpost. across, through, over, along moving from one place to another He kicked the ball through the window. out of- moving from a bounded area They chased the dogs out of the school compound. 3.6.3 towards the point to, into, towards movement towards a particular place He went to the airport to get his mother. 3.6.4 towards and then away from the point behind, through, across, round, by, past movement towards a place and then away from it. The car skidded round the corner. 3.6.5 vertical and horizontal movement from the point up, down, along, across, over movement in relation to a direction Two school boys walk along Manchester Street.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

3.6.6 higher than the point Over generally higher than the point There is a thick fog over the entire city. Over directly above A lamp hung over the dining-table. above directly higher than the point; on a higher level We flew above the clouds. on top of close to the point, sometimes touching The tourists put their bags on top of the bus. 3.6.7 Lower than the point under directly below The ball is under the table. underneath close under, sometimes touching She wore a pretty dress underneath her thick coat. beneath, below directly under, at a lower level The police found the body beneath a pile of wood. 3.6.8. Neighbouring the point by, beside, next to at the side, near He sat by the river reading a book. between relating the positions of one object to more than two objects In the photograph, Sara was standing between her father and mother. among, amid in the middle of ( several objects ) She found her chain amid the ruins of the burnt house. opposite facing She sits opposite her friend in the library. around surrounding, all round She put a frame around the painting. in front of at the beginning ( in relation to the point ) He was standing in front of a long queue. near close to the point, not far from the point I like to have my bag near the window. 10

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3.7

Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition 3.7.1 We use to in order to express movement toward a place. They were driving to work together. She's going to the dentist's office this morning. 3.7.2 Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. We're moving toward the light. This is a big step towards the project's completion.

With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition. Grandma went upstairs Grandpa went home. They both went outside.

Exercise 1 Read the sentences below and fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. She stood ______the window and looked out as if waiting _____ someone. Tina spilt some orange juice ______ her pants. The letter N comes _______ O and P in the alphabet. We can hardly see planes in the sky because they normally fly ______ the clouds. I had to wait for along time at the checkout line ______ the grocery store because the Lady ______ of me had bought a lot of groceries Nazim was away for a long time because he travelled round Europe ______ six months last year. He does not speak in English. Do you thin he can speak the language _______ two months? We were sitting in front ______ this group of friends at the movie theatre. They could not stop talking ______ the time the movie started to the time it ended. If you want to go to the park, you will have to drive by the Farmers Market Grocery Store, ______ the bridge and _____ the corner of West Street, you will see it on your left. David ran ______ the house next door to help his neighbour when he saw a suspiciouslooking man lurking around outside the house.

10.

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Exercise 2

Write a sentence for each of the following illustrations. Use suitable prepositions in the sentences.

1.2.2 CONJUNCTIONS hold parts of a sentence together, kind of like glue. As with glue, however, there are several types of conjunctions, each one with its own specific use Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. They are different from prepositions in that they do not have an object. There are three types of Conjunctions: 1. Coordinating conjunctions 2. Correlative conjunctions 3. Subordinating conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions connect words of the same kind. Examples of coordinating conjunctions are: and but for nor or So yet

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

AND: And is used to add things or ideas together - one thing plus another thing. For longer lists, and is used between the last two items. And is a joining conjunction. Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies." (Michael went ... Sarah went ... they both went to the movies) "Thomas slipped and fell on the ice." (Thomas did two things he slipped, then he fell. And joins the actions.) "I pulled out the weeds and Jane watered the flowers." (Two people each did different things while working in the garden. The two parts could stand alone as sentences - "I pulled out the weeds." "Jane watered the flowers." Since the ideas in the sentences are related to each other, they can be joined by and to form one compound sentence. ) "We went to the store to buy milk, bread, oranges, dog food and coffee." (When you write a series in a sentence, use commas between all the items except the last two there you need to use a conjunction. A comma in front of the and is optional. ) OR: Or is used between things or ideas about which there is a choice or when we don't know the answer. Or is a selective conjunction. Examples:

"Michael or Sarah went to the movies." (One of them went, but not both. We don't know which one. ) "Thomas slipped or fell on the ice." (Thomas had a problem on the ice. Did he slip? Did he fall? We don't know, but he did one of them. ) "I will pull out the weeds or Jane will water the flowers." (For some reason, these two people cannot both work in the garden. One of them can. Will it be I? Will it be Jane? I don't know. Or tells us that only one of the things will take place. ) "We need to buy milk, juice, iced tea or soda at the store." (We evidently need something to drink, but it doesn't matter what it is. We need to choose one of the items in the list. That is what or is telling us. ) BUT: But is used to let us know that something happened in a sentence that we did not expect or to prepare us for an excuse. But is a conjunction of differences. Examples: "Michael went to the movies, but Sarah stayed home." It would have been normal for Sarah to go to the movies with Michael. This time she did something different - she stayed home. But introduces such a difference. "Thomas slipped on the ice, but he did not fall." We would expect Thomas to fall when he slipped on the ice. He did something different - he did not fall. But introduces that difference. "We were going to pull out the weeds, but Jane decided to water the flowers instead." Jane and I had planned to pull weeds. For whatever reason, Jane began to water the flowers instead. She did something different from what I had expected. But introduces that difference. 13

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

"We found everything we needed for the camping trip but the first aid kit." The first aid kit was different - it could not be found. But introduces that difference. "I did my homework last night, but the dog ate it." But is used quite often to introduce a reason why we did not do something we were supposed to do, like turn in our homework. SO: So is used to introduce something that follows or is a result of something else. So is a conjunction of consequences. Examples:

"Michael went to the movies, so Sarah went to visit her friend." As a result of Michael's going out by himself, leaving Sarah alone, she decided to go out as well. If Michael had stayed home, Sarah would have stayed home, also. ( So introduces the consequence of Michael's action. ) "Thomas slipped and fell on the ice, so he was limping when he arrived home." As a result of slipping and falling, Thomas hurt himself and had to walk with a limp. (So introduces the results of the fall. ) "Jane watered the flowers so it would be easier for me to pull out the weeds." Watering softened the soil, with the result that it was easier to pull the weeds out by their roots. ( So introduces the result of the watering. ) "We found the first aid kit, so we could finally leave for the camping trip." For reasons of safety, we did not want to go camping without a first aid kit. We finally found it, with the result that we could leave at last. (So introduces that result. ) YET: Yet is also used to introduce a result that is different or opposite from what we expected or what would be normal. The different result can be positive or negative. Yet is a conjunction of unexpected difference. (Yet can also be used as an adverb referring to a time or an event that has not occurred, so be careful. "Jack has not yet finished his chores.")

Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies, yet she was worried about leaving the baby with a sitter." Sarah should have been having a good time, but the truth was different from what we would expect because of her worry. "Thomas slipped and fell on the ice, yet he did not get hurt." You would expect a person to be hurt after falling on the ice, but Thomas wasn't. That different result is introduced by yet. "Jane and I pull the weeds in the garden every week, yet there are always more to pull the next week." One would expect, or at least hope, that if all the weeds were pulled from the garden this week, there would not be any left to pull next week. Alas, nature is not like that. In this case, yet introduces a result that is different from what Jane and I hoped for. "We had finally loaded everything we would need for the camping trip, including the first aid kit, yet we could not leave because the car's battery was dead." Not being able to leave was an unexpected result after all the stuff was loaded back into the car. This unexpected result is introduced by yet.

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Subordinating conjunctions connect two ideas by making one idea dependent upon the other. Subordinating conjunctions are in sentences that contain a main idea and a dependent idea.The subordinating conjunction always comes before the dependent idea. If the dependent idea comes before the main idea, a comma is used to separate the two.If the main idea comes first, no comma is used.

ALTHOUGH: Although (which can also be an adverb) introduces a condition or situation that was contrary to the first part of the sentence. It is a conjunction of contrariness. Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies, although the heavy snow made it dangerous to drive." It was probably not wise or safe to drive in the heavy snow just to see a movie. Michael and Sarah did it anyway, which was an action different from what we might expect. Although introduces that difference. "Thomas slipped and fell on the ice although he was wearing rubber boots." We would expect the rubber boots to keep Thomas from slipping, but they didn't. Although introduces a result different from our expectations. "I pulled out many weeds from the garden, although Jane had done the same a few days before." Either Jane had not done a very good job pulling weeds or the weeds grew very fast. Whatever the reason, the fact that there were many weeds for me to pull a few days after Jane pulled them was not expected. "We spent $30 at the grocery store although we only went to buy a gallon of milk." Our expectation had been to spend less than $3.00 at the grocery store, but instead we spent $30. The difference between what we expected and what actually happened is connected by the conjunction although. SINCE: Since can be an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction. As a conjunction, it means "during a period following a time when", "continuously from some time in the past", or "because".

Examples:

"Sarah went to see "Titanic" by herself since Michael did not like love stories." You could substitute because for since in this sentence. It introduces or connects the reason why Sarah went to the movies alone. "Thomas had not fallen on the ice since he was a little boy." Since refers to the continuous time from his childhood during which Thomas didn't fall on the ice, until now. "The weeds had grown wildly since I pulled them out last week." I pulled out the weeds last week, but from then until now they grew rapidly. Since refers to the time period following the last time I pulled out the weeds. "We went to the store to buy extra food since we were expecting company for the weekend." The conjunction since means because in this sentence. It introduces the reason why we were buying extra food.

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

BECAUSE: Because is used to introduce a reason for another action or event. It is a conjunction answering the question 'why?'. Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies because there was nothing good on television." Because connects the reason for Michael and Sarah's action with the action itself. "Thomas slipped and fell because the sidewalk was covered with ice." Because connects the reason why Thomas fell with the act of slipping and falling. "I pulled out the weeds because Jane was allergic to them." Because introduces the reason why Jane did not help me pull out the weeds. "We went to the new supermarket for groceries because it was having a sale on fresh fruit." Because introduces the reason why we went to the new store instead of the one we usually went to. Correlative conjunctions are similar to coordinating conjunctions, except that they work in pairs. Examples of correlative conjunctions are: 1. both..and 2. either..or 3. neither.nor 4. not only.but also 5. whether.or The sick hiker would neither eat nor drink. Neither Coach Toft nor Coach Rasmussen could believe how hard the team played. The wrestling match was both exciting and high-scoring. Not only are the Badlands rugged, but they are also beautiful.

ADDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS: nor, thus, therefore, while

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Exercise 1 Change the conjunctions in the following sentences to different ones. Notice how the meanings of the sentences change. Write your answers on the lines. 1. Mr. James and his family went to Kuala Lumpur once a month. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

2. Although Steven was seventeen when he signed up for karate classes, he had to bring a note from a parent or a guardian. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

3. Siti ran to the bus stop, but the bus had already gone. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

4. I had checked all of my answers with a calculator, so I was surprised when I failed the test. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

5. The Roberts family was ready to go on a picnic, yet the rain continued to fall. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

6. Because the salesman was very good at his job, he was able to convince the minister to buy the old purple car. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

7. Tony had worked at the same job since his family bought the company eighteen years ago. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 8. John was not able to get a good job because he refused to take a shower. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 17

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Exercise 2

Circle all the conjunctions in the following sentences. Be careful, because many of the conjunctions can also be adverbs or prepositions. 1. Hamburgers, pizzas and fried chicken are the most popular, although least healthy, fast foods. 2. Since last August, the stock market has been falling, but our economy is still very strong. 3. Everybody but Brenda passed the math test, although she was usually the best student. 4. Henry's car stalled a lot and made funny noises, so he took it to the garage. 5. George offered Alice a ride since he was going in that direction anyway. 6. We did not have any vinegar or lettuce, yet I was told to make a salad. 7. The policeman was tired and sick, yet he still had to direct traffic around the accident scene.

Exercise 3

Join the following pairs of sentences with suitable conjunctions. Be sure to use the correct punctuation. Write the joined sentences on the lines. 1. Louis liked reggae music. Carla preferred classical music. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

2. The horse galloped toward the barn. A rabbit suddenly ran out of the tall grass. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

3. Many women watch television soap operas. The love scenes are often too realistic. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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4. There is now a new president in the United States. There was much confusion in counting the votes. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

5. We eat a lot of ice cream in this country. There are many overweight people. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

6. Walter had bad breath. He ate garlic every day. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

1.2.3 INTERJECTION is a part of speech that usually has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker, although most interjections have clear definitions. Interjections are used to express feelings or emotions.They are the least used part of speech. Interjections function independently from the rest of the sentence. Huh? What does that mean? It is therefore set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or exclamation mark. Interjections Followed by a Comma Interjections are words used as exclamations.When an interjection shows mild feelings, a comma follows it. Note: the word following the comma is not capitalized unless it is a proper noun or pronoun. Oh, that test was easy. Oh, I did well on that test.

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Interjections Followed by an Exclamation Point When an interjection expresses strong feelings or emotions, an exclamation point follows it. Note: the exclamation point is an end punctuation mark, so the word following it begins a new sentence and is always capitalized. Wow! You made a 98 on the English test. Common interjections Wow Oh Ouch Tsk Uh Alas Woah Oops Psst

Wow! Did you see that play? Ouch! That hurts! I, uh, think we should leave now. Woah! How did he catch that? My, that certainly is a huge cat. It's great to be a Canadian, eh? Yuck! That tastes disgusting.

The table below shows some interjections with examples. interjection meaning expressing pleasure expressing realization ah expressing resignation expressing surprise alas dear expressing surprise asking for repetition expressing enquiry eh expressing surprise inviting agreement "Eh! Really?" "Let's go, eh?" 20 "Dear me! That's a surprise!" "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today." "What do you think of that, eh?" expressing grief or pity expressing pity "Ah well, it can't be heped." "Ah! I've won!" "Alas, she's dead now." "Oh dear! Does it hurt?" example "Ah, that feels good." "Ah, now I understand."

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

er hello, hullo

expressing hesitation expressing greeting expressing surprise calling attention

"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru." "Hello John. How are you today?" "Hello! My car's gone!" "Hey! look at that!" "Hey! What a good idea!" "Hi! What's new?" "Hmm. I'm not so sure." "Oh! You're here!" "Oh! I've got a toothache." "Oh, please say 'yes'!" "Ouch! That hurts!" "Uh...I don't know the answer to that." "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." "85 divided by 5 is...um...17." "Well I never!" "Well, what did he say?"

hey expressing surprise, joy etc hi hmm expressing greeting expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement expressing surprise oh, o expressing pain expressing pleading ouch uh uh-huh um, umm well introducing a remark expressing pain expressing hesitation expressing agreement expressing hesitation expressing surprise

Exercise 1

Supply an appropriate interjection for each sentence. 1. (pain) That looked like it hurt. 2. (anger) Thats my bike! 3. (surprise) You scared me!

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Exercise 2

Use each of the following interjections in a sentence. 1. woah 2. psst 3. oops 4. uh 5. hey

Exercise 3 Fill in the blanks with suitable interjections in the sentences given below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. _____________________ How come you are here ? _____________________ The lady is no more. _____________________ Everybody is sleeping. _____________________ I am so scared. ____________________ I stood first. _____________________, you knocked that ball out of the park. _____________________,you really need to take care of yourself. ____________________,what did you say. _____________________, now I understand the problem. _____________________, that really hurts.

Exercise 4 Match the interjections with an emotion it might be used with to show that emotion. 1. Ah expressing greeting 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Hello Oh Ouch Well Hmmm Hey expressing pain expressing pleasure expressing surprise introducing a remark expressing doubt callling attention 22

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Task

Surf the internet and read up more on prepositions, conjunctions and interjections and make your own notes.

Bibliography

Azar, B. S., and Azar, D. A. (1999). Fundamentals of English grammar ( 2nd ed.). New York: Longman. Capital College Community Foundation. (2004). INDEX to the guide to grammar and writing. Retrieved from http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index2.htm Eastwood, J. (2005). Oxford learners grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Samy. R.K. Kotayan et.al. (2007). Making sense of English grammar. Selangor:Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

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